Buteverygentlemanunderstandshisownbusinessbest。\"
Theletter，pervadedbythesamespiritofbanterthroughout，istoolongtoquoteatlength，butthefollowingextractscontaintheleadingidea:\"Areyousure，andcanyoumakeussure，thattherereallyexistnosuchthingsasGod，afuturestateofrewardsandpunishments？Ifso，alliswell。Letusthen，inourlasthours，readLucian，andplayatwhist，anddrolluponCharonandhisboat；letusdieasfoolishandinsensible，asmuchlikeourbrotherphilosophersthecalvesofthefieldandtheassesofthedesert，aswecan，forthelifeofus……Uponthewhole，doctor，yourmeaningisgood；butIthinkyouwillnotsucceedthistime。Youwouldpersuadeus，bytheexampleofDavidHume，Esq。，thatatheismistheonlycordialforlowspirits，andtheproperantidoteagainstthefearofdeath。\"
Itisdifficulttosaywhetherthepuerilityortheignorancedisplayedinthisletteristhegreater。EitherthewriterhadneverreadtheTheoryofMoralSentimentsatall，orhewasso1ittleversedinphilosophyastoseenodifferencebetweenDeismandAtheism，twodistinctlogicalcontradictories。Thereis，moreover，notawordinAdamSmith\'slettertojustifyanyreferencetoreligiousquestionsatall；andsub-sequentquotationsfromtheMoralSentimentswillabundantlydemonstratethetotalfalsityofthechurchman\'sassumptions。AdamSmithtreatedhisletterwiththecontemptuoussilenceitsowelldeserved。ThestoryquotedbySirWalterScott，inanarticleintheQuarterly，thatJohnsongrosslyinsultedAdamSmithataliterarymeetinginGlasgow，byreasonofhisdislikeforhim，astheeulogizerofHume，iseasilyshowntorestonnofoundation。Humedidnotdietill1776，anditwasthreeyearsearlierthatJohnsonvisitedGlasgow。
ThetwoyearsafterthepublicationofhisgreatestworkAdamSmithspentinLondon，inthemidstofthatliterarysocietywhichweknowsowellthroughthepagesofBoswell。Then，attherequestoftheDukeofBuceleuch，hewasmadeoneoftheCommissionersofCustominScotland，andinthisoccupationspentthelasttwelveyearsofhislife，inthemidstofasocietywhichmusthaveformedanagreeablecontrasttothelongyearsofhisretirementandsolitude。Thelightdutiesofhisofficethepleasuresoffriendship；thelossofhismotherandcousin，andincreasingillhealth，allcombinedtopreventthecompletionofanymoreofhisliteraryprojects。Afewdaysbeforehisdeathheorderedallhismanuscriptstobeburnt，withtheexceptionofafewessays，whichmaystillberead。
TheyconsistofaHistoryofAstronomy，aHistoryofAncientPhysics，aHistoryofAncientLogicandMetaphysics，anEssayontheImitativeArts，oncertainEnglishandItalianverses，andontheExternalSenses。ThedestroyedmanuscriptsaresupposedtohavecomprisedthelecturesonRhetoric，readatEdinburghforty-twoyearsbefore，andthelecturesonNaturalTheologyandonJurisprudence，whichformedpartofhislecturesatGlasgow。TheadditionswhichliemadetotheMoralSentiments，inthelastwinterofhislife，helivedtoseepublishedbeforehisdeath。
OftheTheoryofMoralSentimentsSirJamesMackintoshsays:
\"PerhapsthereisnoethicalworksinceCicero\'sOffices，ofwhichanabridgmentenablesthereadersoinadequatelytoestimatethemerit，astheTheoryofMoralSentiments。Thisisnotchieflyowingtothebeautyofdiction，asinthecaseofCicero，buttothevarietyofexplanationsoflifeandmannerswhichembellishthebookmorethantheyilluminatethetheory。Yet，ontheotherhand，itmustbeownedthat，forphilosophicalpurposes，fewbooksmoreneedabridgment；forthemostcarefulreaderfrequentlylosessightofprinciplesburiedunderillustrations。
