第5章

veryaccuratelycorresponded。Thosesubordinaterightsofthepeopletotemporarypossessionwhichhavegrownupin peacefultimes，haveeverremainedprecariousandimperfect:buttherightoftheruleristherightofthestrongest；and wheneitherintestinewarsorforeigninvasionhavebroughtanewmastertoadistrict，hisswordhasrestoredthesovereign\'sclaiminallitsprimitiveclearness。Theproportionoftheproducetakenbythesovereign，hasonsomegroundorotherperpetuallyvaried；thatis，whenhehas pretendedtoconfinehimselftoanydefiniteproportionatall。Thelawsseemtofixitatone-sixth，butinpractice，thislawor rulehasbeenutterlydisregarded。Strabomentions，thatinhistime，，？ ，wherebystrainingtheGreekalittleeitherway，therentmayappeartohavebeen one-fourthorthree-fourthsoftheproduce。TheMogulconquerorsexactedtheirrentsinproportions，whichvaried considerablywiththequalityoftheland，moreparticularlywithitscommandofwater。Butnodefiniterateofrenthaseverprevailedlonginpractice。UndertheHindoogovernments，therehadbeenadispositiontoallowmanysubordinateclaimstothepossessionofthesoil， andtoofficesconnectedwiththecollectionoftherevenue，tobecomehereditary。Oftheoffices，themostimportantwas thatoftheZemindars。Thesewereentrustedwiththecollectionoftherevenueindistrictsofdifferentsizes，wereentitledto atenthofitsamount，hadsometimeslandsassignedtothem，andwereendowedwithveryconsiderableauthority。They weremuchinthehabitofmakingadvancesofseedandstocktoassistthecultivator，andofstipulatingforrepaymentinthe shapeofproduce。Whenthesonhadbeenallowedtosucceedthefatherforsomegenerationsinsuchanoffice，thetiesand interestswhichconnectedhimwiththepeopleunderhimweresomanyandstrong，thatthedisplacingaZemindar，unless forgrossmisconductorforfailureinpaymentofthesovereign\'srent，wasthoughtbyhimselfandtheryots，tobeanactof tyrannicaloppression。Theryotsverygenerallyoccupiedtheirlandsincommon，andwerecollectedintovillagesunder officersoftheirown，whodistributedtothecultivatorsandtradesmentheirrespectivesharesoftheproduce。Thevillage officesandvarioustradesbecamehereditary。Theryottoohimself，theactualcultivator，wasyetlesslikelythanthesuperior officerstobedisturbedinthepossessionofhislands。Providedthesovereign\'sshareoftheproducewaspaid，hehadno interestindisturbingthehumbleagentsofproduction，andaverygreatinterestinretainingthem。Fromsimilarreasons，aclaimtomortgageorsellhispossessoryinterest，wassufferedtoestablishitself。Butthenallthesesubordinateinterestswereonlyrespectedinpeacefultimes，andundermoderategovernors；andthese wererareinIndia。Ithasbeenhithertothemisfortuneofthatcountry，toseearapidsuccessionofshortlivedempires:the convulsionsamidstwhichtheywereestablished，havehardlysubsided，beforethepeoplehavebeguntobeharassedbythe consequencesoftheirweaknessanddecay。Whileanyreallyefficientgeneralgovernmenthasexisted，ithasbeentheobvious interest，andusuallytheaimofthechiefstoactuponsomedefinitesystem；toputsome limittotheirownexactions；to protecttheryots，andfostercultivationbygivingreasonablesecuritytoalltheinterestsconcernedinit。TheMogul emperorsactedinthisspirit，whileexercisingapoweroverthesoil，whichhadnorealbounds，butthosewhichthey prescribedtothemselves。Butastheempiregrewfeeble，andthesubordinatechieftains，Mahometan，orHindoo，beganto exerciseanuncontrolledpowerintheirdistricts，theirrapacityandviolenceseemusuallytohavebeenwhollyuncheckedby policyorprinciple。Therewasatonceanendtoallsystem，moderation，orprotection；ruinousrents，arbitrarilyimposed， werecollectedinfrequentmilitarycircuits，atthespear\'spoint；andtheresistanceoftenattemptedindespair，wasunsparinglypunishedbyfireandslaughter。Sceneslikethese，intheancienthistoryofIndia，havebeenfrequentlyrenewed，andsucceededrapidlyshortintervalsof repose。Theywereofcoursedisastrous。Halftherichterritoryofthatcountryhasneverbeencultivated，thoughswarming withapopulationtowhomthepermissiontomakeitfruitfulinmoderatesecurity，wouldhavebeenhappiness；andnothingcanwellexceedtheordinarypovertyoftheryots，andtheinefficiencyoftheirmeansofcultivation。TheEnglish，whentheybecametherepresentativesoftheMogulemperorinBengal，beganbypushingtoanextremetheir rightsasproprietorsofthesoil；andneglectedthesubordinateclaimsoftheZemindarsandryots，inamannerwhichwasfelt tobeoppressiveandtyrannical，althoughnotperhapsinstrictnessillegal。Agreatreactionhastakenplaceintheirviewsand feelings；perceivingthenecessityofrestoringconfidencetothecultivators，andanxioustoshakeofftheimputationof injusticeandtyranny，theyshowedthemselvesquitewillingtopartwiththeircharacterofownersofthesoil，andtoretain simplythatofitssovereign。