第4章

serfsontheestatesoftheclaimants。Thecontrastbetweentheconditionofthesepoorpeopleandthatoftherestofthe population，becamethentoostrongtobeendured；butthoughthenaturallykindfeelingsofLouisappeartohavebeen rousedupontheoccasion，heventurednofarther，thantogivelibertytotheserfsormainmortablesonhisowndomains，and toabolishindirectlythedroitdesuite，byforbiddinghistribunalstoseizethepersonorpropertyofserfs，whohadonce becomedomiciledinfreedistricts。Intheedictpublishedbytheunfortunatemonarchonthissubject，hedeclaresthatthis stateofslaveryexistsinseveralofhisprovinces，andincludesagreatnumberofhissubjects，andlamentingthatheisnot richenoughtoransomthemall，hestatesthathisrespectfortherightsofpropertywillnotallowhimtointerferebetween themandtheirowners，butheexpressesahopethathisexampleandtheloveofhumanitysopeculiartotheFrenchpeople，wouldleadunderhisreigntotheentireemancipationofallhissubjects。(17)Toreturnhowevertoourimmediateobject，themetayertenantry。Inspiteofthecultivationbyvassalsandserfs，andthatat onetimedoubtlesstoaveryconsiderableextent，themetayershadintheirpossessionbeforetherevolutionfour-seventhsof thesurfaceofFrance。(18)Anotherone-sixthorone-seventhwasinthepossessionofcapitalistsfindingtheirownstockandpayingmoney-rents。(19)Theremainderwasheldbytheproprietors，orbyserforfeudaltenantry。ThetermsonwhichtheFrenchmetayersheldtheirfarms，differedmuchfromagetoage:thesevariationsdonot immediatelystriketheeyeofanobserver，becausethenominalrent，andnominalshareofthetenant，havechangedbutlittle， andthemetayerstillverygenerallytakesthatportionoftheproduce，viz，thehalf，fromwhichhisoriginalnameof medietariuswasderived。Butwhilethemetayertenantpaysnominallythesamerent，hisownshareoftheproducemaybe diminishedintwomodes:byhisbeingsubjectedtoagreaterquantityofthepublicburthens:orbythesizeofhismetairie beingreduced。Bythissecondmodeofreduction，IamnotawarethattheFrenchmetayersufferedmuch:fiftyacreswasnotanunusualsizeforametairie；inpoordistrictstheycomprisedamuchlargerquantityofland。(20)Bythefirstmodeofreducinghisshareoftheproduce，thatis，bytheincreaseofthepublicburthenswhichhehadtobear， themetayersufferedtoanextent，fatalbothtohisowncomfortsandtotheprosperityofagriculture；acircumstance，which hadagreatshareinconvertingthepeasantryintothoserecklessinstrumentsofmischief，whichtheyprovedinmanyinstancestobe，duringtherevolution。TheTaillewasanimpositionwhichtheFrenchantiquariesthinktheycantracetotheageoftheEmperorAugustus；(21)we knowthatitwasleviedbythebaronsontheirvassalsduringtheagesoffeudalanarchy；bythesovereignassovereign，that isbeyondthelimitsofhisowndomains，asearlyas1325:thatitbecameunderCharlesVII。，in1444，anannualtax，and continuedafterwardstobethemainbranchoftherevenueofthekingdom。(22)Itwasmeanttobeleviedaccordingtothe meansofthecontributor，andwasextremelydefectivebothinitsprincipleandmodeofimposition；buteventhesedefects wouldnot，perhaps，havemadeitintolerable，haditnotbeenforitsgraduallyincreasingamount，whichatlastalmost absorbedthedailybreadofthepeasant。Itwouldhavebeenwellforthesepoorpeoplehadthatprovedtrueintheircase， whichhaslatelybeenpromulgatedwithgreatconfidenceasanuniversaltruth，namely，that whenoncecertainhabitsoflife areestablishedamongapopulation，adiminutionoftheirmeansofsubsistenceisfollowedinvariablybyaslackenedrateof theincreaseoftheirnumbers，andaconsequentriseofwages，whichrestoresthemtotheirformerposition。Theirswasa differentlot。AsthecommandoftheFrenchpeasantsoverthemeansofexistencebecameless，theirhabitsaltered，buttheir numbersdidnotdecrease；someonewasalwaysfoundreadytooccupyametairie，\"parceque，(saysM。DestuttdeTracy，indescribingtheirmisery)ilyatoujoursdesmalheureuxquinesaventquedevenir。\"Themodeinwhichthetaillegraduallyproducedthedegradationofthepeasantry，isfeelingly，and，nodoubt，accuratelydescribedbyTurgot，(23)inhiscorrespondencewiththeministers，whileintendantoftheLimosin。Afterremarking，thatwhilethecultivatorreallyreceivedhalfhisproduce，hehadthemeansofbecominggraduallyasmall capitalist，andultimatelyofprovidingthestockandpayingamoney-rent，heobserves，thatifthetaxhadfromitsoriginbeen laidonthelandholders，thisnaturalprogressofeventswouldnothavebeenderanged，andwouldhaveprocuredtothe ownertheenjoymentofhisrevenue，withoutanycareonhispart:butthatthetaillewasatfirstaspeciesofpoll-tax，and verylight，fromwhichthenobleswereexempt:thatasthetaxincreased，itbecamenecessarytolevyitinproportiontothe meansofthecultivators，whichwerecalculatedaccordingtotheextentoftheiroccupations，amethodbywhichthe privilegeofthenobleswaseluded:thatwhiletheimpositionwasmoderate，themetayerpaiditbyretrenchinghiscomforts； butthatthetaxincreasingconstantly，theportionofthecultivatorwassomuchdiminished，thatatlasthewasreducedto themostprofoundmisery。