Thenaturallycopiousandflowingstyleoftheauthorisgenerallyredundant，andtherepetitionofcertainformulariesofthesystemis，inthelatereditions，sofrequentastobewearisome，andsometimesludicrous。\"
ThejusticeofthiscriticismhasbeentheguidingprincipleintheattemptmadeinthefollowingchapterstogiveanaccountofAdamSmith\'ssystemofmoralphilosophy，theaimhavingbeentoavoidsacrificingthemaintheorytothesuper-abundanceofillustrationwhichsomewhatobscuresitintheoriginal，whileatthesametimedoingjusticetotheminorsubjectstreatedof，which，thoughtheyhavelittleornothingtodowithAdamSmith\'sleadingprinciples，yetformadistinctivefeatureinhiswork，andareinmanyrespectsthemostinterestingpartofit；forcriticswhohaverejectedthe
Theoryasawhole，havebeenuniformlyloudintheirpraisesofitsminordetailsandillustrations。Brown，forinstance，whohasbeenthemostsuccessfulperhapsofalltheadversecriticsoftheTheory，speaksofitaspresentingintheserespects\"amodelofphilosophicbeauty。\"Jouffroy，too，allowsthatthebookisoneofthemostusefulinmoralscience，becauseAdamSmith，\"deceivedasheundoubtedlywasastotheprincipleofmorality，\"broughttolightandanalyzedsomanyofthefactsofhumannature。DugaldStewartandMackintoshbothsaymuchthesamething；sothatitisevidentnoaccountofAdamSmith\'sworkcanbecompletewhichomitsfromconsiderationallthecollateralinquirieshepursuesoralltheillustrationshedraws，eitherfromhistoryorfromhisimagination。Topreserve，asfaraspossible，theproportionwhichthesecollateralinquiriesbeartooneanotherandtothemaintheory，aswellastoretainwhatismostcharacteristicoftheoriginalinpointofillustrationandstyle，havingbeenthereforetheendinview，ithasbeenfoundbesttoalterthearrangementinsomedegree，andtodividethewholeintochapters，therelationsofwhichtothedivisionsoftheoriginalwillbebestunderstoodbyabriefreferencetothestructureofthelatter。
AdamSmithdivideshisworkintosevenParts，whichprecedeoneanotherinthefollowingorder:——
I。OftheProprietyofAction。
II。OfMeritandDemerit；ortheobjectsofRewardandPunishment。
III。OftheFoundationofourjudgmentsconcerningourownSentimentsandConduct，andoftheSenseofDuty。
IV。OftheEffectofUtilityuponthesentimentofApprobation。
V。OftheinfluenceofCustomandFashionuponthesentimentsofMoralApprobationandDisapprobation。
VI。OfthecharacterofVirtue。
VII。OfsystemsofMoralPhilosophy。
Theexcellenceofthisarrangement，however，isconsiderablymarredbythedivisionofthesePartsintoSections，andbythefrequentfurthersubdivisonoftheSectionsthemselvesintoChapters。Aninstancewillillustratehowdetrimentalthisistotheclearnessofthemainargument。ThefirstthreePartsexhaustthemaintheory，orthatdoctrineofSympathy，whichisAdamSmith\'sownspecialcreation，andonwhichhisrankasamoralphilosopherdepends；theotherfourPartshavingonlytodowithitincidentallyorbyaccident。ButinfollowingthefirstthreePartsinwhichthedoctrineofSympathyisexpounded，wecomeacrosssectionswhichalsoareonlyconnectedincidentallywiththeleadingargument，andarereallybranchesoffthemainline。ThusinthePartdevotedtotheexplanationofourideasofProprietyinActionthereoccursasectionontheeffectofprosperityoradversityininfluencingourjudgment；intheParttreatingofMeritandDemeritthereisasectionontheinfluenceoffortuneoraccidentonoursentimentsofmen\'smeritorthecontrary；andthereis，lastly，adistinctPart(PartV。)allottedtotheconsiderationoftheinfluenceofCustomandFashiononoursentimentsofmoralapprobationordisapprobation。