Anagreementwasinconsequenceenteredinto，bywhichtheZemindarsassumedacharacter， whichcertainlyneverbeforebelongedtothem，thatofthedirectlandlordsofthoseryots，betweenwhomandthesupreme governmenttheyhadbeforebeenonlyagents；agents，however，possessedofmanyimperfectbutprescriptiverightstoan hereditaryinterestintheiroffice。Thegovernment，insteadofexactingrents，wascontenttoreceiveafixedandpermanenttax；forwhichthenewlandlordsweretoberesponsible。Therecanbenodoubtofthefairandevenbenevolentspirit，inwhichthisarrangementwasmade。Itseemshowevertobe nowgenerallyadmitted，thattheclaimsoftheZemindarswereoverrated，andthatifsomethinglesshadbeendoneforthem， andsomethingmoreforthesecurityandindependenceoftheryots，thesettlement，withoutbeinglessjustorgenerous， wouldhavebeenmuchmoreexpedient。 SECTIONIII。 OnRyotRentsinPersia。Ofallthedespoticgovernmentsoftheeast，thatofPersiaisperhapsthemostgreedy，andthemostwantonlyunprincipled； yetthepeculiarsoilofthatcountryhasintroducedsomevaluablemodificationsofthegeneralAsiaticsystemofryotrents， andforcedthegovernment，unscrupulousasitis，totreatthevariousinterestsinthelandsubordinatetothoseofthecrown，withconsiderableforbearance。Oneofthemostremarkablegeologicalfeaturesoftheoldworld，isthatgreattractofsandydesert，whichextendsacrossits wholebreadth，andimposesapeculiarcharacteronthetribeswhichroamoveritssurface，orinhabititsborders。Itformsthe shoresoftheAtlanticonthewesterncoastofAfrica，andconstitutestheZaharaorgreatsandydesert，whichhas contributedtoconcealsolongthecentralregionsofthatquarteroftheglobefromEuropeancuriosity。Itformsnextthe surfaceofEgyptwiththeexceptionofthevalleyoftheNile；stretchesacrosstheArabianwastes，toSyria，Persia，andupper India；andturningfromPersianorthwards，threadsbetweenMushedandHerat(4)theElburz andParapomisanmountains， partsoftheCaucasianorHimalayanchain；runsnorth-eastwardthroughTartary，androundingthenorthernextremityof China，sinksfinally，itissupposed，beneaththewavesofthePacific。ThegreaterpartoftheterritoriesofPersiaeither consistofthisdesert，orborderonit；andpartakesomuchofitsparchedandsterilecharacter，thattheeyeatashort distancecanhardlytracetheboundary。(5)Thissoilcanbemadefruitfulonlybyirrigation。Butwater，saysFrazer，isthemost scantyboonofnatureinPersia；itsriversaresmallandfew，andrivulets，bynomeanscommon，canonlybeappliedtoa verylimitedquantityofcultivation。Inthebestdistricts，thesmallproportionofcultivatedlandresemblesanOasisinthedesert，servingbycontrasttomakeallarounditmoredreary。(6)Asthenaturalspringsandstreamsareinsufficienttosupportthecultivationbywhichthepeoplemustexist，thePersians establishwithgreatlaborandexpenseartificialsources，calledcannauts。Theysinkonthesidesofhillslongchainsofwells， ofdifferentdepths，andcommunicatingbyachannel，whichconductstothelowestthewatercollectedinthem:thencethe streamisdistributedoverthefieldswhichitistofertilize。Theseworks，alwayscostlyandimportant，areofvarioussizes； thechainofwellsissaidtobeoccasionallythirty-sixmilesinlength，andacannautisspokenofinChorassan，intowhichahorsemanmayridewithhislanceuponhisshoulder；(7)moreordinarily，thechannelsaresmall，andthechainofwellsdoesnotexceedtwomilesinlength。Whenever，bytheseorothermeans，waterisbroughttothesurface，scenesoforiental vegetationspringuprapidlyandluxuriantly。Iffromwar，oroppression，oraccident，ortime，theworksofmanare destroyedorneglected，thesceneoffertilityvanishes，andthedesertresumesitsdomain。 TheplainofYezid-Khaustinthe routefromShiraztoTeheran，wasoncecelebratedforitsbeautyandfertility:Mr。Frazerpassedoveritin1821，andthus describesit。\"TheplainofYezid-Khaust，whichextendsinthelineofourrouteallthewaytoKomaishah，presented， towardsthelatterplace，atrulylamentablepictureofthegeneraldeclineofprosperityinPersia。Ruinsoflargevillages thicklyscatteredabout，withtheskeleton-likewallsofcaravanseraisandgardens，alltellingofbettertimes，stoodlike mementomoristokingdomsandgovernments；andthewholeplainwasdottedoverwithsmallmounds，whichindicatethe courseofcannauts，oncethesourceofrichesandfertility，nowallchokedupanddry，forthereisneithermannbrcultivation torequiretheiraid。\"(8)ThedistrictofNishaporewasanothercelebratedseatofPersiancultivation。\"Itwasadded，\"saysMr。 