Thesereflexions，hesays，explainhowitcametobepossible，thatthe cultivatorsshouldbe plungedintotheexcessofmiseryinwhichtheythenexistedintheLimosinandAngoumois，andperhapsinotherprovinces of\"petiteculture。\"Thatmiseryhedeclaresissuch，thatonthegreaterpartofthedomains，thecultivatorshadnot，after payingtheirtaxes，morethanfrom25to30livrestospendannuallyforeachperson，(notinmoney，butreckoningthevalue ofallthattheyconsumedinkind)；oftentheyhadless，andwhentheycouldsubsistnolonger，theproprietorwasobligedto contributetotheirmaintenance。Someproprietors，headds，hadbeenatlastforcedtoperceive，thattheirpretended exemptionhadbeenmuchmoremischievousthanusefultothem；andthatanimpositionwhichhadentirelyruinedtheir cultivators，hadfallenbackwhollyonthemselves。Buttheillusionsofselfinterestillunderstood，supportedbyvanity，had longmaintainedtheirground，andwereonlydissipatedwhenthingswerecarriedtosuchan excess，thattheproprietors wouldhavefoundnoonetocultivatetheirlands，iftheyhadnotconsentedtocontributewiththeirmetayerstothepayment ofapartoftheimposition。ThatcustomhadbeguntointroduceitselfintosomepartsoftheLimosin，buthadnotextended itselfmuch:theproprietoryieldedtosuchanarrangementonly，whenhecouldfindnometayerwithoutit；andeveninthatcasethemetayerwasalwaysreducedtowhatwasstrictlynecessary(24)topreventhisdyingfromhunger。Thetaxevidentlydidnotbegintomovefromtheshouldersofthelaborertothoseoftheemployer，tillthefirsthadbeen graduallyreducedtotheminimumofsubsistence，andthenonlymovedtosuchanextentaswasnecessarytopreservetohimthatminimum。Therevolutionconvertedmanyofthesemetayersintosmallproprietors，buttheystillaboundinFrance；andtheircondition seemstohavealteredforthebetter，lessthanmighthavebeenexpectedfromthechangeswhichhavetakenplaceinthe systemoftaxation。Mr。DestuttdeTracy，amemberoftheInstitute，andpeerofFranceundertheEmperor，whostates himselftohavebeenfor40yearsproprietorofadomainfarmedbymetayers，givesawretchedaccountoftheircondition， andstatesthatheisacquaintedwithmetairies，whichhavenever，inthememoryofman，suppliedthefoodofthemetayers fromtheirownhalfoftheproduce。AshisdescriptionisthemostauthenticaccountofthistenancyasitexistsatpresentinFrance，Isubjoinit。(25)\"Ilsformentcequel\'onappellecommuné；mentdesdomainesondesmetairics，etilsyattachentfrequemmentautantetplus deterresqu\'iln\'yenadanslesgrandesfermes，surtoutsil\'onnededaignepasdemettreenlignedecomptelesterresvagues， quiordinairementnesontpasraresdanscespays，etquinesontpastout-à；-faitsansutilité；，puisqu\'ons\'ensertpourle pacage，onmemepouryfairedetempsentempsquelquesemblavuresafindelaisserreposerleschampsplushabituellement cultivé；s。 ***Leproprié；taireestdoncreduitalesgarnirlui-mê；medebestiaux，d\'utensiles，etdetoutcequiestnecessaireal\'exploitation， etyé；tablirunefamilledepaysans，quin\'ontqueleurbras，etaveclesquelsilconvientordinairement，aulieudeleurdonner desgages，deleurabandonnerlamoitié；duproduit，pourlesalairedeleurspeines。C\'estdelà；qu\'ilssontappelè；smetayera， travailleursmoitié；。Silaterreesttropmauvaise，cettemoitié；desproduitseatmanifestementinauffisantepourfairevivre， mê；memiserablement，lenombred\'hommesnecessairepourIatravailler；ilss\'endettentbientô；t，etoneatobligedelea renvoyer。Cependantonentrouvetoujourspourlearemplacer，parcequ\'ilyatoujoursdesmalheureuxquinesaventque devenir。Ceux-là；mê；mevontailleurs，oû；ilsontsouventlemê；mesort。Jeconnaisdecesmé；tairies，quidememoired\'hommen\'ontjamaisnourrileurslaboreursaumoyendeleurmoitié；defruits。\"ItappearsbyanarticleintheForeignQuarterly，publishedwhilethesepageswereinthepress，thatinspiteofthe multiplicationofsmallproprietorssincetherevolution，metayersaresupposedstilltocultivateone-halfofFrance。Their actualconditionislittleimproved，itappears，bythechangewhichhastakenplaceinthesystemoftaxation，andtheir sufferingsareaggravatedbythespreadofaclassofmiddle-men(alwaysexistingtosomeextent)whowithoutchangingthe termsonwhichtheactualcultivatorholdsthesoil，paysamoney-renttotheproprietor，andgrindsandoppressesthetenant tomakehisbargainprofitable。TheconditionoftheFrenchmetayershasbeentreatedofwithsomefulness。