Thesesubjectsareobviouslysonearlyallied，thattheymightallhavebeentreatedtogether，apartfromthedoctrineofsympathyofwhichtheyarequiteindependent；andaccordinglyinthesequelthedissertationsconcerningthemintheoriginalarecollectedintoasinglechapter，thefifth，ontheinfluenceofProsperityandAdversity，ChanceandCustom，onourmoralsentiments。
Consistentlywiththeprinciplesalreadyexplained，theorderoftheoriginalhasbeenfollowedascloselyaspossible。Thesecond，third，andfourthchapterscomprisePartsI。andII。PartV。，andthesectionsrelatingtothesamesubjectinPartsI。andII。，makeupthefifthchapter。ThenPartIII。isdividedforclearness\'sakeintotwochapters，explainingtheauthor\'sTheoryofConscienceandTheoryofMoralPrinciples；andtheendofthesetwochapters，thesixthandseventh，concludesthemostimportanthalfofAdamSmith\'streatise。
PartVI。，ontheCharacterofVirtue，whichformssolargeadivisionintheoriginal，andwhichwasonlyaddedtothesixthedition，correspondswithchapterIX。，underthesametitle。PartIV。，ontheeffectofUtilityonourmoralsentiments，formschapterXII。，inwhichallthatissaidonthesubjectindifferentpassagesisbroughttogether。PartVII。，orSystemsofMoralPhilosophy，helpsinthethirteenthchaptertothrowintoclearlighttherelationofAdamSmith\'stheorytoothertheoriesofmoralphilosophy。Thethreechaptersontherelationofreligiontomorality，onthetheoryofhappiness，andonfinalcausesinethics，correspondwithnosimilardivisionsintheoriginal，butareseverallycollectedfromdifferentpassagesinthebook，which，scatteredthroughthework，impressuponitadistinctivecharacter，andconstitutethechiefpartofitscolouring。
ThelastchapterofallservestoillustratethehistoricalimportanceofAdamSmith\'sworkbyshowingthelargepartwhichitfillsinthecriticismsofsubsequentwriters。
AnaccidentalcoincidencebetweenAdamSmith\'stheoryandapassageinPolybiushasunnecessarilybeenconsideredtheoriginalsourceoftheTheoryofMoralSentiments。TheverysamepassageisreferredtobyHume，asshowingthatPolybius，likemanyotherancientmoralists，tracedourideasofmoralitytoaselfishorigin。YetthereisnothingAdamSmithresentedmorestronglythananyidentificationofhistheorywiththeselfishsystemofmorality。Thecoincidenceisthereforeprobablyaccidental；butthepassageisworthquoting，ascontaininginafewlinesthecentralideaofthedoctrineabouttobeconsidered。Polybiusisspeakingofthedispleasurefeltbypeopleforthosewho，insteadofmakingsuitablereturnsofgratitudeandassistancefortheirparents，injurethembywordsoractions；andheproceedstosaythat\"man，whoamongallthevariouskindsofanimalsisaloneendowedwiththefacultyofreason，cannot，liketherest，passoversuchactions，butwillmakereflectiononwhatliesees；
andcomparinglikewisethefuturewiththepresent，willnotfailtoexpresshisindignationatthisinjurioustreatment，towhich，asheforesees，hemayalsoatsometimebeexposed。Thusagain，whenanyonewhohasbeensuccouredbyanotherintimeofdanger，insteadofshowingthelikekindnesstothisbenefactor，endeavoursatanytimetodestroyorhurthim；itiscertainthatallmenmustbeshockedbysuchingratitude，throughsympathywiththeresentmentoftheirneighbour；andfromanapprehensionalsothatthecasemaybetheirown。Andfromhencearises，inthemindofeveryman，acertainnotionofthenatureandforceofduty，inwhichconsistsboththebeginningandendofjustice。Inlikemanner，themanwho，indefenceofothersisseentothrowhimselftheforemostintoeverydanger，neverfailstoobtaintheloudestacclamationsofapplauseandvenerationfromthemultitude；whilehewhoshowsadifferentconductispursuedwithcensureandreproach。Andthusitisthatthepeoplebegintodiscernthenatureofthingshonourableandbase，andinwhatconsiststhedifferencebetweenthem；andtoperceivethattheformer，onaccountoftheadvantagethatattendsthem，aretobeadmiredandimitated，andthelattertobedetestedandavoided。\"
