第3章

change，thegovernmentshavejoinedheartily。Awishtoextendtheauthorityandprotectionofthegeneralgovernmentover themassofcultivators，andtoincreasetheirefficiency，andthroughthatthewealthandfinancialresourcesofthestate，has ledthedifferentsovereignsalwaystoco-operate，andoftentotakethelead，inputtinganendtothepersonaldependenceof theserf；andmodifyingthetermsofhistenure。Tothesereasonsofthesovereignsandlandlords，dictatedbyobvious self-interest，wemustaddothermotiveswhichdohonortotheircharactersandtotheage，theexistenceofwhichitwould beamereaffectationofhard-heartedwisdomtodoubt；namely，apaternaldesireonthepartofsovereignstoelevatethe condition，andincreasethecomforts，ofthemostnumerousclassofthehumanbeingscommitted totheircharge；anda philanthropicdislikeonthepartoftheproprietorstobesurroundedbyaraceofwretcheddependents，whosedegradation andmiseryreflectdiscreditonthemselves。Thesefeelingshaveproducedthefermentationonthesubjectoflaborrents， whichisatthismomentworkingthroughoutthelargedivisionofEuropeinwhichtheyprevail。Fromthecrownlandsin Russia，throughPoland，(41)Hungary，andGermany，therehavebeenwithinthelastcentury，orarenow，plansandschemes onfoot，eitheratonceorgraduallytogetridofthetenure，orgreatlytomodifyitseffects，andimproveitscharacter；andif thewishes，ortheauthority，ofthestate，oroftheproprietors，couldabolishthesystemandsubstituteabetterinitsplace，it wouldvanishfromthefaceofEurope。Theactualpovertyoftheserfs，however，andthedegradationoftheirhabitsof industry，presentaninsurmountableobstacletoanygeneralchangewhichistobecompleteandsudden。Intheirimperfect civilizationandhalfsavagecarelessness，thenecessityoriginatedwhichforcedproprietorsthemselvestoraise，theproduce onwhichtheirfamiliesweretosubsist。Thatnecessityhasnotceased；thetenantryarenotyetripeinsomeinstances，not riperthantheywere1000yearsagotobeentrustedwiththeresponsibilityofraisingandpayingproducerents。Butasthe pastprogressandactualcircumstancesofdifferentdistrictsarefoundunlike，sotheircapacityforpresentchangediffersin kindanddegree。Hencethegreatvarietyobservableinplansforalteringtherelationsbetween theserftenantryandtheir landlords。SuchavarietyisexhibitedintheUrbariumofMariaTheresa，intheedictbywhichtheviewsoftheLivonian nobilityweremadelaw；intheconstitutionofPoland，andinthedecreesofthesovereignsofsmallerdistricts。The ameliorationsproducedbythesestepsarevaluable，if，afterhavingworkedsuccessfullyforsometime，theypreparetheway fortwogreatmeasureswhicharetheaimofallpartiesinamoreadvancedstateofsociety，thatis，first，thegeneral commutationoftherevenuederivedfromtheallotmentsoftheserfsintoproducerents，andthen，theestablishmentonthe domainsheldbytheproprietorsthemselvesofaraceoftenantryabletorelievethemfromthetask ofcultivation，andtopay eitherproduceormoneyrents。Buttheseresultsaredifficultanddistant。Themannerinwhichsuchachangewaseffectedin England，isthatinwhichitismosteasyandsafe。Itwasthegrowthofcenturies；ittookplaceinsensibly:thevilleinswe knowgraduallyassumedthecharacterofcopyholderspayingfixeddues，whichagainwereslowlycommutedformoney:in themeantime，thegrowthofthefreepopulationmultipliedthenumbersofhiredlaborers，bywhoseassistancethe proprietorsmightcultivatetheirdomains，withoutserflabor；andtheincreaseandprogressiveprosperityofanintermediate classofagriculturalcapitalistssupplied，afteralonginterval，araceofmenfittedtorelievetheproprietorsfromthecharge ofagriculturealtogether，andenabledtopaytheirrentsinmoneyfromtheincreaseofinternalcommerce，andofthemarket providedbynon-agriculturalclassesfortheirproduce。Aprocesssimilartothishasbeengoingoninthewesternpartof Germany，thoughitisyetfarindeedfrombeingcompletethere。TheenslavedserfhasbecomeafreeLeibeigenerwithfixed services:theLeibeigenerischanginggraduallyintoameyer，whoseservicesarecommutedforproduceormoney；some few(42)freelaborersexist，andarehiredbytheproprietorswhofarmtheirdomains；andofthesedomainsanewraceof tenantryareinsomeinstancesbeginningtotakepossession，advancingthenecessarycapital，payingmoneyrents，anddischargingtheland-ownersfromallshareinthetaskofcultivation。Inthemeantime，itisnotsurprisingthatthesovereignsandproprietorsofcountriesfurthereast，whoseethisprocess hardlybegunamongstthemselves，andknowthatitmaytakecenturiestocompleteitself，shouldfeelimpatientofsuchdelayinthecareeroftheirimprovement，anddetermineforciblytoanticipatetheslowadvanceofunpurposedchange。ThePrussiangovernmenthastakenthemostdecisiveandextensivemeasuresinthisspirit。Throughoutagreatpartof Prussia，theserfshadacquiredprescriptiverights，eithertothehereditarypossessionoftheirallotments，ortothe occupationofthemforlife；rights，whichthoughimperfect，madeanymarkedchangedifficult。Todeclaretheserfsmere tenantsatwill，wouldhavehadtheappearanceofgreatharshness，andcouldnotprobablyhavebeen attemptedonalarge scale，withoutviolenceandconvulsion。Todeclarethemproprietorsofthesoiltheyoccupied，wasnotdoingjusticetothe fairclaimsofthelandowners。