Thiswillenable ustoreviewmorerapidlythesameclassoftenantryexistinginothercountries，anddifferingfromtheFrenchonlyinlocal peculiarities。 SECTIONV。 OnMetayerRentsinItaly。ThedeclineofthepoweroftheRomanandByzantineEmperorsinItalywasgradualandslow；theshadeofhergreatname seemedtosuspendashieldforatimebeforetheprecinctsoftheancientcapital。Boththelanguageandthehistoryofthe Italiansindicate，thatthealterationsinthehabitsandinthemechanismofsociety，producedintheoriginalseatsofthe empirebythefinalchangeofmastersandintermixtureofraces，weremuchlessviolentandgeneralthanthosewhichtook placeinthedistantprovinces。FrommanydistrictsofItalyitisprobablethatthecolonimedietariineverdisappeared，and thatthepeasantswhonowcultivatethesoilhavesucceededtotheminanunbrokenline。Thelargegrazingfarmsof Lombardy，thetractsoftheCampagna，themaremnaewhichoccuronthecoast，areoccupiedbycapitalists；forwherever largeherdsofcattlearetobemaintained，neitherthepeasantnorthelandlordsareabletosupplythem。Butinspiteofthese， andperhapsotherexceptions，Italy，fromtheAlpstoCalabria，isstillcoveredwithmetayers。(26)ThemetairiesofItalyare lessthanthoseofFrance。Theirextentwilleverywherebegovernedbywhatthelandlordsupposestobehisinterest:ifitis anobjectwithhimthathisestatesshouldnothavefewerhandsthanareequaltoitscompletecultivation，soitisanobject withhim，thatitshouldnothavemore。Thenumberofacreswhichametayerandhisfamilycanmanage，mustdependmuch onthecourseofcropsandmodeoftillage。InFrancethesystemofcropping，onceuniversalinNorthernEurope，still prevailsextensively；thatis，corncropswhilethelandcanbearthem，andthenfallows，orleysofsomeyearsstanding，with somewastegroundforpasture。Onsuchaplanafamilyrequireandcanmanageaconsiderabletract。InItalytherotationof cropspractisedbytheRomansisstillcarriedon；theleguminarecommendedbyVirgilareextensivelycultivated，andthe cattleareoftenfedfromtheproduceofthearableground。Onsuchasystem，amuchsmallerquantityoflandwillemploy andmaintainafamily。Metayersarealwaysfoundreadytoacceptasubdivision。Forreasons weshallhavetoexplain presently，thosemotivestoavoluntaryforbearancefromearlymarriageswhichaffectthehigherclassesinallcountries，and allclassesinsomecountrieshaverarelymuchinfluenceonapeasantryreceivingthewagesoftheirlaborintheshapeofraw produceraisedbythemselves。Sucharemetayers:theirmultiplicationas，wehaveseeninthecaseofFrance，usuallygoeson tilltheyarestoppedbythesmallnessoftheirmaintenance，or，asmoreoftenhappens，bythepolicyoftheproprietors refusingtosubdividelands，alreadysuppliedwithlaborbeyondthepointtheydeemmostadvantageoustothemselves。(27)ThemetayerfarmsindifferentpartsofItalyareofdifferentsizes；thoseofTuscanyincludeabouttenacres。ButinNaples theydonotexceedfive，andthetenantstherepaytwo-thirdsoftheproduceasrents。Theirclimateandsoilenablethemto dothis:thefirstpermitsthemtodispensewithmanythingswhicharestrictlynecessarieselsewhere，whiletheearthwith bounteousfertilityproduceseightcropsinfiveyears，infieldsshadedatthesametimebyaprofitableforestoffruittreesand vines。Still，makingampleallowancefortheseadvantages，one-thirdoftheproduceoffiveacresmustyieldamiserable subsistencetoapeasant，subjectallthewhiletotheexactionsofaneedygovernment，andofanaristocracyarmedwithall sortsofmischievouspowersandprivileges，andextremelyinclinedtoabusethem。TheTuscanmetayersareconsideredtobe bestoff，andnearFlorencehaveaconsiderableappearanceofease，whichisattributedpartlytothemanufactureofstraw hats，anemploymentverygeneralamongthem。Butatadistancefromthetown，theircircumstancesarewretched；theirfood coarse，bad，andscanty；andtheirpenurysuchaskeepstheminastateofperpetualdebttothelandlordsforfoodorassistanceofdifferentkinds。(28)Mr。Coxe，whosomeyearssincevisitedtheValteline，andMr。Gilly，whomorelatelywasamongtheVaudois，givea miserableaccountofthepovertyofthemetayers。IntheprovincesofSpaininwhichtheymostabound，theyaresaidtobeextremelypoor。ThecultivationoftheCanaryIslandsisintheirhands。InAfghaunisthaun，araceoftenantsisfoundcalledBuzgurs，(29)whoseemtodifferinnorespectfromthemetayersof WesternEurope。ThisisasingularinstanceinAsia，wherethistenancy，althoughsometimespartiallyengraftedonRyot rents，isperhapsinnootherspottobefoundexistinginitspureform。ButAfghaunisthaunisastrangeland，inwhich，from thepeculiaritiesofitsgeographicalandpoliticalcondition，fragmentsofalmostallthecivilinstitutionsknownintherestof theworldcontinuetoco-existinastateofconfusionapproachingtoanarchy。 