CHAPTERI。HISTORICALINTRODUCTION。
Toexplaintheoriginofourideasofrightandwrong，andtofindforthem，ifpossible，asolidbasisofauthority，apartfromtheircoincidencewiththedogmasoftheology，wastheproblemofmoralphilosophywhichchieflyoccupiedthespeculationofthelastcentury，andtowhichAdamSmith\'sTheoryofMoralSentimentswasoneofthemostimportantcontributions。Histheory，likeallothers，mustbeunderstoodasananswertothequestion:Howdowecometoregardcertainactionsorstatesofmindwithapprovalandtocondemntheircontraries，andonwhatgroundscanwejustifyourjudgmentsinsuchmattersandholdthemtoaccorduniversallywiththemoraljudgmentsofmankind？
ButinordertounderstandAdamSmith\'sanswertothisquestion，andhispositioninthehistoryofthought，itisnecessarytoreferbrieflytothetheoriesofhispredecessorsdowntothetimewhenhetookupthethreadofthespeculationandofferedhissolutionoftheproblemstheyhaddealtwith。
FromthetimewhensuchproblemsfirstbecamepopularinEngland，twomaincurrentsofthoughtmaybedetectedrunningsidebysideinmutualantagonismtooneanother；andwhilstaccordingtotheteachingoftheoneschooltheultimatestandardofmoralitywastheinterestoftheindividualhimselforthecommunityhebelongedto，theaimoftheoppositeschoolwastofindsomebasisformoralitywhichshouldmakeitlessdependentonchangesofcircumstanceandgivetoitsmaximstheauthorityofpropositionsthatshouldholdtrueofalltimesandplaces。
ThenamesofLocke，Hobbes，Mandeville，andHume，areassociatedwiththeformerschool；thoseofClarke，Price，LordShaftesbury，BishopButler，andHutcheson，withthelatter；andthedifferencebetweenthemisgenerallyex-pressedbyclassingtheformertogetherastheUtilitarian，Selfish，orScepticalSchool，andthelatterastheschoolofIntuitionalists。
ThedoctrineofHobbes，thatmoralitywasidenticalwiththepositivecommandsandprohibitionsofthelawgiver，andthatthelawwasthustherealultimatesourceandstandardofallrightandwrong，gaverisetoseveralsystemswhichsoughtindifferentwaystofindforourmoralsentimentsalessvariableandunstablefoundationthanwasimpliedbysuchanhypothesis。
ItwasinoppositiontosuchatheorythatClarkeandPrice，andotheradvocatesoftheso-calledRationalorIntellectualsystem，attributedourperceptionofmoraldistinctionstointuitionsofourintellect，sothatthetruthsofmoralitymightappear，likethoseofmathematics，eternalandimmutable，independentofpeculiaritiesoftimeandplace，andwithanexistenceapartfromanyparticularmanorcountry，justasthedefinitionsofgeometryareindependentofanyparticularstraightlinesortriangles。
Todeny，forexample，thatamanshoulddoforotherswhathewouldwishdoneforhimselfwas，accordingtoClarke，equivalenttoacontentionthat，thoughtwoandthreeareequaltofive，yetfiveisnotequaltotwoandthree。