Thegovernmentsteeredamiddlecourse。In1811laborrentstotheeastoftheElbewere suppressed，anditwasdecided，thatthepeasantswhohadacquiredanhereditaryrighttotheirallotmentsshouldpaythe proprietorsathirdoftheproduce:thatthosewhohadonlyaclaimtoalifeholdpossessionshouldpayhalftheproduce:thepeasantsweretofindallcapitalandtopayallexpencesandtaxes。(43)Theserentsareheavy:halftheproduce，thetenantsprovidingcapitalandpayingallexpences，istheheaviestrentknownin Europe，。withtheexceptionofthosepaidbytheNeapolitanmetayers，whosesoilwillbearnocomparisonwiththePrussian sands，andisinfactunrivalledforproductivenessandeasytillage。Itisnotsurprisingthatsomeoftheserfsshouldhave declinedtoaccedetothearrangement，althoughitdeliveredthemfromastateofvirtual(44)bondage，andguaranteedtheirrighttopossession。Twogreatobjectsweresoughtbythisarrangement；theimprovementoftheconditionofthepeasantry，andthepromotion。 ofgoodagricultureamongtheproprietors。Itsimmediateeffectshavebeentodividethesurfaceofthecountrybetweena raceofsmallproprietorssubjecttoaheavyrentcharge，andabodyoflargelandholdersfarmingtheirowndomains。That theconditionofthepeasantswillbeatfirstimproved，supposingthemnottobeweigheddownbytherents，issufficiently clear；theirfutureprogress，however，justifiessomeapprehensions:theyareexactlyintheconditioninwhichtheanimal disposition(45)toincreasetheirnumbersischeckedbythefewestofthosebalancingmotivesanddesireswhichregulatethe increaseofsuperiorranksorofmorecivilizedpeople，andifthetoogreatsubdivision oftheirallotmentsisnotguarded againstintime，theywillprobably，inthecourseofaveryfewgenerations，bemoremiserablethantheirancestorswereas serfs，andwillcertainlybemorehopelessandhelplessintheirmisery，sincetheywillhavenolandlordtoresortto。Inthe meantimearaceoffreelaborerswilldoubtlessspringup，withwhoseassistancetheproprietorsmayinstituteabetter courseofhusbandryontheirdomains，buttheywillstillhavetoprovidecapital，attention，andscience，andinthetwofirstof theseitistobefearedthat，asabody，theywillalwaysbedeficient。Moreadvancesmustbemadebytheminmoneythan whentheycultivatedwiththeassistanceoftheirserfs，andthiscircumstancewillincreasetheirdifficultiesandmultiplythe chancesoftheirfailure。Afterall，thetaskofcultivationisungenialtothem。Theirobjectswithneverbefullyattainedtilla raceoftenantryappears，abletoadvancethenecessarycapitalandundertakeforamoneyrent。Thesearelikelytoappear slowlyinPrussia，eventhoughtheyshouldappeartheremuchlessslowlythaninsomeofthesurroundingnations。Thebody ofthepeasants，itistolerablyevidentalready，willnotgrowrichenoughtosupplythem，andtheymustspringoutofthe bosomofotherclasses。Thecomparativenumbers，andthereforejointwealthofthese，aresmall，andtheprocess，bywhichtheycanbecomethefarmersofallthedomainsofanextensivecountry，mustbeslowindeed。Inthemeantime，therewillbegreatdifferencesinthisrespectbetweendifferentpartsofGermany。Amtmen，whooccupy theland，notasagents，buttenants，arealreadycommoninsomestates:inothersalmostunknown。Thosedistrictsofcourse willprofitthemostrapidlyandlargelybythelatechanges，whichwereapproachingthemselvestotheconditioninwhich theyarenowplaced，andwereprovidedwithsomeoftheelementsofanewandbetterstateofthings。Thoseinwhichthe actualchangeswerepreparedbynospontaneousadvances，willforsometimedisappoint，itistobefeared，inagreat degree，thebenevolentimpatienceofthosestatesmen，whowishedtospeedthemforciblyinpathsofimprovement，whichtheyarenotfullgrownandstrongenoughtotreadsteadily。Leavinghoweverindividualinstances，andsurveyingthewholebroadmassoflaborrentsthroughoutthatlargerdivisionof Europeinwhichtheystillpreponderate，eitherentire，orindifferentstagesofdecomposition，itwillbesufficientlyobvious， thatsomeagesmustelapse，beforethosenewelementsofsocietyareperfected，andthatbetterstateofthingsmatured，in whichthismodeoftenureisdestinedfinallytomerge。Foralongandindefiniteperiodnowbeforeus，therefore，theancient systemofserfrents，modifiedinitsforms，butenduringinitseffects，willimprintmuchoftheircharacteronthoseimperfect institutionswhichareslowlyspringingupfromitsdecay。ThefutureprogressofeasternEurope，thesourcesofitswealth， andstrength，andalltheelementsofitssocialandpoliticalinstitutions，willcontinuetobemainlyinfluencedbytheresultsof thegradualalterationsnowtakingplaceinthoserelationsbetweentheproprietorsandcultivatorsofthesoil，whichhave hithertoformedtherudebondbywhichsocietyhasbeenheldtogether。Theprogress，however，ofthis，thelargerpartofthe mostimportantdivisionoftheglobe，mustforsomegenerationsbeaspectacleofdeepinteresttous，totheirimmediate westernneighbours，andtoallthenations，infact，whohavehithertokepttheleadinthecareerofEuropeancivilization。We seethemassesofpeople`whooccupytheeasternandnortherndivisionofourquarteroftheearth，stirringandinstinctwith anewspiritoflifeandpower，beginningtoacquirefreshintellectandalessshackledindustry，andtounfoldmoreefficiently themoralandphysicalcapabilitiesoftheirhugeterritories。