Frazer，(speakingoftheinformationhereceivedconcerningthisplace；)\"thatinthedifferentdepartmentsofNishaporethey reckon14000distinctvillages，allinhabited，andirrigatedby12000cannautsand18smallriversfromthemountains。This magnificentdetailisnodoubtgreatlyexaggerated，beingbutareiterationofthetraditionalaccountofthisplaceinitsdays ofhighprosperity:nosuchvastpopulationorcultivationnowexists；mostofthevillagesareruinous；thecannauts，the remainsofwhich，coveringtheplain，mayservealmosttoattestthetruthoftheabovestatement，arenowchokedupanddry。\"(9)NowtheprincipalrevenueofthemonarchsofPersiaisderivedfromtheproduceoftheearth，ofwhichtheyarethesupreme owners。Itcouldnotescapeeventheireyes，blinded。astheyarebygreedinessandhabitsofrapine，thatthecostofthus wrestingcultivatedspotsfromthedesert，andmaintainingtheminfruitfulness，wouldneverbeincurred，unlessthe undertakersfeltreallysecurethattheirpropertyinthemwouldbesubsequentlyrespected。BythelawsofPersia，therefore， hewhobringswatertothesurface，whereitneverwasbefore，isguaranteedbythesovereigninthehereditarypossessionof thelandfertilizedbyhim，andwhileareservedrentofone-fifthoftheproduceispaidtotheShah，thepossessordisposesof itashepleases，andiseffectuallyitsproprietor，subjecttoarentcharge。Ifhechoosestoletoutthewater，atmoneyrents， tootherpersonswhohavelands，whichalreadypaytheroyalrentinproduce，thentherentofthewaterishisown:the crownprofitsonlybyadditionalfertilitythusbestoweduponspots，intheproduceofwhichitshares。AmongthePersiansof property，mostusuallythoseinoffice，makingcannautsisafavoritespeculation；thevillagers，too，oftenjoinandconstructthem，andthesearethebestproofsthatthisguaranteeofthesovereignisfaithfullyobserved。Makingproperallowances，however，forthemoresteadyrespectforsubordinateinterests，whichtheoutlayforartificial irrigationmakesnecessaryonthepartofthePersiansovereigns，theirmanagementoftheterritorytheyownisverysimilar towhatwehaveseenprevailsinIndia。Theryotsinhabitingvillagescultivatethesoilincommon，orinallotments determinedamongthemselves；theirinterestinthelandishereditary。\"Theoriginalcustomarylawconcerningproperty，\" saysMr。Frazer，\"clearlyprovidedwithmuchconsiderationforthesecurityoftheryot。Therightsofthevillagerwere guardedatleastascarefullyastheseofhislord:histitletocultivatehisportionoflanddescendstohimfromtheoriginal commencementofthevillagetowhichhebelongs，andcanneitherbedisputedorrefusedhim，norcanheforfeitit，norcanthelordofthevillageejectanyryotwhileheconductshimselfwellandpayshisportionoftherent。\"(10)Therentatpresentexactedfromtheryotisone-fifthpertoftheproduce；ithasvariedandbeendifferentlyamusedatthe discretionofdifferentPrinces，moreparticularlyNushirvanandThour。ThePersian。nowstatethatbyancientcustomonly one-tenthwasdue:thattheothertenthwasagreedtobepaidonapromisethatthesaadurautorirregulartaxesshouldcease；butthatthoughtheadditionaltenthhasbeenexacted，thetaxesremainatleastasoppressiveasbefore。(11)Abovethesehereditarycultivatorsisasubordinateproprietor，oftencalledbyFraserthelordofthevillage，whoisentitled toone-tenthofthecrop。InthismantheIndianZemindarisimmediatelyrecognised:butthoughthewordZemindarwas originallyPersian，itdoesnotappeartobeinfamiliaruseinPersiaatpresent。Therightofhereditarysuccessiontothis intermediateinterestcannothavebeenfullyrecognisedforanyverylongperiod。Chardinstatesthatinhistimethepractice oftakingleasesfor99yearsfromthecrownwasonlybeginningtoestablishitself。Bernierdistinctlydeniesthatsuchathing asprivatepropertyinlandwasknowninPersia。Theinterestsofthisclassofmenhavenaturallygatheredstrengthand permanenceinPersia。evenmorerapidlythaninIndia，fromthenecessityofadvancesforthepurposesofirrigation，which wereusuallymadebythem。Theirrighttothetenthoftheproduceseemstobenowsocompletelyseveredfromtheduties ofcollection，thatthejealousyofthePersianmonarchsforbidsthemsometimeseventoresideintheirvillages，toprevent，it issaid，theirtyrannizingovertheryots，(12)moreprobablytogetridoftheirinterferenceinresistingtheexactionsofthegovernmentofficers，whichitisfoundtheycandomoreeffectuallythantheryotsthemselves。(13)TherearepersonsinPersiawhoboast，perhapswithtruth，thattheseestates，astheycallthem，havebeeninthehandsof theirfamilyforalongsuccessionofyears。DidthereexistarealbodyoflandedproprietorsinPersia，assecureinthe possessionoftheirheritageasthesemenareintheirlimitedinterests，thedespotismoftheShahwouldatoncebeshackled。 