第6章

andanxietytoallthetribe。AproofoftheimportanceoftheKhaunduringamarch，is`shewnbytheconductoftheNausser atonetime，whenJunusKhan，theirpresentchief，refusedtoaccompanytheminoneoftheirmigrations。Hewasanxiousto remaininDamaunwith200or300ofhisrelations，toassistSurwurKhaunagainsttheVizeerees；buthisresolution occasionedgreatdistressinthetribe，whodeclareditwasimpossibletomarchwithouttheirKhaun。Soearnestweretheir representations，thatJunuswasatlastcompelledtoabandonhisformerdesign，andtoaccompanythemontheirmarchto Khorassaun3。Colebroke\'sDig。ofHindooLaw，Vol。I。p。480。 4。ForthecourseofthesesandsontheconfinesofPersiaandTartary，seeFraser\'sKhorauan，p。253。 5。Fraser6。Fraser，p。168。7。Thisperhapsisafable，butthecannautsmustsometimesdischargeveryconsiderablebodiesofwater。Mr。Fraser，who firstmetwiththematKauseroon，says:Thecannautsorsubterraneancanalshavefrequentlybeendescribed，andconstitute almosttheonlyspeciesofimprovementrequiringoutlay，stillcarriedoninPersia:becausethepropertythusacquiredis protected，andtheprofitconsiderable，andnotveryremote:indeed，theyaremostcommonlyconstructedbypersonsin authority，whodisposeofthewaterthusbroughttothesurfaceatveryhighrates。Severalnewoneshavebeenlatelymade intheKauseroonvalley，andsomenotionmaybeformedofthevalueofsuchproperty，whenitisunderstoodthatthesmall streamatDalakeebringsinarevenueof4000rupeesayear；andthatonecannaut，latelyopenedbyKuibAlleeKhan， governorofKauseroon，affordsastreamatleastfiveorsixtimesmoreconsiderable。Amongotheruses，itservestoirrigate agardenwhichcontainssomeofthefinestorangetreesbothbitterandsweet，shaddock，lime，andpomegranatetrees，that canbefoundinthecountry。Fraser\'sKhorassan，p。79。 8。Fraser，p。118。 9。Fraser，p。405。 10。Fraser，p。208。 11。Fraser，p。211。 12。Fraser，p。205。13。Fraser，p。390。TheKetkhoda(headmanofthevillage)observedthatthoseryotswhoaccountwiththeirlandlords，are betteroffthanthosewhoaccountdirectlytogovernment，fromtheofficersofwhichthepoorerclassessuffergreat extortions。 14。Frazer，p。173。 15。Thornton，p。166。 16。Oliv。p。192。 17。Patton，232，233。18。Frazer，Appendix，p。114。SeeFrazer\'saccountoftheChineseadministrationintheprovincesnearestKhorasan，andof theeffectwhichthespectacleofthatadministrationproducedonthemindsofmerchantsandtravellersfromotherAsiatic states。 19。BulletindesSciences，No。5，Mai1829。p。314。 20。Appendix。 CHAPTERV。 CottierRents。Undertheheadofcottierrents，wemayincludeallrentscontractedtobepaidinmoney，bypeasanttenants，extractingtheirownmaintenancefromthesoil。Theyarefoundtosomeextentinvariouscountries；butitisinIrelandalonethattheyexistinsuchamass，aspalpablyto influencethegeneralstateofthecountry。Theydifferfromtheotherclassesofpeasantrentsinthisthemostmaterially；that itisnotenoughforthetenanttobepreparedtogiveinreturnforthelandwhichenableshimtomaintainhimself，apartof hislabor，asinthecaseofserfrents，oradefiniteproportionoftheproduce，asinthecaseofmetayerorryotrents。Heis bound，whateverthequantityorvalueofhisproducemaybe，topayafixedsumofmoneytotheproprietor。Thisisa changemostdifficulttointroduce，andveryimportantwhenintroduced。Moneypaymentsfromtheoccupiers，arebyno meansessential，wemustrecollect，totheriseorprogressofrents。Overbyfarthegreaterpartoftheglobesuchpayments haveneveryetbeenestablished。Tenantsyieldingplentifulrentsinproduce，maybequiteunable，fromtheinfrequencyof exchanges，topayevensmallsumsinmoney，andtheownersofthelandmay，anddo，formanaffluentbody，consumingand distributingalargeproportionoftheannualproduceofacountry，whileitisextremely difficultforthemtolaytheirhands onveryinsignificantsumsincash。