TheyalreadyassumeastationinEuropesomewhatproportioned totheextentoftheirnaturalresources；andthefateofthosenationswhichhavehithertobeenthedepositariesofthecivilizationofthemodernworld，isforthefutureinseparablyconnectedwithevents，whichthecareerofthesepowerfulneighboursmustengender。Wecannotbutseehowintimatelythecourseofthatcareerisdependentonpresentandfuture changesinthesystemoflaborrents，andforthiscausesurely，iffornoother，thatsystemdeservesthecarefulattentionofall whomayapplythemselvestothetaskofexplainingthenatureoftherentofland，andexaminingitsinfluenceonthecharacterandfortunesofdifferentnations。Thoseindeed，whovaluewhatiscalledpoliticaleconomy，chieflybecauseitleadstoaninsightintothemannerinwhichthe physicalcircumstances，whichsurroundmanonearth，developeorswayhismoralcharacter，willfeelinterestedonyet highergroundsintracingtheeffectsofasystem，springingoutofthatcommonnecessity，which，foralongperiodinthe growthofnations，bindsthemajorityoftheirpopulationtotheearththeytill；asystem，whichhascontinuedforaseriesof agestostampitspeculiarimpressonthepolitical，theintellectual，andmoralfeaturesofsolargeadivisionofthehuman race。(46) 1。AppendixIII。2。SwedenandNorwaymustbeexcepted。Noinformation，writtenorverbal，whichIhavebeenabletocollect，hasmademe feelsatisfiedthatIunderstandtherealhistoryofthechangesinthetenure，orinthemodeofoccupyingthesoil，whichhave takenplaceinthosecountries。IcanonlysuspectthattheprogressofSwedenintheserespectshasresembled，insome measure，thatoftheGermannations:whilethatofNorwayhasbeendistinctandverypeculiar。Laborrents，however，undervariousmodificationshavebeen，andarenow，knowninbothcountries。3。SeeBrightsdescriptionofwhattakesplaceinHungaryevennow，althoughtheAustriangovernmenthasinterposedtoprotect，toacertainextent，therightofthepeasantry。Bright\'sHungary。p。114。AppendixIV4。GeneralBoltinwasencouragedbyCatharineIItopublish(inRussia)someresearchesontheoriginofslaveryinRussia， andassuchwashisconclusion，itrestscertainlyonnomeanauthority。BeforethetimeofBorisGodounoff，GeneralBoltin asserts，thattheonlyrealslavesinRussiawereprisonerstakenfromanenemy，andthatthepeasantswerereducedto slavery(asservis)afterthatepoch。Storch，Vol。VI。p。310。 5。SeeGamba，Voy。danslaRuss。Tom。II。p。84。6。Heber(lateBishopofCalcutta)quotedbyClarke，Travels，Vol。I。p。165。Thepeasantsbelongingtothenobles，have theirabrockregulatedbytheirmeansofgettingmoney；atanaveragethroughouttheempireofeightortenroubles。Itthen becomesnotarentforland，butadownrighttaxontheirindustry。Eachmalepeasantisobligedbylawtolaborthreedaysin eachweekforhisproprietor。Thislawtakeseffectonhisarrivingattheageoffifteen。Iftheproprietorchoosestoemploy himontheotherdayshemay；as，forexample，inamanufactory；buthethenfindshiminfoodandclothing。Mutual advantagehowevergenerallyrelaxesthislaw；andexceptingsuchasareselectedfordomesticservants，or，asabove，are employedinmanufactories，theslavepaysacertainabrockorrent，tobeallowedtoworkalltheweekonhisownaccount。Themasterisboundtofurnishhimwithahouseandacertainportionofland。7。Thisprivilegewasgivenin1801，andin1810thepeasantsofthecrownhadpurchasedlandstothevalueoftwomillions ofroublesinBankassignations。Duringthesameperiod，alltheotherclasses(notbeingnoble)hadonlypurchasedtothe amountof3……611……000roublesinthesamepapermoney。 8。Foramoredetailedaccountofthesealterations，seeStorch，Vol。VI。Notexix。p。266。 9。Storch，Vol。IV。p。299。 10。Storch，Vol。IV。P。296。 11。Bright\'sHungary，p。110。ThepopulationofHungaryamountsbythelastreturnstonearlytenmillions。12。Intheyear1777，thewholenumberofhandicraftsmen，theirservants，andapprentices，inHungary，amountedto30，921； andthisnumberdoesnotseem，bymorerecentpartialcalculations，tohavebeenmuchincreased。Bright，p。205。 13。Ibid。p。118。14。ThesizeofthesesessionsseemstohavedifferedindifferentpartsofHungary，probablyinproportiontothefertilityofthesoil。15。Besidesthishemustgive4fowls，12eggs，andapfundandahalfofbutter；andeverythirtypeasantsmustgiveonecalf yearly。Hemustalsopayaformforhishouse；mustcutandbringhomeaklafterofwood；mustspininhisfamilysixpfund ofwoolorhemp，providedbythelandlord:andamongfourpeasants，theproprietorclaimswhatiscalledalongjourney， thatis，theymusttransport20centners，each100Frenchpoundsweight，thedistanceoftwoday\'sjourneyoutandhome: andbesidesallthis，theymustpayone-tenthofalltheirproductstothechurch，andone-ninthtothelord。 16。Bright，p。115。 17。Storch，Vol。VI。p。308。Bright。 18。SeeBright。 19。Storch。Vol。VI。p。308。20。Schmalz，Econ。Polit。(Frenchtranslation，Vol。II。p。109)。Sansdoute，cesontlesproprietaireseux-mê；mes，quiont donné；lieuà；ladefensequileuraé；té；faitedereprendreleursfermesdesmainsdeleurpaysans，parcequ\'ilsontcherché；，et qu\'ilssontparvenus，Asefairedé；greverdesimpô；tsquelespaysanspaientà；l\'é；tat，etqu\'enconsé；quence，l\'é；tatainterê；tà； s\'opposerà；cequelesfermesenmé；tairiesnesoientpasreuniesaubiennobleduseigneurfoncier，etaffranchiesparlà；delaperceptiondel\'impot。21。