第4章

Butonewouldhavethought，lookingbackthroughhistory，thattheAlexandrianswerenottheonlyphilosophersguiltyofthisshamefulactofsyncretism。Plato，onewouldhavethought，wasasgreatasinnerasthey。SoweretheHindoos。Inspiteofalltheirlogicalandmetaphysicalacuteness，theywere，youwillfind，unabletogetridofthenotionthattheologicalinquiriesconcerningBrahma，Atma，Creeshna，wereindissolublymixedupwiththatsamelogicandmetaphysic。TheParseescouldnotseparatequestionsaboutAhrimanandOrmuzdfromKant\'sthreegreatphilosophicproblems:WhatisMan？——Whatmaybeknown？——Whatshouldbedone？Neither，indeed，couldtheearlierGreeksages。Notoneofthem，ofanyschoolwhatsoever——fromthesemi-mythicSevenSagestoPlatoandAristotle——butfindsitnecessarytoconsidernotinpassing，butasthegreatobjectofresearch，questionsconcerningthegods:-whethertheyarerealornot；oneormany； personalorimpersonal；cosmic，andpartsoftheuniverse，ororganisersandrulersofit；inrelationtoman，orwithoutrelationtohim。Eveninthosewhoflatlydenytheexistenceofthegods，eveninLucretiushimself，thesequestionshavetobeconsidered，beforethequestion，Whatisman？cangetanysolutionatall。Ontheanswergiventothemisfoundtodependintimatelytheanswertothequestion，Whatistheimmaterialpartofman？Isitapartofnature，orofsomethingabovenature？Hasheanimmaterialpartatall？——inoneword，Isahumanmetaphysicpossibleatall？SoitwaswiththeGreekphilosophersofold，even，asAsclepiusandAmmoniussay，withAristotlehimself。\"TheobjectofAristotle\'smetaphysic，\"oneofthemsays，\"istheological。 HereinAristotletheologises。\"Andthereisnodenyingtheassertion。 WemustnotthenbehardontheNeoplatonists，asiftheywerethefirsttomixthingsseparatefromthefoundationoftheworld。Idonotsaythattheologyandmetaphysicareseparatestudies。Thatistobeascertainedonlybyseeingsomeoneseparatethem。AndwhenIseethemseparated，Ishallbelievethemseparable。Onlytheseparationmustnotbeproducedbythesimpleexpedientofdenyingtheexistenceofeitheroneofthem，oratleastofignoringtheexistenceofonesteadilyduringthestudyoftheother。Iftheycanbepartedwithoutinjurytoeachother，letthembeparted；andtillthenletussuspendhardjudgmentsontheAlexandrianschoolofmetaphysic，andalsoontheschoolsofthatcuriouspeopletheJews，whohadatthisperiodasteadilyincreasinginfluenceonthethought，aswellasonthecommercialprosperity，of Alexandria。 Youmustnotsuppose，inthemeanwhile，thatthephilosopherswhomthePtolemiescollected(astheywouldhaveanyothermarketablearticle)byliberaloffersofpayandpatronage，weresuchmenastheoldSevenSagesofGreece，orasSocrates，Plato，andAristotle。Inthesethreelastindeed，Greekthoughtreachednotmerelyitsgreatestheight，buttheedgeofaprecipice，downwhichitrolledheadlongaftertheirdecease。TheintellectualdefectsoftheGreekmind，ofwhichIhavealreadyspoken，weredoubtlessonegreatcauseofthisdecay:but，tomymind，moralcauseshadstillmoretodowithit。ThemorecultivatedGreekstates，tojudgefromthewritingsofPlato，hadnotbeenanover- righteouspeopleduringthegenerationinwhichhelived。Andinthegenerationswhichfollowed，theybecameanaltogetherwickedpeople； immoral，unbelieving，hatinggood，anddelightinginallwhichwasevil。 Anditwasinconsequenceoftheseverysinsoftheirs，asIthink，thattheoldHellenicracebegantodieoutphysically，andpopulationthroughoutGreecetodecreasewithfrightfulrapidity，afterthetimeoftheAchaeanleague。Thefactsarewellknown；andfoulenoughtheyare。 WhentheRomansdestroyedGreece，Godwasjustandmerciful。