第1章

ThewordWealthpresentsitselftodifferentmindswithsuchvarietyofmeaning，thatitwillbebesttobeginbyfixingon someconventionallimittothesenseinwhichthetermshallbeused。ThedefinitionofMr。Malthusis，ofthemanywhich havebeenproposed，perhapstheleastobjectionableandthemostconvenient。Wealth，accordingtohim，consistsofthose materialobjectswhicharenecessary，useful，oragreeabletomankind。(1)Inthisrestrictedsensethewordwillbeusedhere。 Instancesofoccasionaldeviationfromit，ifanyoccur，shallbemarked。Itwillbeunderstood，however，thatthisdefinitionis proposedasusefulinlimitingoursubject，notasfurnishingthebasisofanyconclusionsrelatingtoit。Ifamore comprehensiveinterpretationofthetermWealthshouldbepreferred，theresultsofthefactsorreasoningsweshallhavetoadduce，willbeinnodegreeaffectedbythechange。Allwealth，whateverbeitssource，ismadeavailableforthepurposesofmanbyhumanlabor:bythateventhespontaneous productionsoftheearthmustbegatheredandappropriated。Hencethehandsfromwhichallwealthisfirstdistributedmust bethoseofthelaborer。Butthelaborerisrarelyinaconditiontoretainthewholeproduceofhisexertions。Inwhateverstate ofsocietyheexists，sometie，orsomewant，makeshimtoacertainextentdependentuponothers。Thosewhoconstitutethe largerproportionofthelaboringclassthroughouttheworldfindnofundaccumulatedbyothers，fromwhichtheymaydraw theirdailysubsistence:theyareobligedthereforetoraiseitwiththeirownhandsfromthesoil。Ifthatsoilbelongstoothers， thiscircumstancealonemakesthepeasantsatoncetributarytotheproprietors，andaportionoftheproduceisdistributedas Rent。Ifbesidesthesoilotherthingsareneedfultofacilitatetheirexertions，totheownerofthesethingsanotherpartofthe producemustberesigned，andhencetheoriginofProfits。Theshareofthelaborer，therewardofmerepersonalexertion，in whatevershape，ormanner，ortime，itmaybereceived，constitutestheWagesoflabor。Intothesethreeportions，Rent， Profits，andWages，theannualproduceofthelandandlaborofeverycountryisinthefirstinstancedivided:allother revenuesarederivedfromthese。Thewholesubjectofthedistributionofwealththennaturallyseparatesitselfintothree divisions，whichmayconvenientlybemadethesubjectofthreebooks，devotedtotheexaminationofthosecircumstances whichindifferentstagesofsocietydeterminetheamount，firstofRent，thenofWages，thirdlyofProfits。Inafourthbook，if ourplanshouldbecompleted，weshallattempttotracetherevenuewhichthestateatsuccessiveperiodsusuallyderives fromeachofthese。 ThepresentvolumewillcontainthebookonRent。 SECTIONI。 OntheOriginofRents:ontheirDivisionintoPrimaryandSecondary，orPeasantandFarmer\'sRents。Whenmankindhavebecomesufficientlynumeroustobedrivenfromthepastoralstatetoagricultureforsubsistence，and beforesufficientfundshaveaccumulatedinthepossessionofotherstosupplythebodyofthepeoplewiththeirdailybread， theymustextractitwiththeirownbandsfromthesoil，ortheymuststarve。Whilethuscircumstancedtheymay，ormaynot， bethemselvestheownersoftheimplements，seed，&；c。bytheassistanceofwhichtheirmanuallaborappliedtothesoil producesthemacontinuousmaintenance；astockwhichifusedforanyotherpurposemustsoonbeexhausted:suchastock， iftheypossessit，isintheirpeculiarcircumstancesentirelydeprivedofitsmobility；itisconvertibletonootherpurpose， andisconfinedtothetaskofassistingcultivation，bythesamenecessitywhichcompelsitsownerstoextracttheirfood fromtheearth:andthereturnstostocksosituated，likethereturnstothelaborsofitsowners(ortheirwages)，mustbe governedbythetermsonwhichlandcanbeobtained。Shouldthesurfaceofthecountrywhichsuchapeopleinhabitbe appropriated，theonlychancewhichthecultivatorhasofbeingallowedtooccupythatportionofit，fromwhichheisto drawhissubsistence，restsuponhisbeingabletopaysometributetotheowner。 Thepoweroftheearthtoyield，eventothe rudestlaborsofmankind，morethanisnecessaryforthesubsistenceofthecultivatorhimself，enableshimtopaysucha tribute:hencetheoriginofrent。Averylargeproportionoftheinhabitantsofthewholeeartharepreciselyinthe circumstanceswehavebeendescribing；sufficientlynumeroustohaveresortedtoagriculture；toorudetopossessany accumulatedfundintheshapeofcapital，fromwhichthewagesofthelaboringcultivatorscanbeadvanced。These cultivatorsinsuchastateofsocietycomprisealways，fromcausesweshallhereafterarriveinsightof，anoverwhelming majorityofthenation。Asthelandisthenthedirectsourceofthesubsistenceofthepopulation，sothenatureoftheproperty establishedintheland，andtheformsandtermsoftenancytowhichthatpropertygivesbirth，furnishtothepeoplethemost influentialelementsoftheirnationalcharacter。Wemaybepreparedthereforetoseewithoutsurprisesthedifferentsystems ofrentswhichinthisstateofthingshavearisen1。outofthepeculiarcircumstancesofdifferentpeople，formingthemain tieswhichholdsocietytogether，determiningthenatureoftheconnectionbetweenthegoverningpartofthecommunity andthegoverned，andstampingonaverylargeportionofthepopulationofthewholeglobetheirmoststrikingfeatures，social，political，andmoral。Ifindeeditweretrue，assomehavefancied，thatlandswerealwaysfirstappropriatedbythosewhoarewillingtobestow painsontheircultivation；ifinthehistoryofmankinditwereanordinaryfact，thattheuncultivatedlandsofacountry`were opentotheindustryorneccssitiesofallitspopulation；thensometimewouldelapseintheprogressofagriculturalnations beforerentsmadetheirappearanceatall；andwhentheydidappear，still，whileanyportionofthecountryremained unoccupied，therentspaidonthelandsalreadycultivatedwouldonlybeinexactproportiontotheirsuperiority，frompositionorgoodness，overthevacantspots。Suchastateofthingsmightoccur；itisanabstractpossibility:butthepasthistoryandpresentstateoftheworldyield abundanttestimony，thatitneitheris，noreverhasbeen，apracticaltruth，andthattheassumptionofitasthebasisofsystemsofpoliticalphilosophy，isamerefallacy。Whenmenbegintouniteintheformofanagriculturalcommunity，thepoliticalnotiontheyseemconstantlytoadoptfirst，is thatofanexclusiveright，existingsomewhere，tothesoilofthecountrytheyinhabit。Theircircumstances，theirprejudices， theirideasofjusticeorofexpediency，leadthem，almostuniversally，tovestthatrightintheirgeneralgovernment，andinpersonsderivingtheirrightsfromit。TherudestpeopleamongwhomthiscanatpresentbeobservedareperhapssomeoftheIslandersoftheSouthSeas。The soiloftheSocietyIslandsisveryimperfectlyoccupied；thewholebelongstothesovereign；heportionsitamongthenobles， andmakesandresumesgrantsathispleasure。Thebodyofthepeople，wholiveoncertainediblerootspeculiartothe country，whichtheycultivatewithconsiderablecare，receivefromthenobles，intheirturn，permissiontooccupysmaller portions。Theyarethusdependentonthechiefsforthemeansofexistence，andtheypayatribute，arent，intheshapeoflaborandservicesperformedonotherlands。(2)OnthecontinentofAmerica，theinstitutionsofthosepeople，whobeforeitsdiscoveryhadresortedtoagriculturefor subsistence，indicatealsoanearlyandcompleteappropriationofthesoilbythestate。InMexicotherewerecrownlands cultivatedbytheservicesofthoseclasseswhoweretoopoortocontributetotherevenueofthestateinanyothermanner。Thereexistedtooabodyofabout3000noblespossessedofdistincthereditarypropertyinland。\"Thetenurebywhichthegreatbodyofthepeopleheldtheirpropertywasverydifferent。Ineverydistrictacertainquantityoflandwasmeasuredout inproportiontothenumberoffamilies。Thiswascultivatedbythejointlaborofthe whole:itsproducewasdepositedina commonstorehouse，anddividedamongthemaccordingtotheirrespectiveexigencies。\"(3)WhileinPeru\"allthelands capableofcultivationweredividedintothreeshares。OnewasconsecratedtotheSun，andtheproduceofitwasappliedto theerectionoftemples，andfurnishingwhatwasrequisitetowardscelebratingthepublicritesofreligion。Thesecond belongedtotheInca，andwassetapartastheprovisionmadebythecommunityforthesupportofgovernment。Thethird andlargestsharewasreservedforthemaintenanceofthepeopleamongwhomitwasparcelledout。Neitherindividuals， however，norcommunitieshadarightofexclusivepropertyintheportionsetapartfortheiruse。Theypossesseditonlyfor ayear，attheexpirationofwhich，anewdivisionwasmadeinproportiontotherank，thenumber，andtheexigenciesofeachfamily。\"(4)ThroughoutAsia，thesovereignshaveeverbeeninthepossessionofanexclusivetitletothesoiloftheirdominions，and theyhavepreservedthattitleinastateofsingularandinauspiciousintegrity，undivided，aswellasunimpaired。Thepeople arethereuniversallythetenantsofthesovereign，whoisthesoleproprietor；usurpationsofhisofficersaloneoccasionally breakthelinksofthechainofdependenceforatime。Itisthisuniversaldependenceonthethroneforthemeansof supportinglife，whichistherealfoundationoftheunbrokendespotismoftheEasternworld，asitisoftherevenueofthesovereigns，andoftheformwhichsocietyassumesbeneaththeirfeet。InmodernEuropethesamerightsonceprevailed，butheretheyweresoonmoderated，andfinallydisappeared。The subordinatechiefs，whofollowedincrowdstheleadersofthebarbarianirruptions，werelittleaccustomedtotolerate constantdependenceandregulargovernment，andutterlyunfittobecomeitssupportandagents。Yetevenbythem，the abstractrightofthesovereigntothesoilwasverygenerallyrecognized。