Butmenentitledtocollectone-tenthoftheproducefromtenantshereditarylikethemselves，whilethegreatsovereign proprietoriscollectingafifthatthesametime，arelittlelikelytoacquireaninfluenceinthecountry，sufficienttoprotect eitherthesubordinateryotsorthemselves；andaccordinglythechiefweightofwhatisprobablyoneoftheworst governmentsintheworld，restsuponthenecksofthecultivators。\"Thereisnoclassofmen(saysFraser)whosesituation presentsamoremelancholypictureofoppressionandtyrannythanthefarmersandcultivatorsofthegroundinPersia。They livecontinuallyunderasystemofextortionandinjustice，fromwhichtheyhavenomeansofescape，andwhichisthemore distressing，becauseitisindefinitebothinformandextent，fornomancantellwhen， how，ortowhatamountdemandsupon himmaywithoutwarningbemade。Itisuponthefarmersandpeasantrythatthewholeextortionpractisedinthecountry finallyalights。Thekingwringsfromhisministersandgovernors；theymustprocurethesumsrequiredfromtheheadsof districts，whointheirturndemanditfromthezabutsorketkhodahsofvillages，andthesemustatlastsqueezeitfromthe ryots；eachoftheseintermediateagentsmustalsohavetheirprofits，sothatthesumreceivedbythekingbearssmall proportiontothatwhichispaidbytheryots。Everytax，everypresent，everyfine，fromwhomsoeverreceivedordemanded inthefirstinstance，ultimatelyfallsonthem，andsuchisthecharacteroftheirrulers，thattheonlymeasureofthesedemands isthepowertoextortontheonehand，andtheabilitytogiveorretainontheother。\"(14) SECTIONIV。 OnRyotRentsinTurkey。WhentheTurks，aftersubduingtheprovincesoftheGreekEmpire，finallyquarteredthemselvesuponitsruins，the foundationoftheirsystemofrevenueandgovernment，likethatofotherTartartribes，resteduponanassumptionthattheirleaderhadbecomethelegitimateproprietoroftheconqueredsoil。Therentimposeduponthecultivatorsappearstohavebeenoriginallycalculatedatone-tenthofthegrossproduce；andthe estimatedvalueofeachdistrict，atthatrate，wasataveryearlydateregisteredinthetreasury。Theregistersarestillused，in accountingwiththePachasofthedifferentprovinces。Butastherentpaidbyeachdistrictnevervaries，whateverchanges takeplaceinitscultivation，thedecayofagricultureandpopulationhasloadedmanyofthepeasantswithmuchheavier burthensthantheyatfirstbore。One-seventhoftheproducewherethecultivatorisaTurk，onefifthwhereheisaChristian， haveappearedtolatertravellersinGreecetobeabouttheaverageactualpaymenttothecrown。 TheviolencewithwhichtheTurksexemplifiedinpracticetheirAsiaticnotionsofthesupremerightoftheirleadertothesoil，willbebestjudgedofbytheirnextmeasure。TheSultangrantedaconsiderableportionofhisproprietaryrightstoothers，forthepurposeofformingasortoffeudal militia。Theofficersofrankreceivedallotmentsoflandcalledziametsandtimars，inwhichtheirrightsrepresentthoseofthe sovereign，andthenumbercreatedoftheseexceeded50，000。Theziametdifferedfromthetimarsonlyinbeinglarger。For thesegrantstheywereboundtoperformmilitaryservices，withaspecifiednumberofmen。Theirforcesconstituted，tillthe riseoftheJanissaries，themainforceoftheEmpire，andamounteditissaidto150，000men。Similargrantsareknownin IndiabythenameofIaghires，inPersiabythatofTeecools，buttheywereestablishedlesssystematicallyinthosecountries thaninTurkey。Theretheselandshaveneverbecomehereditary。Theyarestillstrictlylifehold。Intheearlydaysoftheir institution，usewasmadeofthemtoexcitemilitaryemulation。Onthedeathofthepossessor，oneofthebravestofhis comradeswasimmediatelyappointedtohisestate，andonetimarhasbeenknowntobethusgrantedeighttimesinasingle campaign。(15)Thedisposalofthem，however，haslongbecomewhollyvenal。AnAganotunfrequentlypurchasesduringhis lifethegrantofthereversiontohisfamily；butifheneglectstodothis，hisrelativesaredispossessedathisdeath，unless theyoutbidallotherapplicants。(16)Withtheexceptionoftheseinterestsforlife，andoftheestatesvestedintheUlemaor expoundersofMohammedanlaw，therearenodistinctlyrecognizedproprietaryrightsinTurkey。Althoughthere，asamong theryotsofIndiaandPersia，andelsewherethroughouttheeast，thereexistclaimstothehereditarypossessionofland。 WhilethepeasantpaystotheSultan，ortotheAgatowhoseZaimorTimarhebelongs，thelegalportionofhisproduce，his righttooccupyandtransmithislandsisnotcontested，andissecure，asfarasanythingissecurethere。InGreecethelands were，beforethepresentconvulsion，verygenerallycultivatedbytheancientmortitaeormetayertenants，whopaidtothe Agashalfoftheirproduce。WhetherthelandsthuscultivatedconsistexclusivelyofthedomainlandsattachedtotheAga\'s Timar，orwhetherthisrentispaidinconsiderationofstockadvancedtotherayah。