TillthereignofCasimirtheGreat，aboutthemiddleofthe14thcentury，thePolishnoblesexercisedovertheirpeasants theuncontrouledpoweroflifeanddeath。Threedays\'labourwastheirusualrentBURNETT\'sView，ofpresentStateofPoland，p。102。22。SeeMr。Jacob\'sFirstReport，p。27。TheAppendixtothisReportcontainssomedetailedreturnsfromthemanagersof Polishestates，andtakenwithMr。Bright\'sbook，presentsaperfectpictureofthepracticalworkingofthesystemoflabor rentsinPolandandinHungary。Foragraphicsketchofthestateofmannersandmoralsithasproduced，thereadermay consultBurnett。InPoland，inAustria，andotherpartsofGermany，theproprietor\'sdomain，withhisimplements，animals， andcapitalofallsorts，aresometimesletatalowmoneyrenttoatenant，togetherwiththe rightofexactingandusingthe laborduefromtheserfs。Thesuperiortenantis，inPoland，veryoftenayoungerbranchofthefamily，occasionallya stranger。Thissubstitutionofanotherpersonascultivatorofthedomain，leaves，however，thelaborrentsoftheserfs(our presentobject)preciselywheretheywere。Itisconsideredaverydisastrousmodeofdisposingofthedomain:thestockand capitalareusually，asmightbeexpected，ruinedattheexpirationofthelease；itisnotnowpractisedextensively；thoughit appearsfromMr。Jacob\'sSecondReport，tobenowspreadingintheNorth-westofGermany。Itmay，however，possibly provehereafter，onestepping-stonetoadifferentsystem；andifthedilapidationofthestockcouldbeeffectuallyguardedagainst，itmostprobablywoulddoso。23。Foraninstanceofthebadresultsofabenevolentbutill-judgedattemptatahastyandcompleteemancipation，seeBurnett，page106。24。NarrativeofDonJuanVonHalen，&；c。Vol。II。p。88。DonJuanwasmistakenastothedateofthedecree，whichhad beenissuedsince1804bytheEmperorAlexander，forpartlyemancipatingsomeoftheLivonianserfs。 25。Eden，Vol。I。p。7。AppendixV。 26。See12thCharlesII。c。24。 27。Hodgskin，Vol。11。p。5。\"TheAmtmanfrequentlyunites，\"&；c。 28。Hodgskin，Vol。II，p。90。 29。Schmalz，Vol。I。p。104。 30。OntheverypoorsoilsintheGermanprovinceswestoftheRhine，laborrentsstill，Iamtold，prevail。31。ThosewhowishthoroughlytounderstandthespiritandeffectsoftheoldHighlandmodesofdividingandcultivatingthe soil，andtheconsequencesoftheviolentchangeeffectedsince1745，mayconsulttheworkofLordSelkirk，publishedin 1805，entitled\"ObservationsonthepresentstateoftheHighlandsofScotland，withaviewofthecausesandprobable consequencesofEmigration；\"itwillberoundable，interesting，andinstructive。 32。Schmalz，EconomiePolit。Frenchtranslation。Vol。I。p。66。 33。Schmalz，Vol。II。p。103。 34。Vol。II。p。107。 35。Schmalz，Vol。II。p。107。 36。Jacob\'sGermany，p。235。37。TheRussiangovernment，hopingtoremedythislastdefect，establishedabankfortheexpresspurposeofadvancing loanstothenoblestobeemployedinimprovingthecultivationoftheirestates。Theexperimentdidnotsucceed。Thenobles wereobservedtogrowsuddenlymoreexpensive，buttheirestatesremainedastheywere。Storch，Vol。IV。p。288。 38。Jacob\'sFirstReport。39。SeeJacob\'sGermany，p。342，foraninstanceofthemannerinwhichtherightsoftheproprietorsarefrustratedwhen theyarebychancedriventothetribunals。TheSaxoncourtsofjusticeseemtobeactuated，whentheyhaveanopportunity tointerferebetweenproprietorandtenant，bythesamebiastowardsfreedomwhichdidhonortothoseofEngland，andseemtootoapproachtheirobjectwithmuchoftheastutenesswhichsuggestedsomeofourownlegalproceedings。40。Hodgskin，Vol。II。p。6。InHanover，someoftheseminutepatrimonialcourtshavebeenabolished；buttherearestill，or were，solateas1819，nolessthan160localtribunalsontheroyaldomain，besidesallthosebelongingtoindividualproprietorsandtotowns。41。Inthework(severaltimesbeforequoted)ofMr。Burnett，ofBaliolCollege，Oxford，entitled\"AView，ofthepresent StateofPoland，\"thereaderwillfindsomecuriousdetailsofthestateofloathsomemoraldegradationtowhichthePolish peasantsarereduced。TheauthorwasforsometimeprivatetutorinaPolishfamily。 42。Theyareveryfew。43。Differentstatementshavebeenpublishedastothetermsofthisgeneralcommutation。Schmalz，however，whowas \"conseillerintime\"oftheKingofPrussia，andProfessor\"dudroitpublic\"atBerlin，mustbeconsideredunquestionable authority。Schmalz，Vol。II。p。105。 44。Personalbondagehadlegallyceasedtoexistfromthe10thNovember，1810。Schmalz，Vol。II。p。103。45。Theactualdispositionofthepopulationtoincreasewithextremerapidityshewsthattheseapprehensionsarefarfromfanciful。SeeJacob\'sSecondReport。46。Whenthesepageswerefirstwritten，IhadnotseentheSecondReportofMr。Jacob，whichhassincebeenpublishedina formsuitedtogeneralcirculation。Thatgentlemanhaslatelybeenonthespot，andhascasthisextremelyacuteandpractised eyeupontheactualconditionandprobableprogressoftheagriculturalportionofeasternEurope。Hehascometoresults remarkablysimilartothosewhichIhadventuredtosuggestfromamoredistantandgeneralknowledgeoftheir circumstances。