Tracesofitarestillpreservedinthelanguageof ourlaws；thehighesttitleasubjectcanclaimisthatoftenantofthefee，andthetermsofthistenancymadeoriginallytheonlydifferenceintheextentofinterestsinestates。Thestepsbywhichbeneficiariesbecametherealproprietorsarefamiliartoalmostallclassesofreaders；itisenoughforour presentpurposetoseethatinEurope，asinAsiaandSouthAmerica，thesoilwaspracticallyappropriatedbythesovereign oralimitednumberofindividuals，atatimewhenthebulkofthepeoplewerewhollydependentontheoccupationofportionsofitfortheirsubsistence，andwhentheybecametherefore，inevitably，tributarytoitsowners。TheUnitedStatesofNorthAmerica，thoughoftenreferredtoinsupportofdifferentviews，affordanotherremarkable instanceofthepowervestedinthehandsoftheownersofthesoil，whenitsoccupationofferstheonlymeansofsubsistence tothepeople。TheterritoriesoftheUnionstillunoccupied，fromtheCanadianbordertotheshoresoftheFloridas，fromthe AtlantictothePacific，areadmitted，inlawandpractice，tobethepropertyofthegeneralgovernment。Theycanbe occupiedonlywithitsconsent，inspotsfixedonandallottedbyitsservants，andontheconditionofapreviousmoney payment。Thatgovernmentdoesnot，itistrue，convertthesuccessiveshoalsoffreshapplicantsintotenants，becauseits policyrejectssuchameasure。 Itslegislatorsinheritedfromtheotherhemisphereattheoutsetoftheircareertheadvantages ofanexperienceaccumulatedduringcenturiesofprogressivecivilization:theysaw，thatthepowerandresourcesoftheir younggovernmentwerelikelytobeincreasedmoreeffectuallybytherapidformationofaraceofproprietors，thanbythe creationofaclassofstatetenantry。Ithasbeensuggested，thattheymayhaveactedunwiselyinoverlookingsuchamodeof creatingapermanentpublicrevenue。Hadtheyperverselyentertainedthewilltodoso，unquestionablytheyhadthepower。 Theirrapidlyincreasingnumberscouldhavebeensustainedonlybythespreadofcultivation。Asfreshsettlementsbecame necessarytothemaintenanceofthepeople，thegovernmentmighthavemadeitsowntermswhengrantingthespacefrom whichalonethepopulationcouldobtainsubsistence；andthiswithoutpartingwiththepropertyofthesoil。Hadthisbeen done，thecareerofthenation，essentiallydifferentfromwhatithasbeen，wouldmorecloselyhaveresembledthatofthepeopleoftheoldworld。IntheEnglishcoloniesofAustralia，anunsettledterritory，whichwillbearcomparisonwiththewastesofNorthAmericain extent，istheacknowledgedpropertyofthecrown。Asystemofdisposingofthepubliclandshaslatelybeenadopted，which isameanbetweenanabsolutesaleandthecreationofapermanenttenantry。(5)Thepersonreceivingagrantissubjecttoamoderaterent，whichhemaycommuteforthepaymentofaspecific。(6)ThroughoutcentralAfricatheconsentofthekingorchiefmustbeobtained，beforeanyspotofgroundcanbecultivated。(7)Weknowbutlittleofthesubsequentrightsofthecultivatororofhisconnectionwiththesovereign；butthenecessityofapplyingforpermissionimpliesapowertowithholdit，ortograntitconditionally。Thepasthistoryandpresentstatethereforeoftheoldandnewworld，yieldabundantproofofthevisionarynatureofthose notionsastotheoriginofrent，whichrestuponanassumption，thatitisnevertheimmediateresultofcultivation；andthat whileanylandremainsunoccupied，norentwillbepaidforthecultivatedpart，exceptsuchasiswarrantedbyitssuperiorityoverthatpartwhichissupposedtobealwaysopentotheindustryofthecommunity。Wecomebackthentotheproposition，that，intheactualprogressofhumansociety，renthasusuallyoriginatedinthe appropriationofthesoil，atatimewhenthebulkofthepeoplemustcultivateitonsuchtermsastheycanobtain，orstarve； andwhentheirscantycapitalofimplements，seed，&；c。beingutterlyinsufficienttosecuretheirmaintenanceinanyother occupationthanthatofagriculture，ischainedwiththemselvestothelandbyanoverpoweringnecessity。Thenecessitythen， whichcompelsthemtopayarent，itneedhardlybeobserved，iswhollyindependentofanydifferenceinthequalityofthegroundtheyoccupy，andwouldnotberemovedwerethesoilsallequalized。Therentsthuspaidbythelaborer，whoextractshisownwagesfromtheearth，maybecalledpeasantrents，usingtheterm peasanttoindicateanoccupierofthegroundwhodependsonhisownlaborforitscultivation；ortheymaybecalled primaryrents，because，intheorderoftheirappearanceintheprogressofnationstowardscivilization，theyinvariably precedethatotherclassofrentstowhichwehavenowtoadvert。 OntheOriginofSecondaryorFarmer\'sRents。Muchtimeseldomelapses，aftertheformationofanagriculturalcommunity，beforesomeimperfectseparationtakesplace betweenthedepartmentsoflabor。Thebodyofartizansandmechanicsbearatfirstaverysmallproportiontothewhole numbersofthepeople:someofthesesoonbecomeabletostoreupsuchaquantityoffood，implements，andmaterials，as enablethemtofeedandemployothers，totaketheresultsoftheirlabour，andtoexchangethemagainformorefood，andall thatisnecessarytocontinuetheprocess。Aclassofcapitalistsisthusformed，distinctfromthatoflaborersandlandlords。 Thisclasssometimes(but，takingtheearththroughout，veryrarely)makesitsappearanceontheland，andtakeschargeofits cultivation。Theagriculturallaborernolongerdependsforsubsistenceuponthecropsheraisesfromthesoil；andthe landlord，insteadofreceivinghissharedirectlyfromthehandsofthelaborer，receivesitindirectlythroughthoseofthenewemployer。Sincetheserentsinvariablysucceedintheorderofcivilizationtheclassalreadypointedout，theymaybecalledsecondary rents；or，becausethecapitalist，whobecomesresponsiblefortherentoflandwhichhecultivatesbythelaborofothers，isusuallycalledafarmer，theserentsmayconvenientlybecalledfarmer\'srents，andsodistinguishedfrompeasantrents。Therearecases，nodoubt，inwhichitisdifficulttodeterminetowhichofthesetwoclasses，thepeasantorfarmer\'srents， therentspaidbyparticularindividualsbelong。Butthisisacircumstancewhichneedembarrasstheenquiriesofnonebut thosewhodelightinsurroundingasubjectwithrefinementsanddifficultiesoftheirowncreation。Weshallfindthetwoclassesovervastregionsoftheglobedistinctlyandbroadlyseparatedintheirform，theireffects，andthecausesoftheirvariations:anditwouldbeveryuselesstrifling，tolingerandpuzzleoverthoseverylimitedspotsalone，wheretheyareinastateofmixtureandconfusion。Thecircumstanceswhichdeterminetheamountofpeasantrentsaremuchlesscomplexthanthosewhichdeterminethe amountoffarmer\'srents。Inthecaseoftheselast，theamountofwagesisfirstdeterminedbycausesforeigntothecontract betweentheproprietorandthetenant，andthentheamountofrentisstrictlylimitedbytheamountoftheprofitsonthe capitalused；whichcapital，ifthoseprofitsarenotrealized，maybewithdrawntoanotheremployment。Thecauseswhich determinetheordinaryrateofthoseprofitsarealsoindependentofthecontractbetweenthelandlordandtenant，andforma distinctsubjectofenquiry。Inthecaseofthefirstclass，orpeasantrents，theamountbothofwagesandrentsisdetermined solelybythebargainmadebetweentheproprietorsandasetoflaborers，whosenecessitieschainthemtothesoilwiththe smallcapitaltheyusetoaidtheirlabourandprocurefood；andthecauseswhichgovernthetermsofthatbargainarecomparativelysimple。Theclassofsecondaryorfarmer\'srentsisthatwithwhichwearethemostfamiliarinEngland，orratherthatwithwhichwe arealonefamiliar；andthisfamiliarityhascausedpeasantrentsintheirnumerousvarietiesnotonlytobeneglectedinour investigations，but，intruth，tobeoverlookedaltogetherAndyet，ashasbeenbeforesuggested，comparedwiththese，the massoffarmer\'srentstobefoundontheglobeisverysmall。InEnglandandinmostpartsoftheNetherlandssecondary rentsexclusivelyprevail。IntheHighlandsofScotland，theyareonlyatthismomentdisplacingthelastremainsofthemore primitiveform:inFrance，beforetherevolution，theywerefoundonaboutone-seventhpartoftheland:intheother countriesofEurope，theyaremuchmorerare，throughoutAsiahardlyknown。Weshallbemakingonthewholeanextravagantallowance，ifwesupposethemtooccupyone-hundredthpartofthecultivatedsurfaceofthehabitableglobe。Ifweconsiderprincipallythenumbersofthehumanracewhosefatetheyinfluence，ortheextentoftheregionsofwhichthe socialconditionreceivesitsimpressfromthem，thenpeasantrentsundertheirvariousformswillbethemostinterestingand important。Ifourtasteleadsustoundertakethediscussionofthesesubjectsasascientificproblem，themaininterestof whichconsistsintheexerciseitaffordstothepowersofanalysisandcombination，perhapsthesecondclass(orfarmer\'s rents)maynotbeundeservingoftheexclusiveattentionithasreceived。 SECTIONII。 OnPeasantRents:ontheirSeparationintoLabor，Metayer，Ryot，andCottierRents。Whilethelaborerisconfinedtothecultureofthesoilonhisown-account，becauseitisinthatmanneralonethathecan obtainaccesstothewagesonwhichheistosubsist，theformandamountoftheRentshepaysaredeterminedbyadirect contractbetweenhimselfandtheproprietor。Theprovisionsofthesecontractsareinfluencedsometimesbythelaws，and almostalwaysbythelongestablishedusages，ofthecountriesinwhichtheyaremade。Themainobjectinallis，tosecurearevenuetotheproprietorswiththeleastpracticableamountoftroubleorriskontheirpart。Thoughgovernedincommonbysomeimportantprinciples，thevarietyintheminuterdetailsofthisclassofRentsisof coursealmostinfinite。