toenablehimtocultivatebetterthelands ofwhichbeishimselfthehereditarytenant，Ihavenomaterialsforjudging。Itisprobablethatmortitaearefoundofbothdescriptions。ThereareevidentlysomeadvantagesintheTurkishsystemcomparedwiththoseofIndiaorPersia。Thepermanenceand moderationofthemiriorlandrent，isaverygreatone。Ifcollectedonanequitablesystem，thatrentwouldbenomorethan areasonablelandtax，andtheuniversalproprietorshipoftheSultanwouldbereducedtoamerenominalorhonorary superiority，likethatclaimedbymanyoftheChristianmonarchsofEurope。Wemayadd，thattheTurkishgovernmenthas neverbeensowhollyunequaltothetaskofcontrollingitsofficers，asthefeebledynastiesofDelhiintheirdecline:norso rapaciousandcapriciousinitsownexactionsastheShahsofPersia:butitscomparativemoderationandstrengthhave remaineduselesstoitsunhappysubjects，fromadegreeofsupinenessandindifferenceas tothemalversationsofitsdistant officers，whichmaybetraced，partlyperhapstothebigotrywhichhasmadethecommanderofthefaithfulcarelessaboutthe treatmenthisChristiansubjectsreceivedfromMahometanofficers:andpartlytoanobstinateignoranceoftheordinaryarts ofcivilizedgovernments，whichthevanityoftheOttomanshascherishedasifitwereamerit，andwhichtheirbigotryhas alsohelpedtorecommendtotheirgoodopinion。Nearthecapital，andinthecountrieswheretheTurksthemselvesare numerous，therearesomeboundstotheoppressionofthePachasandAgas。TheTurks，secureofjusticeiftheycancontrive tobeheardbythesuperiorauthorities，havefoundthemeansofprotectingtheirpersonsandproperties，bybelongingto societies，whichareboundasbodies，toseekjusticeforthewrongsofindividualmembers。 Butinthedistantprovincesno sectissafe。Thecryoftheoppressediseasilystifled，andiffaintlyheard，seemshabituallydisregarded。TheSultanindeed abstains，withsingularforbearance，fromanyattemptstoraisetherevenuepaidtohimself；butprovideditisregularly transmittedbythePachasoftheprovinces，hecareslittlebywhatmeans，orwithwhatadditionalextortions，itiswrung fromthepeople。Theconsequencesaresuchasmightbeexpected。ThejealousyofthegovernmentallowsthePachasto remaininofficebutashorttime，theknowledgeofthisinflamestheircupidity，andthewretchedcultivatorsareallowedto existinpeaceuponthesoil，onlywhiletheysubmittoexactionswhichhavenootherlimitthanthephysicalimpossibilityofgettingmorefromthem。VolneyhasaccuratelydescribedtheeffectofthisstateofthingsinSyriaandEgypt。\"TheabsolutetitleoftheSultantothe soilappearstoaggravatetheoppressionofhisofficers。Thesonisnevercertainofsucceedingtothefather，andthe peasantryoftenflyindesperationfromasoilwhichhasceasedtoyieldthemthecertaintyofevenabaresubsistence。 Exactions，undiminishedinamount，aredemanded，andasfaraspossibleextorted，fromthosewhoremain；depopulation goeson，thewasteextendsitself，anddesolationbecomespermanent。\"Itisthusthatascantyandmostmiserableremnantof thepeoplearefoundoccupyingtracts，whichwerethegloryofancientcivilization；andofwhichtheclimateandthesoilare such，thatmenwouldmultiplyandwouldenrich，almostwithouteffort，themselvesandtheirmasters；didthegeneral governmentthinkfittoprotectitssubjectswithhalftheenergyitsometimesexerts，toforcethespoilerstodisgorgea miserablepittanceofplunderintotheimperialtreasury。 SECTIONV。 OfRyotRentsinChina。WeknowenoughofChinatobeaware，thatthesovereignisthere，aselsewhereinAsia，thesoleproprietorofthesoil:but wehardlyknowenoughtojudgeaccuratelyofthepeculiarmodificationswhichthissystemofimperialownershiphas receivedinthatcountry。ThemannerinwhichtheChinesegovernmentassumespossessionoftheland，andimposesarent uponitinthecaseofnewconquests，iscuriouslyillustratedbyaletterofavictoriousChinesecommandertotheEmperor， publishedbyMr。Patton。(17)Althoughone-tenthoftheproduceisthenominalrentinChina，itisnotunlikelythatavery differentportionisactuallycollected。Itwouldbeveryinterestingtohavemoremultipliedanddetailedobservationsonthe practicaleffectsofthesystemamongtheChinese，thanthejealousyofthegovernmentislikelysoontogiveopportunityforobtaining。TheprogressandeffectsofryotrentsinChina，mustalmostnecessarilyhavebeenverydifferentfromthoseexhibitedby India，Persia，orTurkey。Intheselastcountries，thevicesofthegovernment，andtheoppressionanddegradationresulting fromthem，haveleftuslittlemeansofjudgingwhatmightbetheresultsofthesystemitself，ifconductedforany considerableperiodbyanadministrationmoremildandforbearing，andcapableofgivingsecuritytothepersonsand propertyofthecultivators。