SECTIONVI。 SummaryofMetayerRents。Uponcomparingthemetayerwiththeserf，itisobviousthathehasmanyadvantages:hisbeingentrustedwiththewhole careofthecultivationisacircumstancewhichnotonlyindicateshissupenorestimationinsociety，butbringswithit substantialimprovementsinhiscondition:wehavenoticedthattheforcedlaboroftheserfsupposessomepowerof summarycoercioninthemaster，withoutwhich，cultivationcouldhardlygoon。Butthemetayerisfreedfromthegalling superintendanceoftheproprietor，andthetermsoftheirconnectiondonotmakesuchasummarypowernecessary。That，of themetayers，manywereonceslavestherecanbelittledoubt；theyare，andhavebeenforsomeagesgenerally，Ibelieve universally，freemen；andthesovereignsofthedifferentcountriesinwhichtheyexist，havebeenableinmostcasessofartoextendthepoweroftheroyaltribunals，aseffectuallytosecuretheirpersonsandeffects。Anotheradvantageofthemetayer，whichinpractice，itistobefeared，islessthanmightbehoped，isthis；that，asthe landlord\'srentdependsupontheamountoftheproduce，hehasanobviousinterestinpreventingtheenergyorthemeansof thetenantfrombeinglessenedbyoppression。Ahalfstarvedmetayermustneedsbeabadagent inacultivation，onthe efficiencyofwhichtheproprietor\'srevenuedepends，andthelossesofwhichhemustshare。ButwhatTurgotcalls\"the illusionsofself-interestillunderstood，\"orinplainterms，perhaps，thecovetousnessandignoranceoftheproprietors，have preventedthetenantfromreapingallthebenefitthisconsiderationmighthavebeenexpectedtosecuretohim。Whilethe tailleinFrance，forinstance，couldbeextractedfromthetenant，wehaveseenthathewasmadetobearit，thoughitkept himonthevergeofstarvation；andinothercountries，eitherthetoogreatsubdivisionofthesoil，theincreaseofthe landlord\'sproportionoftheproduce，orthesaddlingthetenantwithburthensomeconditionsastothetaxes，havelefthimin astateofgreatandhelplessdepression。Stillthecommoninteresthehaswiththelandlordinthesuccessofhisindustryis neverwhollywithoutitseffects。Whenreducedtoextremities，thetenanthasapatrontoapplyto，whocannotforhisown sakelethimperish，orevensufferbeyondacertainpoint；(30)andincalamitousseasons，advancesoffoodandothernecessariesbythelandlordsarealmostuniversal。Butiftherelationbetweenthemetayerandtheproprietorhassomeadvantageswhencomparedwiththatbetweentheserf tenantpayinglaborrentsandhislord:ithasalsosomeveryseriousinconveniencespeculiartoitself。Thedividedinterest whichexistsintheproduceofcultivation，marsalmosteveryattemptatimprovement。Thetenantisunwillingtolistentothe suggestionsofthelandlord，thelandlordreluctanttoentrustadditionalmeansinthehandsofaprejudiced，andusuallyvery ignoranttenant。Thetenant\'sdreadofinnovationisnatural；hemerelyexistsuponasystemofcultivationfamiliartohim:the failureofanexperimentmightleavehimtostarve。Thisdread，however，makesitalmostimpossibletointroduce improvementsintothepracticeofthemetayers。ArthurYoungwitnessedmanyattemptsmadebyamateuragriculturistson theirownestates；andconcludeshisaccountofthembydeclaring，thatwithmetayertenants，thecommonsystemofthe countrymustbeadheredto，beitgoodorbad。(31)Whilethetenantisfrightenedatachangeofsystem，thelandlordhangs back，withahardlylessmischievousreluctance，fromtheadvancesnecessarytocarryonefficientlyanysystemwhatever。 Whenstockistobeadvancedbyoneparty，andusedbyanotherfortheircommonbenefit，somewasteandcarelessnessin thereceivingparty，greatjealousyandreluctanceinthecontributingparty，follownaturally。Theproprietors，(saysTurgot，) whoonlyadvancestockbecausetheycannotavoidit，andwhoarethemselvesnotrich，confinetheiradvancestowhatis moststrictlynecessary；accordingly，thereisnocomparisontobemadebetweenthestockadvancedbyaproprietorforthe cultivationofhismetairies，andthatusedbyfarmersindistrictscultivatedbycapitalists。(32)Weknow，however，fromotherauthority，thatthecapitaltowhichthatofthemetayerswasthusdecidedlyinferior，wasitselfextremelyscanty。(33)Wheretheproprietor，areneedy，careless，orabsent，thecasebecomesofcoursemuchworse。\"Inbadyears，(Turgot remark。)theproprietorisobligedtofeedthemetayers，forfearoflosingallhehasadvanced。Thismodeofmanagement requiresonthepartoftheproprietorcontinualattention，andanhabitualresidence:accordingly，ifitisseenthattheshareof aproprietorareinthesmallestdegreederanged，orifheisobligedfromanycausetoabsenthimselfhismetairiesceaseto producehimanything。Theestatesofwidowsandminorsusuallyrelapseintowaste。\"(34)Whenwerememberthenumberof proprietor。