TheeaglesweregatheredtogetheronlybecausethecarrionneededtoberemovedfromthefaceofGod\'searth。AndatthetimeofwhichInowspeak，thesignsofapproachingdeathwerefearfullyapparent。HaplessandhopelessenoughwerethecliqueofmenoutofwhomthefirsttwoPtolemieshopedtoformaschoolofphilosophy；mencertainlycleverenough，andamusingwithal，whomightgivethekingsofEgyptmanyashrewdlessoninking-craft，andthewaysofthisworld，andtheartofprofitingbythefollyoffools，andtheselfishnessoftheselfish；orwhomightamusethem，indefaultoffighting-cocks，bypunsandrepartees，andbattlesoflogic；\"howonethingcannotbepredicatedofanother，\"or\"howthewisemanisnotonlytoovercomeeverymisfortune，butnoteventofeelit，\"andothersuchmightyquestions，whichinthosedayshidthatdeepunbeliefinanytruthwhatsoeverwhichwasspreadingfastoverthemindsofmen。Suchword-splitterswereStilpoandDiodorus，theslayerandtheslain。Theywereofthe Megaranschool，andwerenamedDialectics；andalso，withmoretruth，Eristics，orquarrellers。TheircliquehadprofessedtofollowZenoandSocratesindeclaringtheinstabilityofsensiblepresumptionsandconclusions，inpreachinganabsoluteandeternalBeing。ButtherewasthisdeepgulfbetweenthemandSocrates；thatwhileSocratesprofessedtobeseekingfortheAbsoluteandEternal，forthatwhichis，theywerecontentwithaffirmingthatitexists。Withhim，aswiththeoldersages，philosophywasasearchfortruth。Withthemitwasaschemeofdoctrinestobedefended。Andthedialecticonwhichtheypridedthemselvessomuch，differedfromhisaccordingly。Heuseditinductively，toseekout，underthenotionsandconceptionsofthemind，certainabsolutetruthsandlawsofwhichtheywereonlytheembodiment。 Wordsandthoughtweretohimafieldforcarefulandreverentinduction，asthephenomenaofnaturearetousthedisciplesofBacon。 ButwiththesehaplessMegarans，whothoughtthattheyhadfoundthatforwhichSocratesprofessedonlytoseekdimlyandafaroff，andhadgotitsafeinadogma，preservedasitwereinspirits，andputbyinamuseum，thegreatuseofdialecticwastoconfuteopponents。Delightintheirownsubtletygrewonthem，theworshipnotofobjectivetruth，butoftheformsoftheintellectwherebyitmaybedemonstrated；tilltheybecametheveriestword-splitters，rivalsoftheoldsophistswhomtheirmasterhadattacked，andjustifiedtoooftenAristophanes\'calumny，whichconfoundedSocrateswithhisopponents，asamanwhoseaimwastomaketheworseappearthebetterreason。 Wehavehere，inbothparties，allthemarksofanageofexhaustion，ofscepticism，ofdespairaboutfindinganyrealtruth。NowonderthattheyweresupersededbythePyrrhonists，whodoubtedallthings，andbytheAcademy，whichprideditselfonsettingupeachthingtoknockitdownagain；andsobyprudentandwell-bredandtolerantqualifyingofeveryassertion，neitheraffirmingtoomuch，nordenyingtoomuch，keeptheirmindsinawholesome——orunwholesome——stateofequilibrium，asstagnantpoolsarekept，thateverythingmayhavefreetolerationtorotundisturbed。 ThesehaplesscaricaturistsofthedialecticofPlato，andthelogicofAristotle，carelessofanyvitalprinciplesorrealresults，readyenoughtousefallacieseachfortheirownparty，andopenlyproudoftheirsuccessindoingso，wereassistedbyworthycompeersofanoutwardlyoppositetoneofthought，theCyrenaics，TheodorusandHegesias。Withtheirclique，aswiththeirmasterAristippus，thesensesweretheonlyavenuestoknowledge；manwasthemeasureofallthings；and\"happinessourbeing\'sendandaim。