InChinathisexperimentseemstohavebeenfairlytried。Theartsofgovernmentare，toacertain extent，understoodbythelaboriouslyeducatedcivilians，bywhosehandstheaffairsoftheEmpirearecarriedon；thecountry has，tillverylately，beenremarkablyfreefromintestineconvulsionorseriousforeignwars，andtheadministrationhasbeen wellorganized，pacificandefficient。ThewholeconductindeedoftheEmpire，presentsastrikingcontrasttothatofthe neighbouringAsiaticmonarchies，thepeopleofwhich，accustomedtoseeviolenceandbloodshed thecommoninstruments ofgovernment，expressgreatwonderatthespectacleoftheChinesestatesmenupholdingtheauthorityofthestateratherby thepenthanthesword。(18)Oneeffectweknowtohavefollowedfromthepublictranquillity:thespreadofagriculture，and anincreaseofpeoplemuchbeyondthatoftheneighbouringcountries。WhilenotonehalfofIndiahaseverbeenreclaimed，andlessstillofPersia，Chinaisasfullycultivated，andmorefullypeopledthanmostEuropeanmonarchies。Whetheranyclassofsubordinateproprietorsexistsbetweenthecrownandthepersonspayingproducerentsliketothe Zemindars，ofIndia；whetherthepersonsactuallyliableforthepro。ducerents，arethecultivatingpeasantsthemselves，ora classabovethem，wehavenosufficientdatatodetermine。Insomecases，atleast，theactualcultivatorsarepersonshiringthegroundfromthoseliableforthecrown，andpayingthemhalftheproduce。ThereareabundantindicationsthattheChinesepopulationhas，insomepartsoftheEmpire，increasedbeyondthenumber forwhichtheterritorycanproduceaplentifulsubsistence，andthattheyareinastateofthemostwretchedpenury。Thevery facilitiesforincreasewhichgoodgovernmentgivestoaryotpopulation，willusuallybefollowedbysuchaconsequence，if intheprogressoftheirmultiplicationacertainadvancehasnottakenplaceinthehabitsandcivilizationofthemassofthe people。Theabsenceofthatimprovementmayflowfromvariouscauses，whichinunfoldingthesubjectofpopulation，itwill bepartofourbusinesstodistinguish。WeknowenoughofChinatobesure，thatobstaclestothe ameliorationofthehabits andcharacterofthemassofthepeople，existinabundancethere，andthereforetherapidspreadofpopulation，uptoa certainpoint，wouldcertainlybethefirsteffectofamildadministration。AccordingtoKiaproth，thenumberofryots (paysanscontribuables)atthetimeoftheMantchouconquestin1644，wasregisteredastwenty-sixmillions，whileallother classeswereestimatedatelevenmillions。Andsincethattimehecalculatesthatthewholepopulationhasquadrupled。 TherevenueofChinaamountstoabouteighty-fourmillionsofouncesofsilver。Ofthisrevenue，aboutthirty-threemillions ispaidinmoney，andaboutfifty-onemillionsingrains，rice，&；c。，consumedforthemostpartbythelocaladministrationof theprovinces。Aportiononly，ofthevalueofaboutsixmillionsofounces，isannuallyremittedtoPekin。Thereceiptofthis hugerevenue，intheprimitiveshapeofagriculturalproduce，isastrikingproofthatthepowerandmeansoftheEmperorof China，likethoseofothereasternsovereigns，areintimatelyconnectedwith，orratherfoundedon，hisrightsasuniversalproprietorofthesoil。(19)ThereareotherconsiderablecountriesinAsiainwhichwehavegoodreasontoconclude，thatryotrentsprevail；consisting， first，ofthecountriesbetweenHindostanandChina，theBirmanEmpire，anditsdependencies，CochinChina，&；c。；and， secondly，ofthestatesinhabitedbyagriculturalTartars，northoftheHimalayamountainsandeastofPersia，Samarcan， Bokhara，andthestatesofLittleBucharia:butthepeculiarmodificationsthesystemmayreceiveinthesecountries，andthe detailsoftherelationstherebetweenlandlordandtenant，areatpresentevenmoreoutofourreachthaninthecaseof China。 SECTIONVI。 MixtureofotherRentswithRyot。Onexamining，whereweareabletodoitminutely，thestateofthecountriesinwhichryotrentsprevail，weareimmediately struckwiththefact，thattheyaresometimesmixedupwithbothlaborrentsandmetayerrents。Thelandthenpresentsa strangecomplicationofinterests。Thereisanhereditarytenant，liabletoaproducerenttothecrown，andbycustomand prescriptionirremoveablewhilehepaysit。Thissametenant，receivingsomeassistanceinseedandimplements，paysa secondproducerenttoanotherperson，whosecharacterfluctuatesbetweenthatofanhereditaryofficerofthecrown，and thatofasubordinateproprietor；andsometimesathirdrentispaidtothissubordinateproprietor，inlabor，exertedonlandcultivatedforhisexclusivebenefit。Tobeginwiththelaborrents，thusengraftedonryotrents。TheRyotofBengaloftengrantsaplotofhisgroundtoa ploughmanwhoassistshim。Thisisapurelaborrent，paidbytheunder-tenant。TheZemindarsoftendemandfromtheryots themselves，acertainquantityoflabor，tobeperformedontheirdomainlands。