Butmenwillbedriveninsimilarsituationstoverysimilarexpedients，andthegeneralmassofpeasant rentsmaybeseparatedintofourgreatdivisions，comprising1st，LaborRents，2dly，MetayerRents，3dly，RyotRents(borrowingthelasttermfromthecountryinwhichwearemostfamiliarwiththem，India)。Thesethreewillbefoundoccupyingincontiguousmassesthebreadthoftheoldworld，fromtheCanaryIslandstothe shoresofChinaandthePacific，anddeciding，eachinitsownsphere，notmerelytheeconomicalrelationsofthelandlordsandtenants，butthepoliticalandsocialconditionofthemassofthepeople。Tothesemustbeaddedafourthdivision，thatofCottierRents，orRentspaidbyalaborerextractinghisownwagesfrom theland，butpayinghisrentinmoney，asinIrelandandpartofScotland。Thisclassissmall，butpeculiarlyinterestingto Englishmen，fromthefactofitsprevalenceinthesisterisland，andfromtheinfluenceithasexercised，andseemslikelyforsometimeyettoexercise，overtheprogressandcircumstancesoftheIrishpeople。1。Prin。ofPol。Econ。p。28。Ithinkthisdefinitionasitstands，isonthewholeratherpreferabletotheslightlyalteredversion ofit，whichMr。MalthushassinceadoptedinhisWorkonDefinitions，p。234。Neitherofthemperhaps，areperfectlyproof againstapains-takingobjector。Either，wouldverywellanswerourpresentpurpose，ofrestrictingthesubjectonwhichwe areabouttoentertosomedefinitelimits。 2。Appendix。 3。Robertson\'sAmerica，Bookvii。 4。Ibid。 5。EmigrationReport，p。397。AppendixII。6。InproposingpresenttermstopersonsinclinedtosettleattheSwanRiver，theColonialOfficeformallydeclaresan intentionofgrantinglandsafter1830，onsuchconditionsonly，asmaythenseemadviseabletoGovernment。 7。Park\'sTravelsinAfrica，p。260 CHAP。II。 SECT。I。 LaborRents，orSerfRents。Thelandedproprietorsofrudenationsusuallydislike，andareunfitfor，thetaskofsuperintendinglabor，andiftheycanrely， throughthereceiptofproducerents，onasupplyofnecessariessuitedtotheirpurposes，theyuniformlythrowuponthe peasantthewholebusinessofcultivation。Buttheirbeingabletodothisinsecuritysupposesinthetenantsthemselves，some skill，andhabitsofvoluntaryandregularlabor:theymustbetrust-worthytoo，toacertainextent。Thereis，however，apoint intheprogressofcivilization，belowwhichthebodyofthepeopledonotpossessthesequalifications:when，thoughdriven toagriculturebytheirnumbers，theystillpossessmanyofthequalitiesofthesavage；andarenotyetripefortheregular paymentofproduceormoneyrents；becausetheirignorance，theirimpatienceoftoil，andtheirimprovidence，wouldexpose theproprietortoconsiderabledangerofstarvation，ifhedependedontheirpunctualityforthesupportofhimself，andhishousehold。Howeveraversetotheemployment，theproprietorsmaybe，theymustinthisstageofsociety，takesomeshareinthe burthenofconductingcultivation。Theymaycontrive，however，togetridofthetaskofraisingfoodforthelaborers，who aretheinstrumentsofthatcultivation。Theyusuallysetasidefortheiruseaportionoftheestate，andleavethemtoextract theirownsubsistencefromit，attheirownrisk。Theyexactasarentforthelandthusabandoned，acertainquantityoflabor， tobeusedupontheremainingportionoftheestate，whichisretainedinthehandsoftheproprietor。Suchistheexpedient whichseemsgenerallytohavesuggesteditselftotheownersofthesoil，whilethelaborershavebeeninthisstateofhalfcivilization，andwhilenocapitalistsyetexisted。IntheSocietyIslands，thechiefsallottotheirtenantsaboutsixtyacresoflandeach。Therentpaidfortheseconsistsofwork doneforacertainnumberofdaysatthecallofthechiefonhisowndemesnefarm。(1)Theyareperhapstherudestpeople amongwhomthismodeofoccupyingandcultivatingthesoilcanbeobserved；anditisinstructivetoremarkamongthese IslandersoftheAntipodes，thenecessitiesoftheirpositiongivingbirthtoasystem，whichwasoncenearlyuniversalinEurope，andwhichstillprevailsoverthelargerportionofit。ArrangementssomewhatsimilartotheseexistinsomeofourWestIndianIslands，betweenthenegroesandtheownersoftheestatestowhichtheybelong。Butthepeoplebywhomlaborrentswereestablishedonthewidestscale，andwerecommunicatedtothevastcountriesin whichtheydid，ordo，principallyprevail，werethenationsofEasternEurope，theinhabitantsofthedesertsofGermany，and thewastesbeyondtheVistula。Someofthetribes，whoinvadedthelowerempire，hadbeguntoresortpartiallytoagricultureforsubsistencebeforetheperiodoftheirirruption，anditisprobablethatthissystemwaseventhennotunknowntothem；buthoweverthismayhavebeen，theycertainlyestablisheditmostextensivelythroughouttheirconquestsinWestern Europe；andwhentheirownfastnesses，thewastesfromwhichtheyhadmigrated，becamemoreregularlypeopledand settled，thiswasthemodeofcultivatingtheland，whichuniversallyprevailedthere。Itprevailstherestill。Intheirconquests westwardoftheRhine，ittookforatimestrongholdofthehabitsofthepeopletowhomtheyintroducedit，hasleftdeep tracesintheirlaws，andyetlingersinparticularspots；butfromthisportionofEurope，thepeculiarcircumstancesofsome nations，andtheadvanceofcivilizationinall，haverepelledthesystem，whichhasgivenplacetootherformsoftherelation betweenproprietorsandtenants。InthecountrieseastwardoftheRhineitisstillfoundparamount；notwhollyunbroken，and shewingeverywheresymptomsofgradualorapproachingchange，butfashioningstilltheframeofsociety，andexercisinga predominantinfluenceovertheindustryandfortunesofallranksofpeople。 Theselaborrentsmay，withsomelittleextensionoftheordinaryuseofthetermserf；beallcalledserfrents。AslabororserfrentshavegraduallyrecededfromtheWest，soitisonthewesternextremityofthecountriesinwhichthey stillprevail，thattheirdecompositionisthemostadvanced。Toobservethem，therefore，intheircompletestate，wemustgo atoncetotheeastofEurope，andbeginwithRussia，andmaytracethemthence，graduallydecayinginformandspirit throughHungary，Livonia，Poland，Prussia，andGermany，totheRhine，onthebordersofwhichtheymeltawayinto differentsystems，andarenolongertoberecognized。 SECTIONII。 OnLabororSerfRentsinRussia。InRussiathepeasants，whoaresettledonthesoil，receivefromtheproprietoraquantityofland，greatorsmall，ashis discretionorconveniencedictate，fromwhichtheyextracttheirwages。Theyareboundtoworkonthedemesnesofthe landownerthreedaysintheweek。Theobligationwouldbelight，wereitnotfortheresultsithasledto。InRussiathismode ofoccupyingthesoilhasestablishedthecompletepersonalbondageofthepeasant:hehasbecome，withallhisfamilyand descendants，theslaveofthelord。Suchtoohasbeentheresultofsimilarrelationsbetweentheproprietorandhistenants， wherevertheyhaveprevailedamongsemi-barbarouspeopleandfeeblegeneralgovernments。(2)Promthecountrieswestward ofRussiathesamestateofbondage，oncecommon，isdisappearingbydegrees。InRussia，asinitslaststronghold，itstillsubsistsentire。Itisnotdifficulttotracethestepsbywhichlaborrentspreparedsogenerallytheservileconditionofthepeasants，and coveredEuropeduringthemiddleageswitharaceofpredialbonds-men。Arudepeopledependentupontheirownlaboror theirallotmentfortheirsupport，wereoftenexposed，fromthefailureofthecropsortheravagesofwar，toutterdestitution。 Thelordwasusuallyable，outofhisstore-houses，toaffordthemsomerelief，whichtheyhadnomeansofrepayingbutby additionallabor。Fromthisandothercauses，theserfdid，anddoes，perpetuallyowetohislordnearlythewholeofhis time。(3)Besidesthis，theyweremainlydependentonhimforprotectionfromstrangersandfromeachother。Fromhis domestictribunal，hesettledtheirdifferencesandpunishedtheirfaultswithanauthoritywhichthegeneralgovernmentwas innoconditiontosupersede，andwhichbecameatlastsanctionedbyusageandequivalenttolaw。Thepatriarchalauthority oftheHighlandchiefshadnoothersource。 Inthemitwasatoncedignifiedandmoderatedbysupposedtiesofblood。 Elsewhereitreceivednosuchmitigation。Theirtimeandtheirpersonsbeingthusabandonedtothewilloftheirsuperiors， thetenantryhadnomeansofresistingfurtherencroachments。Oneofthemostgeneralseemstohavebeen，theestablishment ofarightbywhichthelandlord，providingtheserfwithsubsistence，mightwithdrawhimaltogetherfromthesoilonwhich hehadplacedhim，toemployhimelsewhereatpleasure。Thenfollowedanunderstandingthattheflightofaserffromthe estateofhislandlord，employer，andjudge，wasanoffenceandaninjury。Thisoncesanctionedbylawandusage，thechains oftheserfwererivetted，andhebecameaslave，thepropertyofamaster。InRussiaheissostill:butsuccessivemodificationshaveeverywhereelsere-endowedhimwithatleastsomeoftheprivilegesofafreeman。Thedescentofthepeasantstowardsactualservitudedidnotperhaps，ineverycase，followtheprecisetrackheremarked out。ThenationswithwhomlaborrentsoriginatedinEuropewerefamiliarwithdomesticslaverybeforetheyresortedto agricultureforsubsistence，andsomeoftheirfirsttenantsweredoubtlessalreadyslaved。Butwhenweobserve，nota portionofthepeople，inastateofslavery，butthewholebodyofpeasantryinawhollyagriculturalnation，asinRussiaand formerlyinHungary，itisthenimpossiblenottobelievethatsuchextensiveservitudehasclosedgraduallyroundtheirrace。 TheRussiansthemselvescontend，thatthebondageoftheirpeasantrywasnotcomplete，tillsolateasthereignofCzarBorisGodounoff，whomountedthethronein1603。(4)IntheGeorgianprovincesofRussia，theownerreceivesfromthepeasantsamixtureofproducerentsandlabor:theywork forhimonlyonedayintheweekinsteadofthree，andpayoneseventhofthecropsraisedontheirallotments。