\"TheodoruswassurnamedtheAtheist；and，itseems，notwithoutgoodreason；forhetaughtthattherewasnoabsoluteoreternaldifferencebetweengoodandevil； nothingreallydisgracefulincrimes；nodivinegroundforlaws，whichaccordingtohimhadbeeninventedbymentopreventfoolsfrommakingthemselvesdisagreeable；onwhichtheory，lawsmustbeconfessedtohavebeeninallagessomewhatofafailure。Heseemstohavebeen，likehismaster，animpudentlight-heartedfellow，whotooklifeeasilyenough，laughedatpatriotism，andallotherhigh-flownnotions，boastedthattheworldwashiscountry，andwasnodoubtexcellentafter-dinnercompanyforthegreatking。Hegesias，hisfellowCyrenaic，wasamanofadarkerandmoremelancholictemperament；andwhileTheodoruscontentedhimselfwithpreachingacomfortableselfishness，andobtainingpleasure，madeitratherhisstudytoavoidpain。DoubtlessboththeirtheorieswerepopularenoughatAlexandria，astheywereinFranceduringtheanalogousperiod，theSiecleLouisQuinze。The\"ContratSocial，\"andtherestoftheirdoctrines，moralandmetaphysical，willalwayshavetheiradmirersonearth，aslongasthatvarietyofthehumanspeciesexistsforwhoseespecialbehoofTheodorusheldthatlawsweremade；andthewholeformofthoughtmetwithgreatapprobationinafteryearsatRome，whereEpicuruscarriedittoitshighestperfection。Afterthat，underthepressureofatrainofratherseverelessons，whichGibbonhasdetailedinhis\"DeclineandFalloftheRomanEmpire，\"littleornothingwasheardofit，savesottovoce，perhaps，atthePapalcourtsofthesixteenthcentury。Toreviveitpublicly，oratleastasmuchofitascouldbebornebyaworld nowforseventeencenturiesChristian，wasthegloryoftheeighteenthcentury。ThemoralschemeofTheodorushasnownearlyvanishedamongus，atleastasaconfessedcreed；and，inspiteoftheauthorityofMr。Locke\'sgreatandgoodname，hismetaphysicalschemeisshowingsignsofalikeapproachingdisappearance。Letushopethatitmaybeaspeedyone；forifthesensesbetheonlyavenuestoknowledge；ifmanbethemeasureofallthings；andiflawhavenot，asHookersays，herfountandhomeintheverybosomofGodhimself，thenwasHomer\'sZeusrightindeclaringmantobe\"themostwretchedofallthebeastsofthefield。\" Andyetonecannothelplookingwithasortofawe(Idarenotcallitrespect)atthatmelancholicfaithlessHegesias。Doubtlesshe，likehiscompeers，andindeedallAlexandriaforthreehundredyears，cultivatedphilosophywithnomorerealpurposethanitwascultivatedbythegracelessbeaux-espritsofLouisXV。\'scourt，andwithaslittlepracticaleffectonmorality；butofthisHegesiasaloneitstandswritten，thathisteachingactuallymademendosomething；andmoreover，dothemostsolemnandimportantthingwhichanymancando，exceptingalwaysdoingright。Imustconfess，however，thattheresultofhisteachingtooksounexpectedaform，thatthereigningPtolemy，apparentlyPhiladelphus，hadtointerferewiththesacredrightofeverymantotalkasmuchnonsenseashelikes，andforbadeHegesiastoteachatAlexandria。ForHegesias，aCyrenaiclikeTheodorus，butarathermoremorosepedantthanthatsaucyandhappyscoffer，havingdiscovered thatthegreatendofmanwastoavoidpain，alsodiscovered(hisdigestionbeingprobablyinadisorderedstate)thattherewassomuchmorepainthanpleasureintheworld，astomakeitathoroughlydisagreeableplace，ofwhichmanwaswellridatanyprice。Whereonhewroteabookcalled，[Greektext:apokarteroon]，inwhichamanwhohaddeterminedtostarvehimself，preachedthemiseriesofhumanlife，andtheblessingsofdeath，withsuchoverpoweringforce，thatthebookactuallydrovemanypersonstocommitsuicide，andescapefromaworldwhichwasnotfittodwellin。