whowerenecessarilyabsentfrommilitarydutiesorothercauses，andaddthemtothewidows，andminors，and personswhoseaffairswerederanged，thelistofestateseitherverybadlycultivated，ornotcultivatedatall，willappear formidableindeed，andwearepreparedtohearwithoutsurprise\"oftheexhaustedstateoftheprovince\"andthe \"abandonmentofmanymetairieestatesforwantofcattle，andtheinabilityoftheproprietorstoprovidestock。\"(35)Thecauseswhich，undertheeyesofTurgot，producedtheseeffectsintheLimosin，mustactmoreorlessinallthemetayercountriesofEurope，andmustproducemuchofthepovertytobeobservedinthem。Metayerrentsmayincrease，itisclear，fromtwocauses，fromanincreaseofthewholeproduceeffectedbythegreaterskill orindustryofthetenant，orfromanincreaseofthelandlord\'sproportionoftheproduce，theamountoftheproduceitself remainingthesame。Whenrentincreases，andtheproduceremainsstationary，thecountryatlargegainsnothingbythe increase；it。meansofpayingtaxes，ofsupportinglootsandarmies，arejustwhattheywerebefore:therehasbeenatransfer ofwealth，butnoincreaseofit；butwhenmetayerrentsincrease，becausetheproducehasbecomelarger，thenthecountry itselfisrichertothatextent；itspowerofpayingtaxes，ofsupportingfleetsandarmieshasbeenincreased；therehasbeenan increaseofwealth，notameretransferfromonehandtoanotherofwhatbeforeexisted。Suchanincreaseofrentsindicates alsoanotherincreaseofwealthasextensive，andmorebeneficial，whichisfoundintheaugmentationoftherevenuesofthemetayersthemselves，whosehalftheproduceisaugmentedtopreciselythesameextentasthelandlord\'s。Theexistenceofrentsuponthemetayersystem，isinnodegreedependentupontheexistenceofdifferentqualitiesofsoilor ofdifferentreturnstothestockandlaboremployed。Thelandlordsofanycountrywho，withsmallquantitiesofstock，have quantitiesofland，sufficienttoenableabodyofpeasantlaborerstomaintainthemselves，wouldcontinuetoderivearevenue aslandownersfromsharingintheproduceoftheindustryofthoselaborers，thoughallthelandsinthecountrywereperfectlyequalinquality。Inmetayercountriesthewagesofthemainbodyofthepeopledependupontherenttheypay。Thequantityofproduce beingdeterminedbythefertilityofthesoil，theextentofthemetairie，andtheskill，industry，andefficiencyofthemetayer， thenthedivisionofthatproduce，onwhichdivisionhiswagesdepend，isdeterminedbyhiscontractwiththelandlord。Inlike mannertheamountofrentinsuchcountriesisdeterminedbytheamountofwages。Thewholeamountofproducebeing decidedasbefore，thelandlord\'sshare，ortherent，dependsuponthecontracthemakeswiththelaborer，thatis，upontheamountdeductedaswages。Ofthethreelargeclassesofpeasantrents，metayerrentsprevailtheleastextensively。Theyspreadoveraportionofthe cultivatedsurfaceoftheearthconsiderablylessthanthoseinwhichlaborrentsorryotrentspredominate。Buttheyoccupy countrieswhichhavelongbeentheseatsofnationseminentintheforemostranksofcivilizedpeople，andwhicharelikelyformanyagestobeamongthemostdistinguisheddepositariesoftheknowledgeandtheartsofmankind。Thesetooareagriculturalnations:thatis，byfarthegreaterpartoftheirproductivepopulationisemployedinagriculture。 Theextentoftheirwealthmustbemainlydependent，therefore，onthesuccessoftheiragriculture，andthesuccessoftheir agriculturewillbedeterminedinagreatdegreebythenatureoftheconditionsunderwhichthelandisoccupied，andbythecharacteroftheirtenantry。Notonlythewealthofanation，butthecompositionofsociety，theextentandtherespectiveinfluenceofthedifferent classesofwhichitconsists，arepowerfullyaffectedbytheefficiencyofagriculture。Theextentoftheclassesmaintainedin non-agriculturalemploymentsthroughouttheworld，mustbedeterminedbythequantityoffoodwhichthecultivators producebeyondwhatisnecessaryfortheirownmaintenance。TheagriculturistsofEnglandforinstanceproducefood sufficienttomaintainthemselves，anddoubletheirownnumbers。Nowtheexistenceofthislargenon-agricultural population，thewealthandinfluenceofitsemployers，andofthosepersonswhotrafficintheproduceofitsindustry，affect inaverystrikingmannertheactualelementsofpoliticalpoweramongtheEnglish，theirpracticalconstitution，andtheir nationalcharacterandhabits。Totheabsenceofsuchabodyofnon-agriculturistsandofthewealthandinfluencewhich accompanytheirexistence，wemaytracemanyofthepoliticalphenomenatobeobservedamongourcontinental neighbours。Iftheagricultureofthoseneighboursshouldeverbecomesoefficient，astoenablethemtomaintaina non-agriculturalpopulation，atallproportionabletoourown，theymayperhapsapproximate toasocialandpolitical organizationsimilartothatseenhere。