ButthesamefoundationforanimmutablemoralitythatClarkesoughtforinthehumanintellect，otherssoughtforinapeculiarinstinctofournature。ThusLordShaftesburypostulatedtheexistenceofamoralsense，sufficientofitselftomakeuseschewviceandfollowaftervirtue；andthismoralsense，orprimitiveinstinctforgood，wasimplantedinusbynature，andcarrieditsownauthoritywithit。Itjudgedofactionsbyreferencetoacertainharmonybetweenouraffections，andthisharmonyhadarealexistence，independentof\'allfashionandcaprice，likeharmonyinmusic。Assymmetryandproportionwerefoundedinnature，howsoeverbarbarousmightbemen\'stastesinthearts，so，inmorals，anequallyrealharmonyalwayspresentedafixedstandardforourguidance。
ThisideaofaMoralSenseasthesourceandstandardofourmoralsentimentswassofardevelopedbyHutcheson，thattimeMoralSensetheoryofethicshadbeenmoregenerallyconnectedwithhisnamethanwiththatofitsrealoriginator。Hutchesonarguedthataswehaveexternalsenseswhichperceivesoundsandcolours，sowehaveinternalsenseswhichperceivemoralexcellenceandthecontrary。Thismoralsensehaditsanaloguesinoursenseofbeautyandharmony，oursympatheticsense，oursenseofhonour，ofdecency，andsoforth。Itwasaprimitivefacultyofournature，afactorincapableofresolutionintosimplerelements。Itcouldnot，forinstance，beresolvedintoaperceptionofutility，forbadactionswereoftenasusefulasgoodonesandyetfailedtomeetwithapprobation，norcoulditbeexplainedasamodeofsympathy，forwemightmorallyapproveevenofthevirtueswhichourenemiesmanifested。
BishopButler，likehiscontemporary，Hutcheson，alsofollowedLordShaftesburyinseekinginournaturalinstinctstheoriginofourmoralideas，ConsciencewithhimtakingtheplaceoftheMoralSense，fromitsbeingpossessed，ashethought，ofamoreauthoritativecharacter。Conscience，ac-cordingtoButler，wasafacultynaturaltoman，invirtueofwhichhewasamoralagent；afacultyorprincipleofthehumanheart，inkindandnaturesupremeoverallothers，andbearingitsownauthorityForbeingso。Usinglanguageaboutit，whichwemeetagainintheTheoryofAdamSmith，hespokeofitas\"God\'sviceroy，\"\"thevoiceofGodwithinus，\"\"theguideassignedtousbytheAuthorofournature。\"Theobligationtoobeyitthereforerestedinthefactofitsbeingthelawofournature。
Itcouldnomorebedoubtedthatshamewasgivenustopreventourdoingwrongthanthatoureyesweregivenustoseewith。
ItwasatthispointthatAdamSmithofferedhissolutionofthedifficulty。
ForcallitConscience，MoralSense，orwhatyouwill，suchexpressionsareevidentlyonlyre-statementsoftheproblemtobeexplained。Tocallthefactofmoralapprobationbysuchtermswassimplytogiveitothernames；andtosaythatourconscienceormoralsenseadmittedofnoanalysiswasequivalenttosayingthatourmoralsentimentsadmittedofnoexplanation。
AdamSmith\'stheorymustthereforebeunderstoodasanattempttoexplainwhattheIntuitionalistschoolreallygaveupasinexplicable；anditrepresentsthereactionagainstthatapriorimethodwhichtheyhademployedindealingwithmoralproblems。Inthatreaction，andinhisappealtothefactsofexperience，AdamSmithfollowedtheleadofbothHartleyandHume。Tenyearsbeforehim，timeformer，inhisObservationsonMan，hadsoughttoexplaintheexistenceofthemoralsense，bytracingitbacktoitslowesttermsinthepleasuresandpainsofsimplesensation，andmarkingitsgrowthinthegradualassociationofourideas。AndHume，afewyearslater，soughttodiscover\"theuniversalprinciplefromwhichallcensureorapprobationwasultimatelyderived\"bytheexperimentalmethodofinquiry；bycomparing，thatis，anumberofinstancesofqualitiesheldestimableontheonehandandqualitiesheldblameableontheother，andobservingwhatwasthecommonelementofeach。Fromsuchaninquiryheinferredthatthoseactsweregoodwhichwereusefulandthosebadwhichwereinjurious，andthatthefactoftheirbeingusefulorinjuriouswasthecauseoftheirgoodnessorbadness。