Afearfulproofofhowrottenthestateofsocietywasbecoming，howdesperatethemindsofmen，duringthosefrightfulcenturieswhichimmediatelyprecededtheChristianera，andhowfastwasapproachingthatdarkchaosofunbeliefandunrighteousness，whichPaulofTarsussoanalysesanddescribesinthefirstchapterofhisEpistletotheRomans——whentheoldlightwaslost，theoldfaithsextinct，theoldreverenceforthelawsoffamilyandnationallife，destroyed，yeaeventhenaturalinstinctsthemselvesperverted；thatchaoswhosedarknessJuvenal，andPetronius，andTacitushaveproved，intheirfearfulpages，nottohavebeenexaggeratedbythemorecompassionatethoughmorerighteousJew。 Andnowobserve，thatthisselfishness——thiswholesomestateofequilibrium——thisphilosophiccalm，whichisreallyonlyalazypride，was，asfaraswecantell，themainobjectofalltheschoolsfromthetimeofAlexandertotheChristianera。WeknowverylittleofthoseSceptics，Cynics，Epicureans，Academics，Peripatetics，Stoics，ofwhomtherehasbeensomuchtalk，exceptatsecond-hand，throughtheRomans，fromwhomStoicisminafteragesreceivedanewandnotignoblelife。 Butthiswedoknowofthelatersets，thattheygraduallygaveupthesearchfortruth，andpropoundedtothemselvesasthegreattypeforaphilosopher，Howshallamansavehisownsoulfromthisevilworld？ Theymayhavebeenright；itmayhavebeenthebestthingtothinkaboutinthoseexhaustedanddecayingtimes:butitwasaquestionofethics，notofphilosophy，inthesensewhichtheoldGreeksagesputonthatlatterword。Theirobjectwas，nottogetatthelawsofallthings，buttofortifythemselvesagainstallthings，eachaccordingtohisscheme，andsotobeself-sufficientandalone。EvenintheStoics，whoboldlyandrighteouslyassertedanimmutablemorality，thiswastheleadingconception。Ashasbeenwellsaidofthem: \"IfwereflecthowdeeplythefeelingofanintercoursebetweenmenandadivineracesuperiortothemselveshadworkeditselfintotheGreekcharacter——whatanumberoffables，somebeautiful，someimpure，ithadimpregnatedandprocuredcredencefor——howitsustainedeveryformofpolityandeverysystemoflaws，wemayimaginewhattheeffectsmusthavebeenofitsdisappearance。Ifitispossibleforanyman，itwasnot，certainly，possibleforaGreek，tofeelhimselfconnectedbyanyrealbondswithhisfellow-creaturesaroundhim，whilehefelthimselfutterlyseparatedfromanybeingabovehisfellow-creatures。Butthesenseofthatisolationwouldaffectdifferentmindsverydifferently。 ItdrovetheEpicureantoconsiderhowhemightmakeaworldinwhichheshouldlivecomfortably，withoutdistractingvisionsofthepastandfuture，andthedreadofthoseupperpowerswhonolongerawakenedinhimanyfeelingsofsympathy。ItdroveZenotheStoictoconsiderwhetheramanmaynotfindenoughinhimselftosatisfyhim，thoughwhatisbeyondhimbeeversounfriendly……WemaytraceintheproductionswhichareattributedtoZoneaveryclearindicationofthefeelingwhichwasatworkinhismind。Heundertook，forinstance，amongothertasks，toanswerPlato\'s\'Republic。\'Thetruththatamanisapoliticalbeing，whichinformsandpervadesthatbook，wasonewhichmusthavebeenparticularlyharassingtohismind，andwhichhefeltmustbegotridof，beforehecouldhopetoasserthisdoctrineofaman\'ssolitarydignity。\" Woetothenationorthesocietyinwhichthisindividualisingandseparatingprocessisgoingoninthehumanmind!Whetherittaketheformofareligionorofaphilosophy，itisatoncethesignandthecauseofsenility，decay，anddeath。