Atalleventstheywillhavethemeansofdoingso。Iamgiving，itwillberemembered， noopiniononthedesirablenessofsuchanapproximation，buttherecanbenoquestionastothestrikingeffectsthechangemustproduceontheirhabitsandinstitutions，andontheamountoftheirnationalstrengthandexternalinfluence。Thatnoverymarkedchangeintheefficiencyofagriculture，andintherelativenumbersofagriculturalandnon-agricultural populationwilltakeplaceinanynation，whilethemetayersystemremainsinfullforce，iswhatweareentitledtoassume， fromtheviewwehavealreadytakenoftheinherentfaultsandofthepasteffectsofthatsystem。Theactualprevalenceof metayerrentstherefore，theirmodifications，theirgradualprogressinsomecasestowardsdifferentformsofholding，in others，thesturdyresistancethesystemofferstotheassaultsoftimeandeventothewishesandtheeffortsofthose，who wouldwillinglyridthemselvesofit；theseareallcircumstancestobestudiedcarefullyby thosewhowoulddiscernthe causesoftheactualstateofsomeofthemostinterestingcountriesinEurope，orspeculateupontheprogressoffuturechangeseitherintheirpoliticalandsocialinstitutions，orintheirrelativestrengthandpowerasnations。Totheseclaimstoanattentiveexaminationweaddanotherofnotlessimportance，whichhasbeenalreadyincidentally mentioned，namely，thestrictconnectionwhichmetayerrentshave(incommonwiththeothersystemsofpeasantrents)with thewagesofbyfarthelargerportionoftheindustriouspopulationofcountriesinwhichtheyprevail。Thisconnectionbrings theireffectsintoclosecontactwiththecomforts，thecharacterandconditionofanimportantdivisionofthegreatfamilyof mankind，andisalonesufficienttosecuretothem，inalltheirdetailsandvariations，theanxiousattentionofthestatesmanandpracticalphilanthropist。1。ThissketchofthetenantrypeculiartoearlyGreecemighthavebeenmademoreextensiveandperhapsmoreprecise。 Theymaybetracedinmanyotherdistricts，andsomedistinctionsmightcertainlybedrawnbetweentheclassesnamed:but thisisasubjectintothedetailsofwhichitwouldbedifficulttoenter，withouteitherlaunchingintolengthydiscussion，or statingshortlyasfacts，whatarereallyonlyconjectures。Thosewhomaywishtofollowthematteruptotheoriginal testimony，onwhichallconclusionsrelatingtoitmustrest，mayconsultRuhnken\'snotesonthewords，and inhiseditionofthePlatonicLexiconofTimus，twonotesrelatingtotheinstitutionsofLaconiaandCrete， affixedtoGö；ttling\'seditionofAristotle\'spolitics；andaboveallMiller\'selaboratehistoryoftheDorianstates，avaluable work，foratranslationofwhichtheEnglishpublicareabouttobeindebted，andverydeeplyindebtedcertainly，toMessrs。 TuffnellandLewis。WhilereferringtothetwolastoftheseGermanwriters，itmayberighttomentionthatthereareoneor twopointsonwhichImustventuretodissentfromtheirconclusions:theseareshortlynoticedintheAppendix。 2。Aristotle\'sPolitics，BookII。3。Boeckh，however，seemsofopinionthatatoneperiodofthehistoryofAttica，allthecultivatorsofitsterritorywere Thetes。(Vol。I。p。250。EnglishTranslation。)Theymayhavebeenso；butitisimpossible，Ithink，toreadthefifthbookof theMemorabilia，(the？)ofXenophon，withoutfeelingpersuaded，thatinhisdaystheverymemoryof suchastateofthingswasgone。TheThetescontinuedtoexistasaclassinthestatelongaftertheyhadceasedtobeits exclusivecultivators，iftheyeverweresuch。 4。Appendix。 5。Pol。BookI。Cap。iii。6。Aristot。Pol。BookVII。Cap。x。Ifthesecannotbeobtained，Aristotleexpressesawishforbarbarianperioeci(compoundsoftheserf；metayer，andslave)ofsimilardispositions。7。Arist。Pol。BookI。Cap。iv。Thosewhoareabletoescapethesevexations，procureastewardtoundertakethetask；whiletheythemselvesattendtopoliticsorphilosophy。8。SeeHistoricalOutlineoftheGreekRevolutionpublishedbyMurray，p。9。\"Thenominalconditionsuponwhichthe christianpeasantofEuropeanTurkeylaboursfortheTurkishproprietor，arenotoppressive:theywereamongthemany establishedusagesofthecountryadoptedbytheOttomans，andthepracticeissimilartothatwhichisstillverycommonin allthepoorercountriesofEurope。Afterthedeductionofaboutaseventhfortheimperialland-tax，thelandlordreceives halftheremainder，oralargershare，accordingtotheproportionofseed，stock，andinstrumentsofhusbandrywhichhehas supplied。\" 9。Columella，BookIChap。i。 10。Ibid。BookI。Chap。i。11。Col。BookI。chap。i。Namquilonginqua，nedicamtransmarinaruramercantur，veluthaeredibuspatrimoniosuo，etquod graviusest，vivi，ceduntservis。 12。Col。BookI。chap。i。 13。Col。Lib。I。chap。vii。14。Plin。Epist。BookIX。87。Itappearsfromanotherletterthatthemostexpensivestocksuppliedtothetenantrybythe proprietorsconsistedoftheslaves。 