(5)Withthis andperhapsotherlocalexceptions，thebodyofRussianserfswhoareactualcultivators，paylaborrents，nominallyatthe rateofthreedayslaborintheweek，fortheirallotments，butinfacttheirconditionhasdegeneratedintoastateofcomplete personalbondage，andthedemandsoftheproprietor，thoughinfluencedbycustom，arereallylimitedonlybyhisown forbearance。Themoneycommutationoftheselaborrents，whentheyarepermittedtomakeone，whichtheyverygenerally are，iscalledlikethepaymentsfromthepersonalslaves，obrocorabroc，andiscompletelyarbitrary，andsettledbythemasteraccordingtohissuspicionsoftheirability。(6)ButeveninRussia，thebondageoftheserfs，althoughmoreentirethanelsewhere，isyet，asrespectsalargebody，perhaps halfofthepeasantry，inastateofrapidchange。Thatchangehasoriginatedwiththegovernment。Theexistenceofvery extensivecrowndomainsmayperhapsbeconsideredasanindicationofabackwardstateofcivilization。Inotherpartsof Europe，theywillusuallybefoundsmallinproportiontotheadvanceofthepeopleinwealthandnumbers。Thedomainsof theRussiansovereignareimmense，andperhapsmorethanequaltheestatesofallhissubjects。Thisfactisindicatedbythe numberofroyalserfs:ofthese，in1782，tenmillionsandahalfbelongedtothecrown。 Toextractlaborrentsfromsucha bodyofpeople，thatistoemploythem，astheyareemployedbysubjectsinraisingproduceforthebenefit，andunderthe superintendence，oftheirowner，wasaworkclearlybeyondtheadministrativecapacityofanygovernment。Induced thereforepartlybythenecessityofthecase，partly，wemaybelieve，byawisepolicy，theRussiangovernmenthasattempted toestablishonthecrowndomainsadifferentsystemofcultivation，includinganalmosttotalabolitionoflaborrents，anda voluntaryandveryconsiderablemodificationofthesovereign\'spower，asowneroftheserfs。Thevillagesinhabitedbythe peasantsofthecrownhavebeenformedintoasortofcorporations；thesurroundinglandsarecultivatedbythematavery moderatefixedrentorabroc:theserfsmaysecurelyacquireforthemselvesandtransmittootherspersonalproperty，and whatisamoreimportantprivilege，andonenotalwaysconcededtotheirclassinneighbouringcountriesofmoreliberal institutions，(inHungaryforinstance)，theymaypurchaseorinheritland。(7) Inthetribunalsinstitutedespeciallyforthe managementoftheircorporations，twopeasants，chosenbythebody，haveaseatandvoicewiththeofficersofthe emperor。(8)Buttherighttotheirpersonalserviceshasnotbeenwhollyabandoned。Theserfissofarattachedtothesoilas tobeforbiddentoleavehisvillageunlesswithaspeciallicence，whichisonlygranted，whengrantedatall，foralimited term。TheRussianmonarchshavemanufacturesandminesconductedontheirownaccount。Theserfsonthecrownlands arestillliabletobetakenfromtheirhomesandemployedonthese。Theyarehiredoutoccasionallytotheownersofsuch similarestablishmentsasitisthoughtpolitictoencourage；andinsomeoftheforeignprovincesunitedtoRussia，thoughnot lately，itshouldseem，inRussiaproper，theyareliabletobesold，ortobegivenaway，orgrantedwiththesoilforaterm，to individualswhomthecourtwishestoenrich。Couldthislargeportionofthepopulationoftheempirebethoroughly emancipated，completelyfreedfromoppression，andenabledtocollectandpreservecapital，Russiawouldsoonhaveathird estateandanefficientbodyofcultivators，fittedgraduallytobringintoactionhergreatterritorialresources。Thetenantson theroyaldomainsalreadyappeartobe，onthewhole，(9)inaconditionsuperiortothatoftheserfsofindividuals，butthe progressoftheirimprovementisretardedbycausesnotlikelysoontolosetheirinfluence。HoweverearnestlytheEmperors ofRussiamayshakeoffthecharacterofownersofslaves，theywillevidentlybeobligedforsomegenerationstoretainthat ofdespots，andthereissomedanger，thattheordinarydefectsoftheirformofgovernmentwillmartheirreallyhumane effortsaslandedproprietors。TheofficersoftheRussiangovernmentareproverbiallyillpaid；oppressionandextortionstill afflictthepeasantry，andtheconditionoftheserfsofthecrownissometimesevenworsethanthatoftheslavesoftheneighbouringnobility。(10)Inthemeantime，theinsensibilityforwhichthebodyoftheRussianpeasantryhavebeenrenowned，seemstobegivingway。 SoonaftertheaccessionofthepresentEmperor，manyofthetenantsofthecrownrefusedtopaytheirabrockorrents，and theserfsofindividualstoperformtheiraccustomedlabor。Aproclamationappeared，reproachingthemwithentertaining unreasonableexpectationsofbeingreleasedfromrentsandservicesaltogether，andthreateningthem，inastylewhichit mustbeconfessedistrulyoriental，withseverepunishmentiftheyevenpetitionedtheCzaronsuchsubjectsagain。Butwe mustnotjudgetheconductoftheRussiancourtbytheharshlanguageofaproclamationissuedonsuchanemergency。The spiritinwhichtheCzarshavedealtwiththeirserfshashithertobeenevidentlypaternal。Theformoftheirgovernmentis theoreticallybad；butRussiaoffersatpresentnomaterialsforforminganynotlikelytobeworse，andthegradual improvementintheconditionofsuchapeople，howeverslowlyweseeitproceed，isprobably，afterall，saferinthehandsof themonarch，thanitwouldbeintheirown，orinthoseoftheirmastersthenobles。 SECTIONIII。 OnLaborRentsinHungary。InHungary，thenoblesaloneareallowedtobecometheproprietorsofland，eitherbyinheritanceorpurchase。They constituteaboutonepartintwenty-oneofapopulationofeightmillions。(11)Oftheotherinhabitants，agreatmajorityarepeasants；forin1777therewereonly30，921artizansinHungary，andtheirnumberissaidtobenotmuchincreased。(12)Thesepeasantsoccupyabouthalfthecultivatedsurfaceofthecountry，(13)andallpaylaborrents。TillthereignofMariaTheresa，theirsituationwasnearlysimilartothatoftheRussianserf。Theywereallattachedtothe estatesonwhichtheywereborn，andsubjectedtoservicesandpaymentswhollyindefinite。ThatPrincesssettheexampleof anearnestattempttoelevatetheircharacter，andimprovetheircircumstances；andtheexamplehasbeenfollowedinthe neighbouringcountrieswithzealcertainly，ifnotalwayswithjudgmentorsuccess。Theresultsofherowneffortswere extremelyimperfect，andnotalwaysfreefrommischief:butitmustberemembered，thatthoseeffortsweremuchcramped bytheinfluencewhichtheHungarianconstitutionenabledtheproprietorstoexercise，inthwartingormodifyinghermeasuresfortheemancipationoftheirtenantry。Byanedictofhers，whichtheHungarianscalltheUrbarium，personalslaveryandattachmenttothesoilwereabolished，and thepeasantsdeclaredtobe\"hominesliberaetransmigrationis。\"Ontheotherhand，theyweredeclaredmeretenantsatwill， whomthelordathispleasuremightdismissfromtheestate。Butaninterestinthesoil，thoughdeniedtothemasindividuals， wasattemptedtobesecuredtothemasabody。Thelandsoneachestate，beforeallottedtothemaintenanceofserfs，were declaredtobelegallyconsecratedtothatpurposeforever。Theyweredividedintoportionsoffrom35to40Englishacres each，calledSessions。(14)Thequantityoflaborduetotheproprietorforeachsession，wasfixedat104daysperannum。(15)Theproprietormightdividethesesessions，andgrantanyminuteportionofthemhepleasedtoapeasant；buthecould stipulateforlaboronlyinproportiontothesizeoftheholding:forhalfasession52days，foraquarter26days，andsoproportionablyforsmallerquantities。TheurbariumofMariaTheresastillcontinuesthemagnachartaoftheHungarianserfs。Buttheauthorityoftheownersof thesoiloverthepersonsandfortunesoftheirtenantryhasbeenveryimperfectlyabrogated:thenecessitiesofthepeasants obligethemfrequentlytoresorttotheirlandlordsforloansoffood；theybecomeladenwithheavydebtstobedischargedby labor。Alonglistofcustomarypaymentsofflax，poultry，&；c。arestilldue，whichswellthisaccount:theproprietorsretain therightofemployingthematpleasure；payingthem，inlieuofsubsistence，aboutone-thirdoftheactualvalueoftheir labor:(16)andlastly，theadministrationofjusticeisstillinthehandsofthenobles；(17)andoneofthefirstsightswhichstrikea foreigneronapproachingtheirmansions，isasortoflowframe-workofposts，towhichaserfistiedwhenitisthoughtpropertoadministerthedisciplineofthewhip，foroffenceswhichdonotseemgraveenoughtodemandaformaltrial。(18)Butwhiletheregulationsoftheurbariumhavesecuredthusimperfectlytheinterestsandlibertyofthepeasant，theyare extremelyembarrassingtotheproprietors。 Apartofeachestateisirrevocablydevotedtothemaintenanceofthelaborers， andthatnotfixedinreferencetoitsextentandwants，butdecidedbythenumberofpeasantswhohappenedtobeonitat thetimeoftheedict。Onsomeestates，asmightbeexpected，thesessionsdevotedtothepeasantrymaintainmorelaborers thanarenowwanted。Thelaborrents，tothatextent，areworthnothingtotheproprietor，andunlesshehasanadjacent estatetoemploytheserfsupon，hegetsnothingbuttheflax，poultry，andsmallproducepaymentstowhichtheyareliable。 Someestatesarewhollyoccupiedbyuselesslaborers；onotherstherearetoofew；andfromthemanytieswhichstill connecttheserfandhislandlord，aninterchangebetweendifferentproprietorsisrare，whilefromtheunwillingnessofthe peasantstoquittheirhold，suchasitis，uponthesoil，freelabor，isstillmoreso。Allthispartofthearrangementisevidently clumsyandinexpedient:itisprobableitoriginatedinacompromisebetweenthewishoftheEmpresstosecurethepeasants someinterestinthesoil，andthedislikeofthenoblestoestablishtheindependenceoftheirserfs。