Thestillpredominantinfluenceoflaborrentsthegeneralwantofcapital amongtheproprietors:therapid increaseinthenumbersofthepeasantcultivatorswhichhasbeentakingplacesincetheirdependenceonthelandlordshas beenlessservile:thefeeblebeneficialeffectsonagricultureandonthegeneralcompositionofsocietywhichintwentyyears havesprungfromthestrongmeasuresofthePrussiangovernment:thedifficultieswhicheverywhereopposethemselvesto allsuddenchangesintheoldsystemofcultivation:thestrongapparentprobabilitythatthefutureprogressintheeasterndivisionofEuropewillnot，withalltheeffortsthataremaking，bemuchmorerapidthanthatofthiscountrywhenemergingfromasimilarstateofthings；allthesearepointsonwhichIcannowreferwithverygreatsatisfactiontothelocal knowledgeandauthorityofMr。Jacob，insupportofthesuggestionsIhaveherethrownout。SeeSecondReportpassim，but moreespecially140andthefollowingpages。 CHAP。III。 SECT。I。 MetayerRents。TheMetayerisapeasanttenantextractinghisownwagesandsubsistencefromthesoil。Hepaysaproducerenttothe owneroftheland，fromwhichheobtainshisfood。Thelandlord，besidessupplyinghimwiththelandonwhichhelives， supplieshimalsowiththestockbywhichhislaborisassisted。Thepaymenttothelandlordmaybeconsidered，therefore，toconsistoftwodistinctportions:oneconstitutestheprofitsofhisstock，theotherhisrent。Thestockadvancedisordinarilysmall。Itconsistsofseed；ofsomerudeimplements；ofthematerialsofotherswhichthe peasantmanufactures；andofsuchmaterialsforhisotherpurposesasthelanditselfaffords；buildingtimber，stone，&；c。and occasionallyofsomedraftanimals。Ifnotassistedbytheproductivepowersofthesoil，bythemachineryoftheearth，this stockwouldeitherbewhollyinsufficientforthepermanentmaintenanceofanylaborers，or，turnedintosomeothershape，it wouldprovideforthetemporarysupportofaverysmallnumber。Whenapplied，however，toassistthepeculiarpowersof theearth，thissmallstockisfoundsufficienttoenableanumerousbodyoflaborerspermanentlytomaintainthemselves；and intheproduceoftheirindustrythelandlordshares。Theproducewhichthepossessionoflandhasthusenabledhimto acquire，andwhichwithoutthelandhecouldnothaveacquired，isthatportionoftheannualproduceofthelaborofthe countrywhichfallstohisshareasaland-holder。Itisrent。Therestisprofits。Inthemoreadvancedstagesofcivilization，it iseasytodecideineachparticularcase，whatproportionofthelandlord\'srevenuefromametayerfarmisrent，andwhatproportionprofits。Intheruderstages，itismoredifficult；butweshallhaveoccasiontoadverttothishereafter。Theexistenceofsucharaceoftenantryindicatessomeimprovementinthebodyofthepeople，comparedwiththestateof thingsinwhichserfrentsoriginate。Theyareentrustedwiththetaskofprovidingthefoodandannualrevenueoftheproprietor，withouthissuperintending，orinterferingwith，theirexertions。Themetayer，then，mustbesomewhatsuperiorinskillandcharactertotheserfs，whoseindustrycanbesafelydependedon bytheproprietor，onlywhileexercisedunderhisdirectcontrol，andwhoserentsarethereforepaid，notinproduce，butin labor。Butstilltheadvanceofstockbytheproprietor，andtheabandonmentofthemanagementofcultivationtotheactual laborers，indicatethecontinuedabsenceofanintermediateclassofcapitalists；ofmenabletoadvancefromtheirown accumulationsthefoodofthelaborerandthestockbywhichheisassisted；andthustotakeuponthemselvesthedirection ofagriculture。Themetayersystemindicates，therefore，astateofsociety，advanced，whencomparedwiththatinwhichserfrentsprevail；backward，whencomparedwiththatinwhichrentspaidbycapitalistsmaketheirappearance。Itisfoundspringingupinvariouspartsoftheworld，engraftedoccasionallyontheserfrentswehavebeenreviewing，and moreoftenonthesystemofryotrentswehaveyettoexamine。ButitisinthewesterndivisionofcontinentalEurope，in Italy，Savoy，Piedmont，theValteline，France，andSpain，thatthepuremetayertenantryarethemostcommon，anditisthere thattheyinfluencemostdecidedlythesystemsofcultivationandthoseimportantrelationsbetweenthedifferentordersof society，whichoriginateintheappropriationofthesoil。Intothosecountries，onceprovincesoftheRomanEmpire，they wereintroducedbytheRomans，and，todiscovertheirorigininEurope，wemustturnbackoureyesforaninstantonthe classicalnationsofantiquity。 SECTIONII。 OfMetayerRentsinGreece。Greece，whenitfirstpresentsmaterialsforauthentichistory，was，forthemostpart，dividedintosmallpropertiescultivated bythelaboroftheproprietors，assistedbythatofslaves。Butbeforeweobservehowthisstateofthingsledthewaytothe establishmentofmetayerrents，itshouldberemarked，thatrelicsofasystemwhicheveninthosedaysborethemarksofantiquity，andwasbecomingobsolete，werestilltobeseeninmanydistrictsofGreece。Irruptionsfromothercountries，astothedetailsofwhichthelearneddisputeinvain，had，previoustotheaeraofhistorical certainty，filledseveralprovincesofGreecewithforeignmasters。Thesepeople，insomeinstancesatleast，foundtheoriginal inhabitantsacquaintedwithagriculture，thetoilsofwhichtheyhadnoinclination，perhapsnotsufficientskill，toshare。They convertedthereforethehusbandmenintoapeculiarspeciesoftenantry，differingfromtheserftenantryofmodemEuropein this，thatthoughattachedtothesoil，andasortofpredialbondsmen，theypaid，not labor，butproducerents，andbelonged， insomeremarkableinstances，nottoindividuals，buttothestate。ThesetenantswerecalledinCretePeriaeci，Mnotae， Aphamiotae；inLaconiaPeriaeciandHelots；inAtticaThetesandPelatae；inThessalyPenestae，andinotherdistrictsbyothernames。