Moneyrents，indeed，aresoveryrarelypaidbypeasantcultivators，thatwheretheydo existamongthem，wemayexpecttofindthepowerofdischargingthemfoundedonpeculiarcircumstances。Inthecaseof Ireland，itistheneighbourhoodofEngland，andtheconnectionbetweenthetwocountries，whichsupportsthesystemof moneyrentspaidbythepeasantry。FromallpartsofIreland，theaccess，directorindirect，totheEnglishmarket，givesthe Irishcultivatorsmeansofobtainingcashforaportionoftheirproduce。Insomedistricts，itevenappearsthattherentsare paidinmoneyearntbyharvest-workinEngland；anditisrepeatedlystatedintheevidencebeforetheEmigration Committee，that，werethisresourcetofail，thepowerofpayingrentswouldceaseinthese districtsatonce。WereIreland placedinaremoterpartoftheworld，surroundedbynationsnotmoreadvancedthanherself，andwerehercultivators dependentfortheirmeansofgettingcashonherowninternalopportunitiesofexchange；itseemshighlyprobable，thatthe landlordswouldsoonbedrivenbynecessitytoadoptasystemofeitherlabororproducerents，similartothosewhichprevailoverthelargeportionoftheglobe，cultivatedbytheotherclassesofpeasanttenantry。Onceestablished，however，theeffectsoftheprevalenceofcottierrentsamongapeasantpopulationareimportant:some advantageous，someprejudicial。Inestimatingthem，welaborunderthegreatdisadvantageofhavingtoformourgeneral conclusionsfromaviewofasingleinstance，thatofIreland。Didweknownothingoflaborrentsbutwhatwecollectfromonecountry，Hungaryforinstance，howverydeficientwouldhavebeennotionsoftheircharacteristics。Thedisadvantagesofcottierrentsmayberangedunderthreeheads。First，thewantofanyexternalchecktoassistin repressingtheincreaseofthepeasantpopulationbeyondtheboundsofaneasysubsistence。Secondly，thewantofany protectiontotheirinterests，fromtheinfluenceofusageandprescriptionindeterminingtheamountoftheirpayments。And， thirdly，theabsenceofthatobviousanddirectcommoninterest，betweentheownersandtheoccupiersofthesoil，which undertheothersystemsofpeasantrents，securetothetenantstheforbearanceandassistanceoftheirlandlordswhencalamityovertakesthem。Thefirst，andcertainlythemostimportantdisadvantageofcottierrentsistheabsenceofthoseexternalchecks(commonto everyotherclassofpeasantrents)whichassistinrepressingtheeffectsofthedispositionfoundinallpeasantcultivators，toincreaseuptothelimitsofaveryscantysubsistence。Toexplainthis，wemust，toaslightextent，anticipatethesubjectofpopulation。Itshallbeasshortlyaspossible。Weknow thatmen\'sanimalpowerofincreaseissuch，astoadmitofaveryrapidreplenishingofthedistrictstheyinhabit。Whentheir numbersareasgreatastheirterritorywillsupportinplenty，iftheeffectsofsuchapowerofincreasearenotdiminished， theirconditionmustgetworse。If，however，theeffectsoftheiranimalpowerofmultiplicationarediminished，thismust happen，eitherfrominternalcausesormotives，indisposingthemtoitsfullexercise，orfromexternalcausesacting independentlyoftheirwill。Butapeasantpopulation，raisingtheirownwagesfromthesoil，andconsumingtheminkind， whatevermaybetheformoftheirrents，areuniversallyacteduponveryfeeblybyinternalchecks，orbymotivesdisposing themtorestraint。Thecausesofthispeculiarityweshallhavehereaftertopointout。Theconsequenceis，thatunlesssome externalcause，quiteindependentoftheirwill，forcessuchpeasantcultivatorstoslackentheirrateofincrease，theywill，ina limitedterritory，whateverbetheformoftheirrents，veryrapidlyapproachastateofwantandpenury，andwillbestopped atlastonlybythephysicalimpossibilityofprocuringsubsistence。