Thedietonlyconfirmed theurbariumatfirstprovisionally，tillsomethingbettercouldbedevised。(19)ItappearsfromSchmalz，thatsimilarattempts onthepartofthesovereign，tosecuretothepeasants，asabody，theoccupationofanylandoncecultivatedbythem，were commonthroughoutGermany，andoriginatedintheexemptionofthelandscultivatedbythenoblesfromdirecttaxation: whenlandoncegotintothehandsofthepeasant，itwasavailabletothepublicrevenue:hencemanylawsexistedindifferent states，whichforbadeitsresumptionbytheproprietor，withoutsecuringadefiniteinterestinittoanyindividualtenant。Such lawsnecessarilycreatedcomplicatedandanomalousinterestsinthesoil，andinmanyinstancesleftinnohandsanyauthorityoverit，whichcouldbeasufficientbasisforthemostobviousimprovements。(20)Suchasystem，however，asestablishedbytheUrbarium，isstillnearlyuniversalthroughoutHungary，andthereislittle immediateprospectofachange。 SECTIONIV。 OnLaborRentsinPoland。ThePolishserfs，beforethepartition，seemtohavebeeninaconditionverysimilartothatofthoseofHungarybeforethe edictofMariaTheresa，differinglittle，ifatall，fromthatoftheRussianslave；(21)butfromthedarkfateofPoland，thesystem oflaborrentsnowpresentsitself，indifferentpartsofwhatonceformedthatkingdom，underaconsiderablevarietyof modifications。Intheportionsseizedbythepartitioningpowers，thearrangementsbetweenlandlordandtenanthavebeen influencedbytheverydifferentmeasuresadoptedbyeachintheirowndominions；whileinwhatmaynowbecalledPolandproper，whichbecameaRussianprovinceatalaterdate，asystemhasarisenwhichispeculiartoit。Whenin1791StanislausAugustus，andtheStateswerepreparingahopelessresistancetothethreatenedattackofRussia，a newconstitution，adoptedtoolate，establishedthecompletepersonalfreedomofthepeasantry。Thisboonhasneverbeen recalled。Butthisconstitutiondidnomoreforthem:itsecuredthemnointerestinthelandtheyoccupied:itdidnoteven stipulate，liketheHungarianregulations，thatadefiniteportionofthesoilshouldbeunalienablydevotedtothemaintenance oftheirclass；butitleftthemtoarrangetheircontractswiththelandownersastheycould。 Findingthattheirdependenceon theproprietorsforsubsistenceremainedundiminished，thepeasantsshewednoverygratefulsenseoftheboonbestowed uponthem:theyfearedthattheyshouldnowbedeprivedofallclaimupontheproprietorsforassistance，whencalamityor infirmityovertookthem。Thislosstheythoughtmorethanbalancedthevalueofanincrease，tothematfirstmerelynominal， intheirpoliticalrights。Itisonlysincetheyhavediscoveredthattheconnectionbetweenthemandtheownersoftheestates onwhichtheyresideislittlealteredinpractice，andthattheiroldmastersverygenerallycontinue，fromexpediencyorhumanity，theoccasionalaidtheyformerlylentthem，thattheyhavebecomereconciledtotheirnewcharacteroffreemen。Butalthoughbestoweduponapeoplesofarsunkastobeignorantofitsvalue，thegiftoffreedomhasalreadydevelopedits importanceamongthem。 SincethedateoftheemancipationofthePolishpeasantry，anotheralterationinthelawshastaken awaytheexclusiverightofthenoblestobepossessorsofthesoil，andintroducedanewclassofproprietors。Thesehave been，onthewhole，morediligentinpushingcultivationthantheirpredecessorsontheirestates，andtheirenterpriseshave alreadycreatedanincreaseddemandforlabor。Theeffectsofthishaveshewnthemselvesintheonlymannerinwhich，ina countrysooccupiedandsocultivated，theycouldshewthemselves，inincreasedwages，obtainedbyincreasedallotmentsoflandgrantedonthereserveoflesslabor，andwitheveryencouragementtothepeasantrytousetheirfreedom，andmigrate###第2章 OnLaborRentsinLivoniaandEsthonia。ThestateofthepeasantryinLivoniaisremarkable，becauseitpresentstheresultsofadeliberateexperimentonthebestmeansofgraduallyconvertingaserftenantryintoaraceoffreemen。TillthereignofAlexandertheconditionoftheLivonianpeasantrywassimilartothatoftheRussianslave。Theservile conditionofthecultivatorshadattractedsomeattentionundertheEmpressCatharine，andshehadencouragedthemenof lettersinherdominionstocommunicatetheirideasonthebestmeansofgraduallymodifyingit。M。deBoltin，M。de Kaï；sarof，andM。deStroï；novaky，successivelywroteuponthesubject。TheworkofthelastwritteninPolishwastranslated intoRussian:itenteredintoadetailedaccountofthemeasurespropertoprepareandforwardwhatwastreatedasagreat andusefulreform。Norwerethesenotionsconfinedtoliterarymen，ortoindividuals。In1805thewholebodyofproprietors inEsthoniaagreedamongthemselvesonsomepreliminaryregulationsforthepeasantryontheirestates，which，itwas avowed，weremeanttopavethewaytotheirultimateemancipation。Theseregulationsreceivedaformalsanctionfromthe Emperor。ThealterationsinLivoniabeganayearearlier，andseemtohaveoriginatedinmindsequallyalivetothe importanceofachange，andtothepracticalreasonsforitsbeingeffectedgradually。 Theirobjectappearstohavebeen，to elevatetheserfbydegrees，andwhilethatelevationwasinprogress，toretainconsiderablecontroloverhim，partlyforhis ownadvantage，partlytosecuretheinterestsoftheproprietors。Thepersonallibertyatfirstconcededtothepeasantwas muchlesscompletethanthatoftheHungarianandPole，forhewasstillattachedtotheglebe，andhadnopowerofchusing hisemploymentorresidence。Butabenefitwasbestowedmoreimportantintheoutsetthanfreedomitself，topersonsso whollydependantonthesoilforsubsistence；abenefitwhichhadbeenwithheldfromhiminHungaryandPoland:everyindividualpeasantwasinvestedwithasecureinterestintheallotmentoflandwhichhecultivated。TheedictoftheEmperorfinallylegalizingtheseregulationsappearedin1804。TheLivonianserfwasdeclaredthehereditary farmerofthelandheoccupied。Therentwasfixedinlabor，tobeperformedonthedomainoftheproprietor。Itwastoleave thepeasantmasterofatleasttwo-thirdsofhistime。Ifthislaborrentshouldatanytimebecommutedforamoneypayment， theamountofthatpaymentwaslimitedandfixed，anditwasnevertobeincreased。Aleasewastobegrantedonthese terms，irrevocable，andonlysubjecttoforfeitureincasetherentshouldbetwoyearsinarrear；andthenonlyafterthe decisionofalegaltribunal，whichwastodirecttheleasetoberenewedtothenextheirofthedefaulter。Somerightsofcuttingbothfirewoodandtimberforbuilding，intheproprietorsforests，werealsoreservedtotheserf。Hewasenabledtoacquirepropertyinmoveablesorland，andtomarryathisowndiscretion。Withalltheseprivileges，however，lieremainsattachedtothesoil。Hecannolongerbesoldawayfromit，butheissoldwith it，orratherthebenefitsarisingfromhiscompulsoryoccupationofhisallotmentaresoldwiththerestoftheestate:heissubjecttoacorrectionaldisciplineoffifteenlashes。Onthewhole，theseregulationsdocredittothegoodfeelingsandgoodsenseoftheframersofthem。Theemancipationof theserfisincomplete；butitwouldhavebeenevidentlyrashtohaveabandonedatonceallcontrolovertheindustryofso rudearace；onwhoseexertionsthesubsistenceoftheproprietorsthemselves，andthewholecultivationofthecountry，must forsometimedepend。(23)Thesuccessfulresultstobelookedforfromsuchanexperimentcouldnotbeexpectedtoappearat once；butitisunpleasanttoobservethelittleeffectapparentlyproducedinfifteenyears。 VonHalen，whotravelledthrough Livoniain1819，observes，\"AlongthehighroadthroughLivonia，arefoundatshortdistancesfilthypublichouses，calledin thecountryRhartcharuas，beforethedoorsofwhichareusuallyseenamultitudeofwretchedcartsandsledgesbelongingto thepeasants，whoaresogreatlyaddictedtobrandyandstrongliquors，thattheyspendwholehoursinthoseplaces，without payingtheleastregardtotheirhorses，whichtheyleavethusexposedtotheinclemencyoftheweather，andwhich，with themselves，belongtothegentlemenornoblemenofthecountry。Nothingprovessomuchthestateofbarbarisminwhich thesemenaresunk，asthemannerinwhichtheyreceivedthedecreeissuedaboutthistime。Thesesavages，unwillingto dependupontheirownexertionsforsupport，madealltheresistanceintheirpowertothatdecree，theexecutionofwhichwasatlengthentrustedtoanarmedforce。\"(24)TheLivonianpeasants，therefore，receivedtheirnewprivilegesyetmoreungraciouslythanthePoles，thoughaccompanied withthegiftofproperty，andsecuremeansofsubsistenceiftheychosetoexertthemselves。Subsequentlytheirdiscontent appearstohavetakenadifferentturn。Theyaresaidtohaveconstitutedapartofthepeasantry，againstwhomthatedictof theEmperorNicholaswasdirected，whichaccusestheserfsofwishingtothrowoffallrentsandservicesatonce。 SECTIONVI。OfLaborRentsinGermany。WeshallunderstandbetterthepresentstateoflaborrentsinGermany，ifwepreviouslyrecalltomindthedownward progressofsimilarsystemsinothercountries，fromwhichtheyhavedisappearedgradually；becauseweshallthensee distinctlythesuccessivestepsofthatslowdemolition，theprogressofwhichGermanynowinitsdifferentpartsexhibitsinmanyvariousstages。WemaytakeEnglandforsuchapreviousinstance。Thirteenhundredyearshaveelapsedsincethefinalestablishmentofthe Saxons。EighthundredofthesehadpassedawayandtheNormanshadbeenfortwocenturiessettledhere，andaverylarge proportionofthebodyofcultivatorswasstillpreciselyinthesituationoftheRussianserf。(25)Duringthenextthreehundred， theunlimitedlaborrentspaidbythevilleinsforthelandsallottedtothemweregraduallycommutedfordefiniteservices，still payableinkind；andtheyhadalegalrighttothehereditaryoccupationoftheircopyholds。