Thisdemandisoftenexcessive，andisthe sourceofgrievousoppressionandfrequentcomplaint，bothinIndiaandPersia。Whenmoderatehowever，itisconsidered legal，andthenformsanotherlaborrent，paidbytheryothimself。TheAgasofTurkeyoftenforcetherayahsoftheirZaims orTimars，toperformacertainnumberofdays\'workontheirownprivatefarms。Thisisunquestionablyaltogetheranillegalexaction；butissocustomarythatitmustbecountedinpracticeasanadditionalrent。MetayerrentstoohaveaconstanttendencytospringupandengraftthemselvesonryotrentsthroughoutAsia，whereverthe moderationandefficiencyofthegovernmentissuchastoensureprotectiontothepropertyadvancedtothecultivator，or wherevertherelationofthepartyadvancingstocktothecultivator，issuchastogiveapeculiarpowerofenforcing payment，andapeculiarinterestinassistingcultivation。BoththegovernmentandtheZemindarsinIndiaoccasionally advanceseedandstocktotheryot。Thegovernmentreluctantly，andonlywhenitcannotavoidit:thelandsthuscultivated onthepartofgovernment，arecalledcossandcomar；andtogetthemintothehandsofryots，whocancultivatethemselves， seemstohavebeenalwaysanobjectofpolicy。TheZemindarsmorereadilyandhabituallymakesuchadvances，andastheir shareoftheproduceisthenregulatedwhollybytheirprivatebargainwiththeryot，henodoubtisoccasionallymuch oppressed:butthisisnotalwaysthecase。InPersiaparticularly，thisarrangementisconsideredthebestforthetenant； becauseinthatcountry，itisonlyinthiscase，thattheZemindarorsubordinateproprietorundertakestowardoffthe extortionoftheofficersofthecrown，andtosettlewiththemhimself。 SECTIONVII。 SummaryofRyotRents。Thereisnothingmischievousinthedirecteffectofryotrents。Theyareusuallymoderate；andwhenrestrictedtoatenth，or evenasixth，fifth，orfourthoftheproduce，ifcollectedpeacefullyandfairly，theybecomeaspeciesoflandtax，andleave thetenantabeneficialhereditaryestate。Itisfromtheirindirecteffects，therefore，andfromtheformofgovernmentinwhich theyoriginate，andwhichtheyservetoperpetuate，thattheyarefullofevil，andarefoundinpracticemorehopelesslydestructiveofthepropertyandprogressofthepeople，thananyformoftherelationoflandlordandtenantknowntous。Theproprietaryrightsofthesovereign，andhislargeandpracticallyindefiniteinterestintheproduce，preventtheformation ofanyreallyindependentbodyontheland。Bythedistributionoftherentswhichhisterritoryproduces，themonarch maintainsthemostinfluentialportionoftheremainingpopulationinthecharacterofcivilormilitaryofficers。Thereremain onlytheinhabitantsofthetownstointerposeachecktohispower:butthemajorityofthesearefedbytheexpenditureof thesovereignorhisservants。Weshallhaveafitteropportunitytopointout，howcompletelytheprosperity，orratherthe existence，ofthetownsofAsia，proceedsfromthelocalexpenditureofthegovernment。Asthecitizensarethusdestitute fromtheirpositionofrealstrength，sotheAsiaticsovereigns，havingnobodyofpowerfulprivilegedlandedproprietorsto contendwith，havenothadthemotiveswhichtheEuropeanmonarchshad，tonurseandfosterthetownsintoenginesof politicalinfluence，andthecitizensareproverbiallythemosthelplessandprostrateoftheslavesofAsia。Thereexistsnothing thereforeinthesocietybeneathhim，whichcanmodifythepowerofasovereign，whoisthesupremeproprietorofa territorycultivatedbyapopulationofryotpeasants。Allthatthereisofrealstrengthinsuchapopulation，lookstohimas thesolesourcenotmerelyofprotectionbutofsubsistence:heisbyhispositionandnecessarilyadespot。Buttheresultsof Asiaticdespotismhaveeverbeenthesame:whileitisstrongitisdelegated，anditspowerabusedbyitsagents；whenfeeble anddeclining，thatpowerisviolentlysharedbyitsinferiors，anditsstolenauthorityyetmoreabused。Initsstrengthandin itsweaknessitisalikedestructiveoftheindustryandwealthofitssubjects，andalltheartsofpeace；anditisthiswhich makesthatpeculiarsystemofrents，onwhichitspowerrests，particularlyobjectionableandcalamitoustothecountriesinwhichitprevails。Incountriescultivatedbyryots，thewagesofthemainbodyofthepeoplearedeterminedbytherenttheypay，asisthecase itwillberememberedunderallvarietiesofpeasantrents。Thequantityofproducebeingdeterminedbythefertilityofthe soil，theextentofhisallotmentsofland，andtheskill，industry，andefficiencyoftheryot:thedivitionofthatproduceonwhichhiswagesdepend，isdeterminedbyhiscontractwiththelandlord，thatis，bytherenthepays。Inlikemannertheamountofrentinsuchcountriesisdeterminedbytheamountofwages。