(1)Theproducerents，whichthistenantrywereboundinCretetopaytothegovernment，enabledthelegislatorsofthatisland toestablishpublictablesinthedifferentdistricts，atwhichthefreemenandtheirfamilieswerefed。(2)Thisinstitution LycurgusestablishedorrenewedatLacedaemon，wherethetablesweresuppliedbytheproduceoftheindustryofthe Helots；andwhereverSyssitiaeorcommontablescanbetraced，itisatleastprobable，thattheyweresuppliedbyasimilarraceoftenants。InAttica，theexistenceoftheThetesorPelatae(asthistenantryweretherecalled)exercisednosuchinfluenceonthe generalhabitsofthecitizensasitdidinCrete，inSparta，andinotherDorianstates；andwhentheywererestoredbySolontopersonalfreedom，thoughnottothepoliticalrightsofcitizens，thealterationledtonostrikingresults。(3)ItrequiresindeedsomelittleattentiontodiscerntheirpastexistenceamongtheAthenians；andthedetailsoftheircondition arenowperhapsoutofthereachofresearch。wasthenameappliedindifferently，itshouldseem，bothtotheshare paidasrentandthatretainedbytheThetes。Therentusuallyconsistedofasixthoftheproduce，hencetheirnameof？sometimesitwasafourth，andthenthePelataeweresaid。ThePenestaeofThessalywerea bodyofsimilartenantry。Withtheexceptionofthedistrictsoccupiedbythispeculiarspeciesoftenantry，(4)andofthelands belongingtotownswhichseemoftentohaveletfortermsofyearsatmoneyrents，thelandsofGreecewereverygenerallyinthepossessionoffreemen，cultivatingsmallpropertieswiththeassistanceofslaves。Slaveswereverynumerous。MendistributedliketheGreeksintosmalltribesofrudefreemen，surroundedbysimilartribes， probablyexhibitthepugnaciousqualitiesofhumannatureinthehighestdegreeknown。Ithasoftenbeenobservedwith truth，thatinsuchastateofsocietytheappearanceofdomesticslaveryindicatesaconsiderablesofteningofthemanners。 Whenwarriornationshavefoundoutthemeansofmakingthelaborofcaptivescontribute totheirownease，theypreserve them。Beforetheyhavemadesuchadiscoverytheyputthemtodeath。AmongtheNorthAmericanIndians，thelaborofno manwilldomorethanmaintainhimself；noprofitistobemadeofaslave；hence，unlessthecaptiveisselectedtotakeupon himselfinthecharacterofasonorhusbandthetaskofprotectingandprovidingfoodforafamilydeprivedofitschief，heis invariablyslaughtered。SometribesofTartarsonthebordersofPersiamassacreallthetruebelieverswhofallintotheir hands，butpreserveallhereticsandinfidels；becausetheirreligionforbidsthemtomakeslavesoftruebelievers，andallowsthemtouseorsellallothersattheirpleasure。TheGreeksusedtheslaves，withwhichtheirfrequentwarssuppliedthem，inallkindsofmeniaandlaboriousoccupations， andanotionthatsuchoccupationscouldnotbefilledwithoutslaves，becamesofamiliar，thateventheiracutest philosophersseemnevertohavedoubteditsaccuracyorjustice。Acommonwealth，saysAristotle，consistsoffamilies，anda familytobecompletemustconsistoffreemenandslaves，(5)andinfixingontheformofgovernment，whichaccordingtohim wouldbemostperfect，andconducethemosttothehappinessofmankind，herequiresthathisterritoryshouldbecultivated byslavesofdifferentracesanddestituteofspirit，thatsotheymaybeusefulforlabor，andthattheabsenceofany dispositiontorevoltmaybesecurelyreliedon。(6)TheconditionofAfricaisnowinthisparticular，muchlikethatofGreece then。OneofthelatetravellerswasexplainingtoanAfricanchiefthattherearenoslavesinEngland。\"Noslaves，\"exclaimedtheirauditor，\"thenwhatdoyoudoforservants？\"InGreecethelaborofcultivationwasatfirstsharedbetweenthemasterandslave。Thismustalwaysbewhilepropertiesare small；andaccordinglyitwassoinLatium。Cincinnatuswouldhavestarvedonhisfouracres，hadhetrustedtotheproduce slavescouldextractfromit，andneglectedtolayhisownhandsontheplough。ButascivilizationwentforwardinGreece， propertiesbecameenlarged。Theproprietorsclungtocities；wherepopulargovernmentsofferedtotheactivedutiesto perform，andobjectsofambitiontoaspireto，andtotheindolentandvoluptuouseveryspeciesofpleasure，mademore seducingbyalltheembellishmentsthatcouldbecreatedbyatasteandfancy，whichseemtohavebelongedtothosetimes andtothatpeoplealone。BysuchoccupationsandamusementsmanyoftheleadingGreciansweresoengrossed，thatthey refusedtogiveupeventhetimeandattentionnecessarytocommandtheirhouseholdslaves。(7)Thosewhostillattendedto themanagementoftheirfarmsmusthavefoundthetaskdifficultandhazardous。Xenophonhas leftanaccuratepictureof themodeinwhichtheGrecian，gentlemenofhisdayconductedthecultivationof，theirestates。Inoneofthedialoguesof theMemorabilia，Socratesrelatesaconversationhehadhad，withIschomachus，whowasbytheconfessionofall，menand women，foreignersandcitizens，，anaccomplishedandgoodman。Ischomachusdetailsthoseparticulars ofhisdomesticeconomywhichhadprincipallyearnedforhimthisgeneralpraise，andexplainsatlargehismanagementof hishousehold，hiswife，andfinallyhisestate。Itappearsintheprogressofthedialogue，thattheestateofIschomachuswas withinashortdistanceofAthens，thatherodetoitveryfrequently，paiditmuchpersonalattention，andsuperintendedallits arrangementswithgreatcare。