ThusitwillbeseenthatthequestionofchiefinterestinAdamSmith\'stimewaswidelydifferentfromthatwhichhaddividedtheschoolsofantiquity。
Theaimorchiefgoodoflifewhichchieflyoccupiedthemhadrecededintotheback-ground；andthecontroversyconcerned，asHumedeclared，\"thegeneralfoundationofmorals，\"whethertheywerederivedfromReasonorfromSentiment，whethertheywerearrivedatbyachainofargumentandprocessofreasoningorbyacertainimmediatefeelingandinternalsense。
Butroundthiscentralquestionoftheoriginofourfeelingsofmoralapprobationotherquestionsofconsiderableinterestwerenecessarilygrouped。
Therewasthequestionoftheauthorityandsanctionofourmoralsentiments，independentlyoftheirorigin；andtherewasthequestionoftheultimatestandardortestofmoralactions。Andthesequestionsinvolvedyetothers，asforexample:Whatwastherelationofmoralitytoreligion？Howfardidtheynecessarilycoincide，andhowfarweretheyindependentofeachother？Washumannaturereallycorrupt，andtowhatdegreeweretheordinarysanctionsofthislifeasufficientsafeguardfortheexistenceofmorality？
Didhappinessormisery，goodorevil，reallypredominateintheworld；
andwastheresuchathingasdisinterestedbenevolence，ormightallvirtueberesolvedintoself-loveandbereallyonlyviceundercloakandconcealment？
ThelatteralternativehadbeenthethesiswhichMandevillehadpartlymadeandpartlyfoundpopular。Inhisviewthemostvirtuousactionsmightberesolvedintoselfishness，andself-lovewasthestarting-pointofallmorality。Thisbecametherefore，oneofthefavouritetopicsofspeculation；
butitisonlynecessarytonoticeHume\'streatmentofit，inasmuchasitsuppliesthefirstprincipleofAdamSmith\'stheory。Humeassumedtheexistenceofadisinterestedprincipleunderlyingallourmoralsentiments。
Hearguedthat\"anaturalprincipleofbenevolence，\"impellingustoconsidertheinterestsofothers，wasanessentialpartofhumannature。\"Theveryaspect，\"hesaid，\"ofhappiness，joy，prosperity，givespleasure；thatofpain，suffering，sorrowcommunicatesuneasiness。\"Andthisfellow-feelingwithothershehadrefusedtoresolveintoanymoregeneralprinciple，ortotreatasotherthananoriginalprincipleofhumannature。
ThisphenomenonofSympathy，orfellow-feeling，whichwehavebynaturewithanypassionwhateverofanotherperson，ismadebyAdamSmiththecardinalpointanddistinctivefeatureofhistheoryoftheoriginofmoralapprobation；andthefirstsentenceofhistreatisecontainsthereforenotonlyhisansweroneofflatcontradictiontoMandeville，butthekey-notetothewholespiritofhisphilosophy。\"Howselfishsoever，\"hebegins，\"manmaybesupposed，thereareevidentlysomeprinciplesinhisnaturewhichinteresthiminthefortuneofothers，andrendertheirhappinessnecessarytohim，thoughhederivesnothingfromit，exceptthepleasureofseeingit。\"Sothatpityorcompassion，whichHobbeshadexplainedastheconsciousnessofapossiblemisfortunetoourselvessimilartothatseentobefallanother，is，withAdamSmith，aprimary，notasecondary，emotionofournature，anoriginalandnotaderivativepassion，andonethatispurelydisinterestedinitsmanifestation。
InthenextchapterandthefoursucceedingonesweshallobservehowonthisbasisofanoriginalinstinctofsympathyAdamSmithconstructshisexplanationoftheoriginofourmoralideas。Withregardtotheexplanationsalreadyofferedbypreviouswriters，hebelievedthattheyallcontainedsomeportionofthetruthfromtheparticularpointofviewtakenbyeach；