Twohundredyearshavebarely elapsedsincethechangetothisextentbecamequiteuniversal，orsincethepersonalbondageofthevilleinsceasedtoexist amongus。Thelastclaimofvillenagerecordedinourcourtswasinthe15thofJamesI。1618。Instancesprobablyexisted sometimeafterthis。Theultimatecessationoftherighttodemandtheirstipulatedservicesinkindhasbeensincebrought about，silentlyandimperceptibly，notbypositivelaw；for，whenotherpersonalserviceswereabolishedattherestoration，thoseofcopyholderswereexceptedandreserved。(26)ThroughoutGermanysimilarchangesarenowtakingplace，ontheland；theyareperfectedperhapsnowhere，andinsome largedistrictstheyexhibitthemselvesinverybackwardstages。Ashortdescriptionoftheconditionofonestatewillmake thatofothersintelligible；allowancemustofcoursebemadeforanindefinitevarietyofmodificationsinthepracticeandphraseologyofdifferentdistricts。Thedomainlands，thosewhichinHungaryPolandandmanyGermanstatesarestillcultivatedbythenoblesthemselves，are generallyinHanoverletforamoneyrenttopersonswhooccupythedomainasafarm，andhavethebenefitoftheservices whichthepeasanttenantsareboundtoperform。Someoftheselargertenants，underthenameofAmtmen，exercisethe importantterritorialjurisdiction，stillinvestedinthenobles，andkeptaliveanddistinctevenonthedemesnalpossessionsof thecrown。(27)Theamtmenarenotusuallypracticalfarmersthemselves，butlawyersorofficersofgovernment，theonlyclasseswhichseemtopossesscapitalforsuchundertakings。Theyresidesometimesintowns，andemploystewardsorbailiffstolookaftertheirverylargefarms。(28)ThesestewardsarethebestpracticalfarmersinGermany，areusuallywell educated(oftenintheagriculturalinstitutions)；andareinferioringeneralandprofessionalknowledgetonosetofcultivatorsintheworld。ItwouldbewellforthestrengthandprosperityofGermany，ifitssoilwereuniversallyundersuchmanagement。Butbyfar thelargerproportion，ithasbeenlooselysaidfourfifths，isoccupiedbyaclassofmencalledcollectivelyBauers。These， underanothername，aretheserfs，whoinPoland，Hungary，andRussia，formthelaboringtenantryofthenobles。Whenthe lawsarerecollected，(passedasbeforeremarkedforfiscalpurposes)whichinmanyGermanstatesforbadethecultivationby theproprietorofanylandwhichhadoncebeeninthehandsofabauer，thespreadofthisorderandtheproportionofthe landoccupiedbythemwillnotappearextraordinary。InsomepartsofHanoverthesemennowpresentthemselvesintwo distinctclasses，withavarietyofsubdivisions。TheyarecalledLeibeigenersandMeyers。Theleibeigenersareinthestateof theEnglishvilleins，whenhislaborrenthadceasedtobearbitrary，butwasstillpaidinkind，afterhishereditaryclaimtohis allotmenthadbeenrecognized。Theleibeigenerpaysalaborrent，inkind，andcultivatesthelandsofthelandlord，fora certainnumberofdaysintheyear；bringshomethelord\'swood，performsotherserviceswhencalledupon，andissubjected tosomemostburthensomeandvexatiousrestrictionsastothemodeofcroppinghisland，whichmustbesoarrangedasto leaveonethirdalwaysinfallow，fortheproprietor\'sflockstorangeover。Butstilltheconditionsonwhichheholdstheland arefixed；anditdescendstohischildren。HeismuchinthepositioninwhichtheLivonianproprietorshavelatelyplacedtheirserftenants，exceptthatheisnottiedtothesoil。Themeyertenantisabauerwhoselaborrentshavebeencommutedformoneyoracornrent，andinsomecasesfora definiteportionofthecrops:thoughheisstillliabletosometriflingservices。Theproprietorcannotraisetherent，norcan herefusetorenewthelease，unlesstheheirbeanidiot，ortherentinarrear:butasthistenureinmanyinstancesismodern， therentoftenamountstonearlythefullvalueoftheland。Thistenureisgraduallydisplacingthatoftheleibeigeners，andthe tenantunderitismuchinthepositionoftheEnglishcopyholder，whenhehadceasedtoperformservicesinkind，andbefore hisquitrentshadbecomeamerenominalpayment。Themeyerpaysafineonalienation。 Insomecasesthewholeofanestateisoccupiedbymeyersandleibeigeners，andtheproprietorhasnodomainlandatall。ThebauersthroughoutGermanyarenearlyallfree:chainedbymanytiestothesoil，theyarenolongerthepropertyofits proprietors，orlegallyconfinedtothespottheycultivate。Buttheyhavegainedthisfreedom，not，asinEngland，bythe gradualwearingoutoftheirchains，butbythedetermined exertionoftheirsovereigns。Awoman，SophiaMagdalenaof Denmark，gave，in1761，oneoftheearliestexamplesofthisspirit。Between1770and1790，itwasfollowedbythe MargraveofBadenandotherminorprinces。In1781，JosephII。abolishedslaveryintheGermandominionsofAustria。Since1810ithasceasedinPrussia，andverylatelyinMecklenburg。(29)ThehigherclasseshavepartakenlargelyformanygenerationsofthegeneralcivilizationofEurope。Totheirlothingatthe degradedconditionoftheirinferiors，thelatteroweanemancipationfrompersonalthraldom，ofwhichinsomecasesthey hardlyyetfeelthefullvalue。Atthemomentinwhichtheybecamefreementheybecomeinsomeinstancessmall proprietors，subjecttoaperpetualrentcharge。TotheirforcibleinvestmentwiththischaracterinPrussia，weshallhereafter haveoccasiontoadvert。 SECTIONVII。HavingnowtracedthesystemoflaborrentsfromRussiatotheRhine，(30)wemayquitit。Fragmentsofitindeedstillsubsist tothewestwardoftheRhine；therelicsforthemostpartofastormandinundation，whichhavepassedoverandaway；but theyarethinlyscattered，andceasetogiveanypeculiarformandcomplexiontotherelationsbetweenthedifferentordersofsociety。Ofthesefragmentshowever，oneofthemostinterestingtous，subsists，underaveryprimitiveform，inacornerofourown island。InthenorthernHighlands，thechiefseemsnevertohavebeenabletointroduceeitherproduceormoneyrents， exclusively，thatis，totrusthispeoplewiththetaskofproducingsubsistenceforhimselfandhishouseholds。Eachchief thereforekeptinhishandsaconsiderabledomain；theremainderofhiscountrywasparcelledoutamongthetacksmenor inferiorgentryoftheclan，andtheseagaindivideditamongaraceoftenants，whopaida largeproportionofthestipulated rentinlabor，poultry，eggs，andarticlesofdomesticproduce，exactlysumlartothosewhichformapartoftheduesofthe Hungarianpeasant。Intheirrentrolls，servitudeisincludedasaprominentandimportantarticle。Theinterestofthe proprietorshasledthem，since1745，tosubstituteforthisraceoftenantry，extensivesheepfarmers。Thecultivationofthe oldtenantryappearstohavebeenslothful，ignorant，andinefficient，andtheirsituationextremelymiserable:butstillthese northernserfs，whosespirithadneverbeensubduedbypersonalbondage，clungfondlytotheirhomes，andhavebeenremoved，weknow，onlybyadifficultandpainfulprocess。TheagentoftheMarquisofStaffordhaspublishedanaccountofthechangesnowtakingplaceinSutherland，which containsaveryinterestingpictureofthehabits，character，andcircumstancesthissystemhadproducedthere。(31)Itslast relicsarehoweverfastwearingaway，andwhenafewleasestoexistingtacksmenhaveexpired，laborrentswillfinallydisappearfromGreatBritain。IthasbeencommontospeakoftheservicesduefromserfsthroughoutEuropeasfeudalservices，andoftherelation betweenthemandtheproprietorsaspartofthefeudalsystem。Thisisbynomeanscorrect。Thefeudaltiesoriginatedina planofmilitarydefence，madenecessarybythecircumstances，andcongenialtothehabits，ofthebarbarianswhohad quarteredthemselvesinWesternEurope。Thegranterofafeuddeliberatelydivestedhimselfoncertainspecifiedconditions， ofallrighttothepossessionofthelandwhichheabandonedtohisvassal。 Theobjectinlaborrentswasproducealone:they aroseinEuropeasintheSocietyIslands，fromamodeofcultivationwhichtherudenessofthepeoplemadenecessary，if anyrentatallwastobeexactedfromthem:andtheproprietorneverdeliberatelydivestedhimselfoftherightofresuming， athispleasure，thepossessionoftheallotmentsoccupiedbyhisserfs；thoughusageandprescriptionpermitted，inthecourse ofages，aclaimtohereditaryoccupationontheirparttoestablishitself。Thefeudalsystem，withitsschemeofmilitary service，andnicelygraduatedscaleoffealtyandlimitedobedience，nevermademuchwaytotheeastofPrussia。Butitis preciselyinthoseeasternpartsofEurope，thatlaborrentshaveprevailedthemostwidelyandthelongest。Itwouldnot indeedbedifficulttoshew，werethistheplaceforit，thatthemultiplicationofthefeudalvassalswhowerefreemenbyvirtue oftheirtenureandtheirswords，preventedlaborrentsfromeverprevailingsoexclusivelyoverthesurfaceofwestern Europe，astheyhavealwaysprevailed，anddonowprevail，overitseasterndivision。 SECTIONVIII。 SummaryofSerfRents。Wehaveobservedserfrents，inthedifferentcountriesinwhichtheystillprevail，andastheyhavebeenvariouslyaffectedby timeandcircumstances。Itwillbeconvenient，perhapstorecallinashortsummarythemostmarkedfeaturescommontothe systeminallitsmodifications，andtocollectintooneviewthegeneralprinciplessuggestedbythefactstowhichwehave referred。Thisplanweshallpursuewiththeotherdivisionsofpeasantrents，aswesuccessivelyarriveatthem。 DependenceofWagesonRents。Themostmarkedfeatureofasystemofserfrents，isonewhichithasincommonwithalltheformsofpeasantrents；and that\'is，thestrictconnexionitcreatesbetweenthewagesoflaborandrents。Theserfsconstitutethegreatbodyoflaborers ineasternEurope。