Whilecultivationwascarriedonunderthesuperintendanceofsuchmen；whileproprietors freedfromallnecessityofpersonallabor，liberal，learned，andwealthy，sedulouslyappliedthepowersoftheirmindsto agriculture，theartmaderapidprogress，andasuccessionofwritersonthesubjectappearedinvariouspartsofGreece， whoseworksevidencedboththequantityofintellectappliedtotheunfoldingtheresourcesofthesoil，andtheactualprogressofcultivation。Butcauseswhichdestroyedthissystemofmanagingthelandweresilentlyatwork。EvenIsehomachuswasobligedtorely muchonhisoroverseers；slaveswhowereverycarefullytrainedasbailiffs，liketheRomanvillici。Allestates， however，couldnotbelikehiswithinarideofthecapital；themoredistantwerenecessarilyconfidedalmostwhollytothese managingslaves；andtheirmanagement，unlesstheydifferedutterlyfromallotherslavessimilarlytrusted，musthavebeen verygenerallycarelessandbad。AsGreecetoobecameconsolidated，firstbytheMacedonian，thentheRomaninfluence，the possessionsofindividualproprietorsnaturallyextendedthemselvesoveralargerspace，andprofitablemanagementbyslave agentsmusthavebecomemoreandmoreimpracticable。Atlastatenantwasintroducedwho，receivingfromthelandowner hislandandstock，becameresponsibletohimforacertainproportion，usuallyhalf，oftheproduce:andtheproprietorsgave upfinallyallinterferencewiththetaskofcultivation。Thesenewtenantswerecalledmortitae，andtheyarecalledsostillinGreece。Theprecisedateatwhichtheybegantosupersedethecultivationbyproprietorsisnotknown。Itissupposedbysomethat thishappenedaftertheirconnectionwithRome，andthat？whichisnotawordofancientorclassicalGreek，wasa translationoftheLatinphrasecolonuspartiarius。Butwecanseesodistinctlythesameinternalcauseswhichledtothe creationoftheRomantenantryactinginGreece，thatitisprobablethemnortitaeappearedthereassoon，ifnotsooner，than thecolonipartiariiamongtheRomans，andthattheword？wassuggestedby？whichwehaveseenwasthe nameoftheproducerentpaidbytheancientThetesofAttica。Howeverthismightbe，bysuchatenantrythesurfaceof Greecewasgraduallyoccupied；theysurvivedtheMahometanconquest，andthelandsoftheTurkishAgaswerevery generallycultivated，beforethepresentdisturbances，byGrecianmortitaeormetayers。(8) SECTIONIII。 OnMetayersamongtheRomans。ThecauseswhichintroducedmetayersintoItalywerepreciselysimilartothosewhichultimatelyestablishedtheminGreece。 TheRomansbeganbysharingwiththeirslavesthetoilsofcultivation。As:thesizeofestatesenlarged，theirownersbecame thesuperintendantsofthelabortheybeforeassisted。InthisstagetheartofagriculturewasdeeplystudiedinRome，asithad beeninasimilarstageinGreece，byaclassofmenwellqualifiedtocarryitfartowardsperfection。TheworksoffiftyGreek writersonagriculturewereknowntotheRomans，(9)andthoseofseveralCarthaginians。Oftheselast，one，Mago，was markedbythehonorabledistinctionofhavinghisworkstranslatedintoLatininobediencetoaformaldecreeofthe Senate。(10)RomanworksonagriculturewerelessnumerousthantheGreek，buttheyweretheproductionsofeminentmen， beginningwithCatothecensor(quieamlatinè；loquiprimusinstituit，Col。)andincludingVarroandVirgil。Thegreatpoet wasfarfrombeingthelastamongthecultivatorsofhisday，andhaseven，inafewremarkablelines，recommendedthat alternatehusbandry，andsubstitutionofpulseandgreencropsforfallows，whichisthemainbasisofthemostimportant improvementsofourowntimes。 Alternisidemtonsascessarenovales，Etsegnempatieresitudurescerecampum； Autibiflavaseres，mutatosidere，farra，Undepriusbetumsiliquâ；quassantelegumenAuttenuisfetusviciae，tristisquelupiniSustulerisfragilescalamossilvamquesonantem。 Geor。Lib。I。1。71。Astheempirebecamelarger，thesizeofestatesincreased；andwhentheywerescatteredoverprovinceswhichreached fromBritainandSpain，toAsiaMinorandSyria，thesuperintendanceofthehnsbandrycarriedonuponthembecame burthensomeandinefficient，(11)andeventhetaskoftrainingproperlythevilliciormanagerswasabandoned，andthelands givenupinsomemeasuretothediscretionofaninferiorclassofslaves。Theimmediateconsequencewassuchadeficiency intheproduce，thatsomestrangeandunknowncausewassupposedtobeenfeeblingthefecundityoftheearthitself。 AmongeventhemoreeminentRomans，whilesometalkedofalongcontinuedunwholesomenessintheseasons，others wereinclinedtoasuperstitiousbelief，。thattheworldwaswaxingold，anditspowers decayingthattheexuberantcrops reapedbytheirforefathersbadbeentheproduceofitsyouthfulstrength；andthatthesterilitywhichthenafflicteditwasa symptomofitsdecrepitude。(12)Columellasawmoredistinctlytherealcauseofthefallingoff；hedescribesinapassage whichhasbeenoftenquoted，themalpracticesoftheslavesonthosedistantfarms，whichitwasnoteasyfortheproprietor oftentovisit；andthoughhimselfanindignantadvocateforthemoregeneralpracticeofagriculture，asthemostliberaland usefulofarts，heconcludesbyrecommendingthatallsuchestatesshouldbelet。\"Itafitutetactoretfamiliapeccent，etagersaepiusinfametur:quaretalisgenerispraedium，si，utdixi，dominipraesentiâ；cariturumest，censeolocandum。