Ifmanbeginstoforgetthatheisasocialbeing，amemberofabody，andthattheonlytruthswhichcanavailhimanything，theonlytruthswhichareworthyobjectsofhisphilosophicalsearch，arethosewhichareequallytrueforeveryman，whichwillequallyavaileveryman，whichhemustproclaim，asfarashecan，toeveryman，fromtheproudestsagetothemeanestoutcast，heenters，Ibelieve，intoalie，andhelpsforwardthedissolutionofthatsocietyofwhichheisamember。Icarelittlewhetherwhatheholdsbetrueornot。Ifitbetrue，hehasmadeitaliebyappropriatingitproudl andselfishlytohimself，andbyexcludingothersfromit。Hehasdarkenedhisownpowerofvisionbythatactofself-appropriation，sothatevenifheseesatruth，hecanonlyseeitrefractedly，discolouredbythemediumofhisownprivatelikesanddislikes，andfulfilsthatgreatandtrulyphilosophiclaw，thathewholovethnothisbrotherisindarkness，andknowethnotwhitherhegoeth。AndsoitbefellthoseoldGreekschools。ItisoutofourpathtofollowthemtoItaly，wheresturdyoldRomanpatriotscursedthem，andwithgoodreason，ascorruptingthemoralsoftheyoung。OurbusinessiswithAlexandria；andthere，certainly，theydidnothingfortheelevationofhumanity。Whatculturetheymayhavegiven，probablyhelpedtomaketheAlexandrians，whatCaesarcallsthem，themostingeniousofallnations: butrighteousorvaliantmenitdidnotmakethem。When，afterthethreegreatreignsofSoter，Philadelphus，andEuergetes，theraceofthePtolemiesbegantowearitselfout，Alexandriafellmorally，asitssovereignsfell；andduringamiserableandshamefuldeclineofahundredandeightyyears，sophistswrangled，pedantsfoughtoveraccentsandreadingswiththetrueodiumgammaticum，andkingsplungeddeeperanddeeperintotheabyssesofluxuryandincest，lazinessandcruelty，tillthefloodcame，andsweptthemallaway。Cleopatra，theHelenofEgypt，betrayedhercountrytotheRoman；andthenceforththeAlexandriansbecameslavesinallbutname。 AndnowthatAlexandriahasbecomeatributaryprovince，isittosharetheusuallotofenslavedcountriesandlosealloriginalityandvigourofthought？Notso。Fromthispoint，strangelyenough，itbeginstohaveaphilosophyofitsown。HithertoithasbeenimportingGreekthoughtintoEgyptandSyria，eventothefurthestboundariesofPersia； andthewholeEasthasbecomeGreek:butithasreceivedlittleinreturn。TheIndianGymnosophists，orBrahmins，hadlittleornoeffectonGreekphilosophy，exceptinthecaseofPyrrho:thePersianDualismstillless。TheEgyptiansymbolicnature-worshiphadbeentoogrosstoberegardedbythecultivatedAlexandrianasanythingbutabarbaricsuperstition。OneeasternnationhadintermingledcloselywiththeMacedonianrace，andfromitAlexandrianthoughtreceivedanewimpulse。 ImentionedinmyfirstlecturetheconciliatorypolicywhichthePtolemieshadpursuedtowardtheJews。SoterhadnotonlyallowedbutencouragedthemtosettleinAlexandriaandEgypt，grantingthemthesamepoliticalprivilegeswiththeMacedoniansandotherGreeks。Soontheybuiltthemselvesatemplethere，inobediencetosomesupposed prophecyintheirsacredwritings，whichseemsmostprobablytohavebeenawilfulinterpolation。WhatsoevervaluewemayattachtothevariousmythsconcerningthetranslationoftheirScripturesintoGreek，therecanbenodoubtthattheyweretranslatedinthereignofSoter，andthattheexceedinglyvaluableSeptuagintversionistheworkofthatperiod。Moreover，theirnumbersinAlexandriawereverygreat。WhenAmroutookConstantinopleinA。D。640，therewere40，000Jewsinit；andtheirnumbersduringthePtolemaicandRomanperiods，beforetheirtemporaryexpulsionbyCyrilabout412，wereprobablygreater；andEgyptaltogetherissaidtohavecontained200，000Jews。Theyhadschoolsthere，whichweresoesteemedbytheirwholenationthroughouttheEast，thattheAlexandrianRabbis，theLightofIsrael，astheywerecalled，maybefairlyconsideredasthecentreofJewishthoughtandlearningforseveralcenturies。 