15。Dict。deFinance，Vol。II。p。115。 16。HargreaveandButler\'sNotesonCokeuponLittleton。Sect。800。NoteonTenantsincommon。 17。Forthisedict，seeDict。desFinances，atthewordMainmorte。18。ThisisthecalculationofDupresSt。Maur，sanctionedbyTurgot。AdamSmithstatesfive-sixths。Turgot，Vol。VI。p。 209。Smith，Vol。II。p。92。Editionof1812。ArthurYoungthinksseven-eighths，Vol。1。p。403。 19。ArthurYoung，Vol。1。p。402。20。ArthurYounghowever，itisrighttomention，cametoadifferentconclusion。\"Thedivisionoffarms，\"hesays，\"andthe populationissogreatthatthemiseryflowingfromitisinsomeplacesextreme。\"Vol。1。p。404。hegivessomeinstances:but itmaybequestionedwhetherthesewerenotsmallproprietorsorfeudaltenants。 21。Dict。desfinances。DiscoursPreliminaires，PartVII。andTom。III。p。687。 22。Dict。desFinances，Tom。III。p。638689。23。ByVaubanintheDixameRoyal，andinthe\"DetaildelaFrance，\"withmoredetailandanimation；butthesedescriptionsarelessexclusivelyapplicabletotheMetayierpeasantrythanTurgot\'s。24。Ainsi，mê；medanscecas-là；，lemetayeresttoujoursré；duità；cequ\'ilfautpré；cisementpournepasmourirdefaim。Turgot， Tom。IV。p。277。MemoirepresentedtotheCouncil，OeuvresdeTurgot，Tom。IV。p。271，272，274，275。 25。DestuttdeTracyTraité；D\'EconomiePolitique，p:116。 26。Thatis，wherethelandsarelet:smallproprietorsarenotuncommon。27。Thereare，however，partsofTuscanywhereitisthecustomfortheeldestsononlytomarry，butnorestraintsofthis kindhavepreventedtheItalianmetayers，generally，fromincreasingtilltheirnumbersbecamefullyequaltothedemandsoftheproprietors，andinmanycasesreallyburthensometoagriculture。28。ArthurYoung\'sTravelsinFranceandItaly。Appendix。Thesevolumescontainmuchdetailedinformationonthe situationofthemetayersinLombardyandTuscany。 29。Elphinston\'sCaubul。Vol。1。p。471。 30。Turgot。DestuttTracy。ArthurYoung。 31。ArthurYoung\'sTravelsinFrance。 32。OEuvresdeTurgot，Tom。IV。p。267。 33。ArthurYoung。 34。Turgot，Tom。VI。p。203，204。 35。Ibid。Tom。IV。p。802。 CHAP。IV。 SECT。I。 OnRyotRents。RyotRentsare，withafewexceptions，peculiartoAsia。(1)Theyareproducerentspaidbyalaborer，raisinghisownwages fromthesoil，tothesovereignasitsproprietor。Theyareusuallyaccompaniedbyaprecariousrightonthepartofthetenant， toremaintheoccupantofhisallotmentofland，whilehepaystherentdemandedfromhim。Theserentsoriginateinthe rightsofthesovereign，assoleproprietorofthesoilofhisdominions。Suchrights，wehaveseen，havebeenacknowledged atsomeperiodbymostnations。InEuropetheyhavedisappearedorbecomenominal；buttheAsiaticsovereignscontinueto be，astheyhavebeenforalongseriesofages，thedirectlandlordsofthepeasanttenants，whomaintainthemselvesonthe soiloftheirdominions。Indicationspresentthemselvesoccasionally，whichwouldleadusto concludethatinportionsofthat quarteroftheglobe，astateofthingsonceexisted，underwhichtherightstothelandmusthavebeeninadifferentstate fromthatinwhichweseethem:butitwasinanantiquitysoremote，astobaffleallattemptsatinvestigation。Withinthe periodofhistoricalmemory，allthegreatempiresofAsiahavebeenoverrunbyforeigners；andontheirrightsasconquerors theclaimofthepresentsovereignstothesoilrests。China，India，Persia，andAsiaticTurkey，allplacedattheoutwardedge ofthegreatbasinofcentralAsia，havebeensubduedintheirturnbyirruptionsofitstribes，someofthemmorethanonce。 Chinaseemsevenatthismomenthardlyescapingfromthedangerofanothersubjugation。WherevertheseScythianinvaders havesettled，theyhaveestablishedadespoticformofgovernment，towhichtheyhavereadilysubmittedthemselves，whiletheywereobligingtheinhabitantsoftheconqueredcountriestosubmittoit。Theuniformityofthepoliticalsystemadoptedbythem，isastrikingpeculiarity；andbecomesmorestriking，whenseenin contrastwiththefreeconstitutionsestablishedbytheGermanichordes，which，inthewesterndivisionoftheoldworld，took possessionofcountriesmorewealthyandcivilizedthantheirown。Ithasbeensupposed，thatthedifferencemaybetracedto theprevioushabitsoftheTartarsaspastoraltribes。ButtheGermanstooconsistedofpastoraltribes，andthedifferenceof theirinstitutionsmustbesoughtinsomeothercausethanthis。Itmaybefoundperhaps，inagreatmeasure，inthedifferent characteroftheiroriginalseats。Amidstthefastnessesandmorassesofhisnativewoods，theGerman，whennotactuallyat war，wasintolerablesecurity；hishabitsofmilitaryobedience，weknow，relaxed，andheenjoyed thatrudeandindolent freedom，whichthewarlikebarbarianneverrelinquishedbutfromnecessity。SomeofthetribesoftheAffghansexhibit remarkableinstancesofthedifferentdegreesofsubmissiontoauthority，producedamongpastoralnationsunderthe prevalenceofthedifferentfeelingsofsecurity，orofperil。