Therealwagesoftheserf，thewealthheannuallyconsumes，dependonwhatheisabletoextractfrom hisallotmentofland；andthisagaindepends，partlyonitsextentandfertility，partlyonthecultureheisabletobestowupon it。Butthelaborhecanexertforhisownpurposesislimitedbythatwhichheyieldsasarenttohislandlord。Thisvariesof courseindifferentcountries，andoccasionallyfromtimetotimeinthesamecountry，sometimesdirectlyandavowedly， sometimesindirectlyandalmostinsensibly。ThusinHungary，thenumberofdayslabornominallyduefromthepeasantsfor eachsessionofland，isdoubledinpracticebythecommutationintolaborofmanyotherdues，alltrifling，andsomevery indefinite。Inmostplacestoo，theauthorityofthelandlordenableshim，atveryinadequateprices，tocommand，inaddition tothelaborformallyduetohim，asmuchofthepeasant\'stimeandexertionsashepleases。Whereclaimsuponhistimearethusmultiplied，thegroundoftheserfmustbeimperfectlytilled，andafteracertainpoint，witheachadvanceintheexactions ofthelandlord，theproduceofthepeasant\'sallotment，hisrealwages，mustbecomeless。Tounderstand，then，theconditionoftheserflaborersandthecauseswhichdeterminetheactualamountoftheirwages，a detailedaccountisnecessaryoftheircontractwiththeproprietors，andofthemannerinwhichthatcontractispractically interpretedandenforced。Thisactiveinfluenceofthenatureandamountoftherentstheypayontherevenuesandcondition ofthelabouringclass，isoneofthemostimportanteffectsoftheexistenceofasystemoflaborrents。Weshallfindhowever thesameeffect，producedinasomewhatdifferentmanner，characterizingpeasantrentsinalltheirforms。 InefficiencyofAgriculturalLabor。Thenextprominentfeatureofasystemoflabororserfrents，ispeculiartothatformoftenancy:itis，itssingulareffectindegradingtheindustrioushabitsofthelaborers，andmakingtheminefficientinstrumentsofcultivation。Thepeasantwhodependsforhisfooduponhislaborinhisownallotmentofground，andisyetliabletobecalledawayat thediscretionandconvenienceofanotherpersontoworkuponotherlands，intheproduceofwhichheisnottoshare，is naturallyareluctantlaborer。Whenlongprescriptionhasengenderedafeeling，thatheisacoproprietor，atleast，inthespot ofgroundwhichheoccupies，thenthisreluctancetobecalledfromthecareofittoperformhistaskofforcedlabor elsewhere，isheightenedbyavaguesenseofoppression，andbecomesmoredoggedandsullen。Fromsuchmenwhohave nomotiveforexertion，butthefearofthelash，strenuouslaborisnottobeexpected。Accordingly，theexceedingworthlessnessofserflaborisbeginningtobethoroughlyunderstoodinallthosepartsofEuropeinwhichitprevails。TheRussians，orratherthose GermanwriterswhohaveobservedthemannersandhabitsofRussia，statesomestrongfacts onthispoint。TwoMiddlesexmowers，theysay，willmowinadayasmuchgrassassixRussianserfs，andinspiteofthe dearnessofprovisionsinEngland，andtheircheapnessinRussia，themowingaquantityofhaywhichwouldcostanEnglish farmerhalfacopeck，willcostaRussianproprietorthreeorfourcopecks。(32)ThePrussiancounsellorofstateJacobis consideredtohaveproved，thatinRussia，whereeverythingischeap，thelaborofaserfisdoublyasexpensiveasthatofa laborerinEngland。(33)Mr。SchmalzgivesastartlingaccountoftheunproductivenessofserflaborinPrussia，fromhisown knowledgeandobservation。(34)InAustria，itisdistinctlystated，thatthelaborofaserfisequaltoonlyonethirdofthatofa freehiredlaborer。Thiscalculation，madeinanAbleworkonAgriculture(withsomeextractsfromwhichIhavebeen favored)，isappliedtothepracticalpurposeofdecidingonthenumberoflaborersnecessarytocultivateanestateofagiven magnitude。Sopalpableindeedaretheilleffectsoflaborrentsontheindustryoftheagriculturalpopulation，thatinAustria itself，whereproposalsforchangesofanykinddonotreadilymaketheirway，schemesandplansforthecommutationoflaborrentsareaspopularasinthemorestirringGermanprovincesofthenorth。Laborrentshaveanotherbadeffectonthenationalindustry:theindolenceandcarelessnessoftheserfsareapttocorrupt thefreelaborerswhomaycomeincontactwiththem。\"Theexistenceofforcedlabor，\"saysSchmalz，wholivedinthemidst ofit，\"habituatesmentoindolence；everywheretheworkdonebyforcedlaborisilldone:whereveritprevails，daylaborers andevendomesticservantsperformtheirworkill。\"(35)Astrikingexampleofthemischievousinfluenceofthehabitsformed bytheselaborrents，occurredlatelyinthenorthofGermany。Anewroadisatthistimemaking，whichistoconnect HamburghandtheElbe，withBerlin；itpassesoverthesterilesandsofwhichsomuchofthenorthofGermanyconsists，and thematerialsforitaresuppliedbythoseisolatedblocksofgranite，ofwhichthepresenceon thesurfaceofthosesands formsanotoriousgeologicalpuzzle。Theseblocks，transportedtothelineofroad，arebrokentothepropersizeby workmen，someofwhomarePrussianfreelaborers，othersleibeigenersoftheMecklenburgterritory，throughapartof whichtheroadpasses。Theyarepaidastipulatedsumforbreakingacertainquantity，andallarepaidalike。Yetthe leibeigenerscouldnotatfirstbeprevailedupontobreakmorethanonethirdofthequantitywhichformed。theordinarytask ofthePrussians。Themenweremixed，inthehopethattheexampleandthegainsofthemoreindustrious，wouldanimate thesluggish。Acontraryeffectfollowed；theleibeigenersdidnotimprove，buttheexertionsoftheotherlaborerssensibly slackened，andatthetimemyinformant(theEnglishengineerwhosuperintendedtheroad)wasspeakingtome，themenwereagainatworkinseparategangs，carefullykeptasunder。InPrussia，before1811，twothirdsofthewholepopulationconsistedofleibeigeners，orofanenslavedserftenantry，inayet morebackwardstate。(36)InotherpartsofeasternandnorthernEurope，similarclassescomposeayetlargerproportionof thepeople。Upontheirhands，eitherasprincipals，orasthemostessentialinstruments，reststhetaskofmakingthesoil productive，theonlyspeciesofindustryyetcarriedontoanygreatextent。Theinefficiencyofthislargeportionofthe productivelaborersofthecommunity，theirdisliketosteadyexertionswhenworkingforothers，theirwantofskill，means， andenergy，whenemployedontheirownallotments，musthaveadisastrousinfluenceontheannualproduceofthelandand laboroftheirterritory，andtendtokeeptheircountryinastateofcomparativepovertyandpoliticalfeebleness；whichgreat extent，andthecheapnessofhumanlaborandlifeformilitarypurposes，haveonlypartiallybalanced。 InefficientSuperintendenceofLabor。Thenextpeculiarityofasystemoflaborrentsveryconsiderablyaggravatesthebadeffectsofthatinefficiency，whichseems theinseparablecharacteristicofthe，laborofserfs。Thispeculiarityisthelaxsuperintendence，theimperfectassistanceofthe landedproprietors；whoarenecessarily，intheircharacterofcultivatorsoftheirowndomains，theonlyguidesanddirectorsoftheindustryoftheagriculturalpopulation。TheRussian，Polish，Hungarian，orGermannobles，elevated，whennotcorrupted，bytheprivilegesandhabitsoftheirorder， haveseldominclinationtobestowattentiononthedetailofthelaborsofhusbandry；andperhapsyetmoreseldomthemeans ofsavingcapitalandusingit。(37)Seedproducedfromtheestateissownbythelaborofthetenants，whoinduetimegather theharvestintothebarnsoftheproprietor。Thisprocessisrepeatedinaslovenlymanner，tillthelandisexceedingly impoverished，(38)andiscontinuedwhilethereisaprospectofthesmallestgain。Theseoperationsarecontrivedanddirectedasclumsilyandnegligentlyastheyareexecuted。Thereareexceptionsnodoubt；afewindividualproprietorsdevotethemselveswithzealtotheimprovementofagriculture。 Thismayalwaysbeexpected。WhenasimilarraceoftenantryoccupiedEngland，RobertdeRubs，thechamberlainofthe Conqueror，distinguishedhimselfbyimprovementswhichheintroduceduponhisestates，ofsufficientconsequencetoinduce thehistoriansoftheagetohanddownhisnametoposterity，asapublicbenefactor。Onlookingnowatthedifferent countriesofeasternEurope，weshallfindasprinklingofmenwhoaretheRobertdeRulos\'oftheirday；butitwouldbe hopelessandirrationaltoexpect，thataraceofnobleproprietors，fencedroundwithprivilegesanddignity，andattractedto militaryandpoliticalpursuitsbytheadvantagesandhabitsoftheirstation，shouldeverbecomeattentivecultivatorsasabody。Thereremainsforthemtheexpedientofeducatingandemployingableandscientificmanagers，andonafewofthelarge estates，belongingtorichproprietors，thisisverycarefullyandwelldone。Butthetrainingandemployingsuchaclassof men，isfirstveryexpensive，andisthennearlyuselessunlesstheycanbesuppliedfreelywithcapitalasthemeansofcarrying intoeffecttheimprovedsystemswhichtheyhavebeentaught。Thesecircumstancesconfinetonarrowlimitsthenumberof estatesconductedbysuchadescriptionofmanagers；andtakinglargedistrictsonlyintoaccount，thepaucityofmindand skill，steadilyappliedtoagriculture，andthepoorusewhichismadeofthereluctantlaborofthepeasantry，furnishanother strikingfeatureofthesystemofcultivationbyaserftenantry。 SmallnumbersofindependentClasses。Thetwocircumstancesjustpointedout，theindolenceofthelaborers，andtheinefficiencyofthedirectorsoflabor，are causeswhichmaketheagriculturalproduceofcountriescultivatedbyserfs，extremelysmallwhencomparedwiththeir extent。Itfollowsthat，evenwherethewholeoftherawproduceraisedisconsumedathome(whichfromothercausesitrarelyis)，still，afterthepeasantryhavebeenfed，thenumbersofthenon-agriculturalclassesmaintained，aresmall。