\"(13)AraceoftenantsthengraduallyacquiredpossessionofthesurfaceofItalyandtheprovinces。Theywereofvariousclasses， butthecolonipartiariiormedietarii，metayers，seemalwaystohavebeenfavorites，andthetermsonwhichtheycultivated tohaveappearedthemostjustandexpedient。Pliny，havingtried，itseems，someotherformofcontractwithhistenantry， andfindingitanswerill，announcesinoneofhislettershisdeterminationtoadoptthemetayersystemasthebestremedy。 \"Theonlyremedy，\"hesays，\"Icanthinkofis，nottoreservemyrentinmoneybut inkind(partibus)，andtoplacesomeof myservantstooverlookthetillage，andtotakecareofmyshareoftheproduce，asindeedthereisnosortofrevenuemorejustthanthat，whichisregulatedbythesoil，theclimate，andtheseasons。\"(14)Thesystemthuspraised，ultimatelyprevailedthroughouttheprovincesoftheempire；andinthewesternpartofEurope， wasneverwhollyextirpatedbytheconvulsionswhichaccompanieditsdownfall。Inmanyinstancesindeedthefirstviolence ofthebarbariansputtoflightallregularindustry，andintothewildernesswhichtheycreatedtheywereobligedtointroduce laborrentsandaraceofserfs。Thefeudalsystemtoo，andthenumerousbodyofarriè；revassalsitgavebirthto，changedthe occupationofmuchofthecountry。Butstill，thickasthedarknesswas，whichcoveredforatimetheremainsofRoman civilization，itseffectswereneverwhollylost。Thelanguage，thecustoms，thelawsoftheprovincialsstillsurvived，and sting。lingatlastintoinfluencetheycommunicatedmuchoftheircharactertothatmixedracewhichhasariseninwestern Europe:indifferentdegreesindifferentcountries，butenoughinalltheprincipalkingdomstodistinguishtheirinhabitantsbroadlyfromthemoreprimitiveracetotheeastwardoftheRhine。Theclassofmetayerswasprobablyneveranywherewhollydestroyed，andastimesoftenedthecharacteroftheconquerors， andintroducedsomedegreeofconfidenceandsecurityintotheirrelationswiththesubjectcultivators，industrybeganto returntoitsoldemployments。Itwasalwaysanobjectgainedbythelandlord，ifhecouldsubstituteaproducerent，anda tenantwhomhecouldtrustwiththewholetaskofcultivation，forarudeserfliketheGermanorSlavonicboor，whoselabor hecouldrelyon，onlywhilehehimselfenforcedandsuperintendedit。Metayersthereforespreadthemselves:thedomain landsoftheproprietorsfellgenerallyintotheirhands，andtheyre-acquiredthatgeneral，thoughnotcomplete，possessionof theagricultureofwesternEurope，whichweseetheminagreatmeasurestillretaining。 SECTIONIV。 OnMetayerRentsinFrance。TheprovinceofGaulwasviolentlyaffectedinallitssocialrelations，bythevariousirruptionsandfinalpredominanceofthe barbarians。Thegradualestablishmentoffeudaltenures，andtheintroductionofserfsandlaborrents，weretwoofthemost importanteffectsofthechangeofmasters。Thenumberandspeciesoffeudaltenures，weremultipliedtoastrangeextentin Francebythepracticeofsubinfeudation；whichhadbeencheckedinEngland，butprevailedwidelyonthecontinent。The seignoralrights，andtherentsandservicestowhichtheygaverise，wererangedbytheFrenchlawyersunder300heads，thesubdivisionsofwhichtheystatetobeinfinite。(15)Someofthesemultipliedrightsnodoubtwereengraftedonthemoresimplerelationoftheserfstotheirlandlords；forasthe feudalsystembecamefamiliartothepeople，thenotionsandphraseologytowhichitgavebirth，extendedthemselvestoa multitudeofrelationsandobjects，quiteforeigntotheoriginalaimofthesystemitself。Thusonthecontinentannuitiesin moneyorcornweregrantedasfeuds，andoccasionallyeventheuseofsumsofmoney，(16)andinEnglandthecopyholder， whomwecandistinctlytracetothevilleinorslave，wasadmittedtoswearfealtyanddohomagetohislordmuchinthe mannerofthemilitarytenants；apracticewhichstillcontinues。Thusalso，thoseadmittedtodegreesatourUniversitiesdo feudalhomagetotheVice-Chancellor。Byasimilarabuseoffeudalforms，someoftheserfsinFrancenodoubtrankedatlastamongstthemanorialtenantryoftheSeigneur，andtheirrelationwasconsideredtobeafeudalone。Butbesidestheserfsthusgraduallyassimilatedtovassals，therewereotherserfswhosestateofslaverywasasdistinctand undisguisedasthatoftheRussiancultivatorsisnow:theyexistedforsometimeinconsiderablenumbers，andcontinuedto existinseveralprovincesuptotheeraoftherevolution。Wewillsaysomethingofthesebeforeweproceedtothemetayers。 Theywerefoundontheestatesofthecrown，oflayindividuals，andofecclesiastics，underthenameofmainmortables， whichwasusedindifferentlywiththatofserf，andappearstohavebeenconsideredsynonymouswithit。Theywereattached tothesoil，andiftheyescapedfromit，wererestoredbytheinterferenceofthetribunalstotheirowners，towhomtheir personsandthoseoftheirposteritybelonged。Theywereincapableoftransmittingproperty:iftheyacquiredany，their ownersmightseizeitattheirdeath:theexerciseofthisrightwasinfullvigor，andsomestartlinginstancesledLouisXVI。 tomakeafeebleattemptatapartialemancipation。Proprietors，exercisingtheirdroitdesuiteasitwascalled，hadforcedthe reluctanttribunalsofthekingtodeliverintotheirhandsthepropertyofdeceasedcitizenswhohadbeenlongsettledas respectableinhabitantsindifferenttownsofFrance，someeveninParisitself；butwhowereprovedtohavebeenoriginally