Theyareonlyslowlyandpartiallyabandoningmigratoryhabits: duringpartoftheyeartheyarestationary，inacountryinwhichtheyfeelsecure；inanotherpartoftheyeartheymoveto distantpastures。Whilesafeandtranquil，theirinstitutionsare。asfreeasthoseoftheancientGermans，andinmanypointsof detailresemblethemwithremarkablecloseness。Whentheybegintomove，andtheapproachofdangerandthenecessityof unitedexertionbegintobefelt，theypassatoncetoadespoticformofgovernment:aKhan，whoseauthority，whiletheyare stationaryandsafe，isdisclaimed，isatonceinvestedwithsupremepower；andsohelplessdotheyfeelwithouthim，that whenfromprivateviewshehaswishedtoremainatcourt，oremployhimselfelsewhere，hehasbeenrecalledbytheir clamor，toreceivetheirsubmission，andtoputhimselfattheirhead。(2)ButtheTartarsofcentralAsiainhabitvastplains， traversedineverydirectionbymountedenemies。Thetaskofguardingtheirpropertyandlives，isaconstantcampaign；and theirhabitsofmilitarysubmissionhavenointervalsofrelaxation:theyareborn，andtheydieinthem。itispossiblethatwhen theybecamemastersofthefairempiresofexteriorAsia，theyfoundalreadyestablished，insomeinstances，therightofthe sovereigntothesoil；notasaremoteornominalsuperior，butastheactualanddirectproprietor。Sucharightmayhave beenarelicofformerconquests，orinsomeremoterinstances，thegrowthofcircumstances，similartothosewhichinduced thenativesofAfrica，Peru，orNewZealandtoacknowledge，onapplyingthemselvestoagriculture，therightoftheir sovereignstodisposeoftheterritorywhichthenationoccupied。Howeverthismaybe，itiscertainthattheTartarshave everywhereeitheradoptedorestablishedapoliticalsystem，whichunitessoreadilywiththeir nationalhabitsofsubmission inthepeople，andabsolutepowerinthechiefs:andtheirconquestshaveeitherintroducedorre-establishedit，fromthe BlackSeatothePacific，fromPekintotheNerbudda。ThroughoutagriculturalAsia，(withtheexceptionofRussia)thesame systemprevails。Thereareneithercapitalnorcapitalistsabletoproduce，fromstoresalreadyaccumulated，themaintenance ofthebulkofthepeople。Thepeasantmusthavelandtotillormuststarve。Thebodyofthenationisthereforeineverycase dependentuponthegreatsovereignproprietorforthemeansofobtainingfood。Oftheremainderofthepeople，themost importantpartis，ifpossible，moredependent:theyliveinthecharacter。ofsoldiersorcivilians，onaportionoftherevenue collectedfromthepeasants，assignedtothembythebountyoftheirchief:intermediateandindependentclassesthereare none；andgreatandlittleareliterallywhattheydescribethemselvestobe，theslavesofthatmasteronwhosepleasurethe meansoftheirsubsistencewhollydepend。Theexperienceofmanylongcenturiesofmonotonousoppressionhassufficientlyprovedthetendencyofsuchastateofthings，onceestablished，toperpetuatethedespotismitcreates。AlthoughasimilarsystemprevailsinallthegreatempiresofAsia，itpresentsitselfwithdistinctmodificationsineach； arisingfromdifferencesintheclimate，soil，andevengovernment；fordespotismitselfhasitsvarieties。Ofthese modificationsaveryslightsketchmustsufficehere。 SECTIONII。 OnRyotRentsinIndia。Itseemsprobable，thattheancientEgyptians，andtheIndianworshippersoftheBrahminicalidolshadacommonorigin，but whencetheycame；orinwhatstateofthingstheirpeculiarinstitutionsoriginated，canonlybedimlyconjectured。InIndia， ryotrentshavesubsistedsincetheinvasionofthepeoplewhomtheBrahminsled，oraccompanied；perhapslonger。ThesacredbooksoftheHindoosfoundtheclaimsofthesovereignstothelandontherightsofconquest。\"Byconquest，theearthbecamethepropertyoftheholyParasaRama；bygiftthepropertyoftheSageCasyapa；andwas committedbyhimtoCahatriyas(themilitarycast)forthesakeofprotection，becauseoftheirprotectiveproperty； successivelyheldbypowerfulconquerors，andnotbysubjectscultivatingthesoil。Butannualpropertyisacquiredby subjects，onpaymentofannualrevenue，andthekingcannotlawfullygive，sell，ordisposeofthelandtoanotherforthat year。Butiftheagreementbeinthisform，\"youshallenjoyitforyears，\"forsomanyyearsasthepropertyisgranted，during somanyyearsthekingshouldnevergive，sell，ordisposeofittoanother，yetifthesubjectpaynottherevenue，thegrant beingconditional，isannulledbythebreachofthecondition。Butifnospecialagreementbemade，andanotherpersondesirousofobtainingtheland，stipulateagreaterrevenue，itmaybegrantedtohimonhisapplication。\"(3)Withthespiritandletterofthisoftenquotedlaw，thepracticeofthevarioussovereignsofIndia，nativeandforeign，has