WehaveseenthatinPrussiatwothirdsofthewholepopulationwerebauers:inotherpartsoftheeastofEurope，the numbersoftheclassesnotconnectedwithagricultureareyetsmaller，comparedwiththeextentoftheirterritory，orthe grossamountoftheirpopulation。InHungary，wehaveobservedthattherewerebutthirtythousandartizanswhenthere wereeightmillionsofinhabitants，andnowheredoesthenumberoftheclasswhichisunconnectedwiththesoilreachthe sizeatwhichitmaybeobservedincountriescultivatedunderbettersystems。 AuthorityofLandlordsoverTenants。Anothermarkedandimportanteffectofasystemoflaborrents，istheconstantcoercionwhichisnecessarytomakeittoany extentefficient，andthearbitraryauthoritythiscircumstancethrowsintothehandsofthelandlords，underanypossible modificationsofthetenure。WehaveseenthatatonestageoftheirprogressthroughoutEurope，theserfshavealmost universallybeenatonetimeactualslaves。Thisextremestateofthingshasindeedchanged，exceptinRussiaalone。Butthe authorityoftheproprietorsovertheserfs，exercisedthroughthemediumofjudicialtribunals，inwhichthenoblesarethe judges，hasnotceasedtobeextremelyarbitrary。Whilethesystemoflaborrentsexiststoanypracticalpurpose，thiscan hardlybeotherwise。Whilelargedomainsarecultivatedbyagriculturallabor，duefromanumeroustenantry，thenecessary workmustbedelayed，embarrassed，andfrequentlyaltogethersuspended，ifalaw-suit beforeindependenttribunalswerethe onlymodeofsettlingadisputewithareluctantorrefractorylaborer。(39)Hencethejudicialpowerhasrarely，ifever，been abandonedbytheproprietors，evenwherethepersonalfreedomoftheserfhasbeenrecognized。TheHungariannoblestill exercisescriminalandciviljurisdictionbyhisofficers。EveninGermany，wheretheauthorityofthegeneralgovernmenthas mademoreway，andwherethesystemoflaborrentsisinamoreadvancedstageofdecomposition，thewholecountrytill veryrecentlywascoveredbydomainialtribunals，whichwereatonetimedividedandmultiplied。tosuchexcess，thatthe jurisdictionofsomeofthemissaidtohavecomprehendedonlyadwelling-house，andasmuchgroundasisfoundwithinthe linemarkedbythewater-dripfromtheeaves。(40)Ontheestatesofthesovereignandoflargeproprietors，thisauthorityisusuallyadministeredbytheAmtmen，who，eitherastenantsorstewards，havechargeofthedomain。InthewestofEurope，asinFranceforinstance，theprideofthenobility，andtheconnivanceorindolenceofthe government，keptthesetribunalsinexistence，longafterthealteredrelationsofthecultivatorsandtheirlandlordshadmade themuseless:butintheeastofEuropeitwouldreallybedifficulttodispensewiththem:andwherethesovereignsarealive totheinconvenienceofthesepettytribunals(whichtheydonotseemalwaystobe)，theywillhardlyventureondepriving theproprietorsofallsummaryauthorityovertheirtenantry，whileanyconsiderableportionoftheirterritoryismade productivebytheuseoflaborrentsalone。Sonaturallydoestheusefulnessofthisjurisdictionoftheproprietorsaccompany theexistenceoflaborrents，thatIperceivebythepublicpapers，insomepartsoftheDanishdominions，whereageneral commutationoftheserentshastakenplace，theproprietorshavemadeavoluntaryoffertothecrownofabandoningtheirjudicialauthorityaltogether。Theserf，however，whoisliabletohaveclaimsuponhistimeandlaborinterpreted，andsummarilyenforced，bytheperson whomakesthoseclaims，canneverbemorethanhalfafreeman，evenwhenhehasceasedtobewhollyaslave。 ThePowerandInfluenceoftheAristocracy。Thesubjectionoftheserfstotheproprietors，underallthemodificationsoftheirtenure，throwsinevitablygreatpowerand influenceintothebandsofthelandedbody。Thelandholdersthemselvesmayenjoyverydifferentmeasuresofpolitical freedom。Wemayobservethem，whollyunawedbythecrown，exercisingthewildlicenceofthePolishnobility；or，when unitedwithotherstatesunderapowerfulsovereign，asinthecaseofHungary，stillabletomaintaintheprivilegesoftheir orderwithadegreeofindependencewhichthegovernmentfeelsitwouldbeimpolitictoprovoke，eventhoughitwere possibletooverwhelmit:orwemayseethem，asinRussia，socircumstanced，thatlegalbounds tothepowerofthe sovereignareunthoughtof。Stillinallthesedifferentcasesthepowerofthearistocracyoverthemassofthepeoplecreates amoralinfluence，whichmustbefeltbythegeneralgovernment，and，ifnotobeyed，musttosomeextentbeattendedto。 Fromthisinfluence，eventheabsolutegovernmentoftheRussianEmperorreceivesanunacknowledgedbutpowerfulcheck， sufficienttodistinguishitfromanAsiaticdespotism，toensureawholesomedominiontoformsandusages，andtoprescribe decencyandlimitseventocapriceandinjustice。Amidstthemischiefsincidenttothismodeofoccupyingthesoil，this politicaleffectmustbedistinguishedasbeing，whenreactingonastronggeneralgovernment，thesourceofbenefitstothe peoplewhichareimportantthoughimperfect。IthasformanycenturiesstavedoffunlimiteddespotismfromalargeportionofEurope。Asthegeneralgovernmentbecomesfeeble，theinfluenceofsuchanaristocracymaybeexpectedofcoursetoshewitself moreactiveanddominant；andthentherearedoubtlessinstancesofitsassumingtheformofanationalevil。 WantofPopularInfluenceinthePoliticalConstitutionofsuchCountries。Thesmallnumbersandsmallimportanceoftheclasseswhoareindependentofthesoil，theabsenceonthesoilitselfofany classlikeourfarmers，theabjectdependenceoftheserfsontheproprietors，makeanyrealinfluenceofathirdestateinthe constitutionofcountriesinwhichlaborrentsprevailutterlynugatory。Thegovernmentofsuchcountriesmustbesharedby thesovereignandthearistocracy:itmaybesharedveryunequally；theymaycontroleachotherindifferentdegrees；baton theirjointauthorityalonethepublicpowermustrest。Tracingbackthehistoryofourowncountryweobserve，thatwhilea similarsystemprevailedinEngland，theabsenceofanyefficientthirdestate，madeourgovernmentarudemixtureof monarchyandalandedaristocracy，strugglingfiercely，andeachthreateningtoextinguishtheotherinitsturn。Itisthevery samewantofathirdestate，whichmakesitsodifficulttoestablishinmanycontinentalnations，thoseimitationsoftheactual EnglishConstitution，whichwehaveseenoflatefrequentlyattempted。BeforethepeopleofeasternEuropecanhave governments，ofwhichthespringsandweightsreallyresemblethoseoftheEnglish，aspaceoftimemustelapsesufficientto introduceverydifferentingredientsintotheirsocialelements。Tillthen，wemayexpecttoseeyetmorewell-meantattempts ofsovereignsandnoblesendindisappointment。Andwhensocietyhasundergonethenecessarychange，serfrents，wemay venturetopredict，willhavebeensuperseded，andwillhaveceasedtoexist:exceptperhapsinsomeobsoleteshapesand names，fromwhich，asinthecaseofthecopyholdsofEngland，alllifeandpowerhavedeparted。 WhatdeterminestheAmountofLaborRents。Thevalueofserforlaborrents，theadvantageswhichtheproprietorderivesfromthelandsallottedtotheserfs，depend partlyuponthequantityoflaborexacted，andpartlyupontheskillusedinapplyingit。Theproprietor，therefore，may increasetherentofthelandheldbyhisserfs，eitherbyexactingmorelaborfromthem，orbyusingtheirlabormoreefficiently。Ifmorelaborisexactedfromtheserf，heisinfactthrustfartherdownwardsinthescaleofcomfortandrespectability；his exertionsbecomemorereluctant，morelanguid，andinefficient；theproprietorgainslittlebyhisincreasedservices；the communitygainsnothingbytheriseofrents；forifthelandsheldbytheproprietorsbebettertilledbytheadditionalculture bestoweduponthem，thoseheldbytheserfsmustbeworsetilledwhenlaboriswithdrawnfromthem。Thesecondmodeof increasingtherentsofthelandsheldbytheserfs，theusingthelaborofthetenantrymoreskilfullyandefficiently，isattended bynodisadvantages。Itleadstoanunquestionableaugmentationoftherevenuesofthenation。Thelandsheldbythe proprietorsproducemore，thoseheldbytheserfsdonotproduceless。Buttheunfitnessoftheproprietors，asabody，to advancethescienceofagriculture，orimprovetheconductofitsdetails，makesthismodeofincreasingtherentsderived fromtheLandswhichtheserfshold，rare。Itwouldbevisionarytocountuponitasthesourceofanygeneralimprovement intherevenuesofthelandedclass。 AchangefromLaborRentstoProduceRentsalwaysdesirable。Theillusorynatureofallattemptstoincreaselaborrentsbyexactingmoreandmorelaborfromtheserfs，andthe repugnanceoftheproprietors，asabody，tothetaskofincreasingtheirrevenuebythebetterapplicationofthelabordueto them，makeusconcludethatthesubstitutionofproduceormoneyrentsistheonlystepbywhichtheinterestsofthe landlordsofserfscanbesubstantiallyandpermanentlypromoted。Itisimpossibletocastaneyeonwhatispassinginthe eastofEuropewithoutseeinghowdeeplythisisfeltbytheproprietorsthemselves。Theirksomenessofthetaskof superintendingtheoperationsofagriculture，theuncertaintyoftheirreturns，andthe burthensomenatureoftheirconnexion withtheirtenantry，makethemeverywhereanxiousforachange。Tothesemotiveswemustaddfirst，thegradualincrease insomedistrictsoftheprescriptiverightsoftheserfstothehereditarypossessionoftheirallotments；whichmakesthem moreunmanageableandlessprofitabletenants；andthentheexampleofwesternEurope，withwhichtheproprietorsofits easterndivisionarefamiliarlyacquainted；andwhichpresentstothemaraceoflandlordsfreedfromalmostallthevexations andembarrassmentswithwhichthemanagementoftheirownestatesisencumbered。Inthedesireoftheproprietorsfora