Theamountoftheproducebeing decidedasbefore，thelandlord\'sshare，therent，dependsuponthecontracthemakeswiththelaborer，thatis，upontheamountdeductedaswages。Theexistenceandprogressofrentsundertheryotsystemisinnodegreedependentupontheexistenceofdifferentqualities ofsoil，ordifferentreturnstothestockandlaboremployedoneach。Thesovereignproprietorhasthemeansofenablinga bodyoflaborerstomaintainthemselves，whowithoutthemachineryoftheearthwithwhichhesuppliesthem，muststarve。Thiswouldsecurehimashareintheproduceoftheirlabor，thoughallthelandswereperfectlyequalinquality。Ryotrentsmayincreasefromtwocauses，fromanincreaseofthewholeproduce，effectedbythegreaterskill，industry，and efficiencyofthetenant:orfromanincreaseofthesovereign\'sproportionoftheproduce；theproduceitselfremainingthesame，andthetenant\'ssharebecomingless。Whentherentincreasesandtheproduceremainsstationary，theincreaseindicatesnoaugmentationofpublicwealth。There hasbeenatransferofwealth，butnoincreaseofit；andonepartyisimpoverishedbythepreciseamountthatanotheris enriched。Butwhenryotrentsincreasebecausetheproducehasbecomelarger，thecountryisenrichedbyanadditionof wealthtothefullamountoftheincrease。Itspowerofmaintainingfleetsandarmies，andalltheelementsofpublicstrength， havebeenaugmentedtothatextent；therehasbeenarealincreaseofwealth，notameretransferofwhatbeforeexisted， fromonehandtoanother。Suchanincreasetooindicatesanaugmentationoftherevenuesoftheryotsthemselves。Ifthetenthorsixthofthesovereignhasdoubled，thenine-tenthsorfive-sixthsoftheryothavedoubledalso。Theincreaseofrentswhichisthusseentogohandinhandwiththe，improvementofthegeneralwealthandstrength，isthat whichaloneinthelongruncanreallybenefitthelandlord。Whileanincreaseofproducerentshasitssourceingreatercrops， itmaygoontilltheskillofmanandthefertilityoftheearthhavereachedtheirmaximum，thatis，indefinitely。Asiatic tenants，cultivatingwiththeirownsoilandclimate，andtheskillandenergyofthebestEuropeanfarmers，mightcreate producemuchgreaterthananyyetknowninthatquarteroftheglobe，andbegreatlyimprovingtheirownrevenuewhile theywerepayingincreasedrentstothesovereign。Andwhiletheprosperityoftheryotsthuskeptpacewiththeincreaseof rents，theresultwouldbe，notmerelyanincreaseofthecropsonthelandsalreadycultivated，buttherapidspreadof cultivationtootherlands。Aprotectedandthrivingandincreasingpopulationwouldspeedily reclaimtherichwastesof TurkeyandIndia，andcallbacktheirvanishedfertilitytothedesertedplainsofPersia，multiplyingateverystepboththe directrevenueofthesovereignlandlord，andhisresourcesinthegeneralwealthofhispeople。TakingAsiaasawhole，such aprogressseemsvisionary，butitisoccasionallyexhibited，onasmallerscale，inamannerwhichverydistinctlyprovesit possible，andindeedeasyonthegreatest。(20)Anincreaseofrentsderivedfromastationaryproduce，andadiminutionofthe ryot\'sshare，areunfortunatelymorecommoninAsia，andleadtonosuchresults。Inthestateinwhichtheryotsusually exist，todecreasetheirrevenueistoinjureifnottodestroytheirefficiencyasagentsofcultivation。Aseriousinvasionofitis veryusuallyfollowed，andcarriedtoacertainextentitmustbefollowed，bythedesertionofthecultivatorsandthe abandonmentofcultivation，andatotalcessationofrent。Thegreedinessofeasternrulersordinarilysnatchesatthebaitof presentgain，andoverlooksordisregardstheverydifferentultimateconsequenceswhichfollowtheaugmentingtheirlanded revenues，fromtheone，orfromtheother，ofthesesourcesofincrease。HenceinagreatmeasuretheactualstateofAsia，the miseryofthepeople，thepovertyandfeeblenessofthegovernments。Anexaminationintothenatureandeffectsofryot rents，receivesarealmostmournfulinterestfromtheconviction，thatthepoliticalandsocialinstitutionsofthepeopleofthis largedivisionoftheearth，arelikelyformanylongagesyettocome，torestuponthem。Wecannotunveilthefuture，but thereislittleinthecharacteroftheAsiaticpopulation，whichcantemptuseventospeculateuponatime，whenthatfuture，withrespecttothem，willessentiallydifferfromthepastandthepresent。1。TheyhavebeenintroducedbyAsiaticsintoTurkeyinEurope。TheyexistinEgypt；andmayperhapshereafterbetracedinAfrica。2。Elphinstone\'sCaubul，Vol。II。p。215。Whenthepeoplearecollectedintocamps，theyaregovernedbytheirown Mooshirs，withoutanyreferencetotheKhaun，andwhentheyarescatteredoverthecountry，theysubsistwithoutany governmentatall:butwhenamarchiscontemplated，theyimmediatelysubmittotheKhaun，andwheretheyhavetopassan enemy\'scountry，heisappointedheadoftheChelwashtees，assumesanabsoluteauthority，andbecomesanobjectofrespect