Weareaccustomed，andnotwithoutreason，tothinkwithsomecontemptoftheseoldRabbis。Rabbinism，Cabbalism，arebecomeby-wordsinthemouthsofmen。Itmaybeinstructiveforus——itiscertainlynecessaryforus，ifwewishtounderstandAlexandria——toexaminealittlehowtheybecamesofallen。 Theirphilosophytookitsstand，asyouallknow，oncertainancientbooksoftheirpeople；histories，laws，poems，philosophicaltreatises，whichallhaveoneelementpeculiartothemselves，namely，theassertionofalivingpersonalRulerandTeacher，notmerelyoftheJewishrace，butofallthenationsoftheearth。AfterthereturnoftheirracefromBabylon，theirownrecordsgiveabundantevidencethatthisstrangepeoplebecamethemostexclusiveandsectarianwhichtheworldeversaw。 IntothecausesofthatexclusivenessIwillnotnowenter；sufficeittosay，thatitwaspardonableenoughinapeopleassertingMonotheisminthemidstofidolatrousnations，andwhoknew，fromexperienceevenmorebitterthanthatwhichtaughtPlatoandSocrates，howdirectlyallthosepopularidolatriesledtoeveryformofbasenessandimmorality。 Butwemaytraceinthem，fromthedateoftheirreturnfromBabylon，especiallyfromtheirsettlementinAlexandria，asingularchangeofopinion。InproportionastheybegantodenythattheirunseenpersonalRulerhadanythingtodowiththeGentiles——thenationsoftheearth，astheycalledthem——inproportionastheyconsideredthemselvesasHisonlysubjects——orrather，HimandHisguidanceastheirownprivateproperty——exactlyinthatproportiontheybegantolosealllivingorpracticalbeliefthatHedidguidethem。Hebecameabeingofthepast； onewhohadtaughtandgovernedtheirforefathersinoldtimes:notonewhowasteachingandgoverningthemnow。Ibegyoutopayattentiontothiscuriousresult；becauseyouwillsee，Ithink，theverysamethingoccurringintwootherAlexandrianschools，ofwhichIshallspeakhereafter。 TheresulttotheseRabbiswas，thattheinspiredbookswhichspokeofthisDivineguidanceandgovernmentbecameobjectsofsuperstitiousreverence，justinproportionastheylostallunderstandingoftheirrealvalueandmeaning。Nevertheless，thistooproducedgoodresults； forthegreatestpossiblecarewastakentofixtheCanonofthesebooks；tosettle，asfaraspossible，theexacttimeatwhichtheDivineguidancewassupposedtohaveceased；afterwhichitwasimpioustoclaimaDivineteaching；whentheirsageswerelefttothemselves，astheyfancied，withacompletebodyofknowledge，onwhichtheywerehenceforthonlytocomment。Thus，whetherornottheywererightinsupposingthattheDivineTeacherhadceasedtoteachandinspirethem，theydidinfiniteservicebymarkingoutforuscertainwriterswhomHehadcertainlytaughtandinspired。 Nodoubttheywererightintheirsenseoftheawfulchangewhichhadpassedovertheirnation。TherewasaninfinitedifferencebetweenthemandtheoldHebrewwriters。Theyhadlostsomethingwhichthoseoldprophetspossessed。Iinviteyoutoponder，eachforhimself，onthecausesofthisstrangeloss；bearinginmindthattheylosttheirforefathers\'heirloom，exactlyinproportionastheybegantobelieveittobetheirexclusivepossession，andtodenyotherhumanbeingsanyrighttoorshareinit。Itmayhavebeenthatthelightgiventotheirforefathershad，astheythought，reallydeparted。Itmayhavebeen，also，thatthelightwasthereallaroundthemstill，asbrightasever，butthattheywouldnotopentheireyesandbeholdit；orrather，couldnotopenthem，becauseselfishnessandpridehadsealedthem。Itmayhavebeen，thatinspirationwasstillverynearthemtoo，iftheirspiritshadbeenwillingtoreceiveit。