Wherelaborormetayerrentsprevail，suchexternalcauses ofrepressionarefoundintheinterestsandinterferenceofthelandlords:whereryotrentsareestablished，inthevicesand mismanagementofthegovernment:(1)wherecottierrentsprevail，nosuchexternalcausesexist，andtheunchecked dispositionofthepeopleleadstoamultiplicationwhichendsinwretchedness。Cottierrents，then，evidentlydifferforthe worseinthisrespectfromserfandmetayerrents。Itisnotmeantofcoursethatserfsandmetayersdonotincreasetilltheir numbersandwantswouldaloneplacethemverymuchatthemercyoftheproprietors，buttheobviousinterestsofthose proprietorsleadsthemtorefusetheirassenttothefurtherdivisionofthesoil，andsotowithholdthemeansofsettlingmore families，longbeforetheearthbecomesthrongedwithamultitudinoustenantry，towhichitcanbarelyyieldsubsistence。The RussianorHungariannoblewantsnomoreserftenantsthanaresufficientforthecultivationofhisdomain；andherefuses allotmentsoflandtoanygreaternumber，orperhapsforbidsthemtomarry。Thepowerofdoingthishasatonetimeorother existedasalegalrightwhereverlaborrentshaveprevailed。Theownerofadomaincultivatedbymetayers，hasaninterestin notmultiplyinghistenants，andthemouthstobefed，beyondthenumbernecessarytoitscompletecultivation。Whenhe refusestosubdividethegroundfurther，freshfamiliescanfindnohome，andtheincreaseof theaggregatenumbersofthe peopleischecked。Thethinnessofthepopulationinryotcountriesisordinarilycausedbythevicesandviolenceofthe government，andthereisnoquestionthatthisiswhatkeepssolargeaportionofAsiaillpeopledordesolate。Butwhencottierrentshaveestablishedthemselves，theinfluenceofthelandlordisnotexertedtocheckthemultiplicationofthepeasantcultivators，tillanextremecasearrives。Thefirsteffectsoftheincreasingnumbersofthepeople，thatis，themore ardentcompetitionforallotments，andthegeneralriseofrents，seemforatimeunquestionableadvantagestothelandlords， andtheyhavenodirectorobviousmotivetorefusefurthersubdivision，ortointerferewiththesettlementoffreshfamilies， tilltheevidentimpossibilityofgettingthestipulatedrents，andperhapstheturbulenceofpeasantsstarvingoninsufficient patchesofland，warntheproprietorsthatthetimeiscome，whentheirowninterestsimperiouslyrequirethatthe multiplicationofthetenantryshouldbemoderated。Weknow，however，fromtheinstanceofIreland，theonlyoneonalarge scaleopentoourobservation，thatwhilerentsareactuallyrising，aconvictionthattheirnominalincreaseispreparingareal diminution，comesslowly，andisreceivedreluctantly；andthatbeforesuchaconvictionbeginstobegenerallyactedupon，thecultivatorsmaybereducedtoasituation，inwhichtheyarebothwretchedanddangerous。Thetardinesswithwhichlandlordsexerttheirinfluenceinrepressingthemultiplicationofthepeople，mustberankedthenamongthedisadvantagesofcottier，whencomparedwithserformetayerrents。Theirseconddisadvantageisthewantofanyinfluenceofcustomandprescription，inkeepingthetermsofthecontractbetweentheproprietorsandtheirtenantry，steadyandfixed。Insurveyingthehabitsofaserformetayercountry，weareusuallyabletotracesomeeffectsofancientusage。Thenumber ofdays\'laborperformedforthelandlordbytheserfremainsthesame，fromgenerationtogeneration，inalltheprovincesof considerableempires。ThemetayerderivedhisoldnameofColonusMedietariusfromtakinghalftheproduce；andhalfthe produceweseestillhisusualportion，throughoutlargedistrictscontainingsoilsofverydifferentqualities。Itistruethatthis influenceofancientusagedoesnotalwaysprotectthetenantfromwantoroppression；itstendencyhoweverisdecidedlyin hisfavor。Butcottierrents，contractedtobepaidinmoney，mustvaryinnominalamountwiththevariationsinthepriceof produce:afterchangehasbecomehabitual，alltracesofarent，consideredequitablebecauseitisprescriptive，arewhollylost，andeachbargainisdeterminedbycompetition。Therecanbelittledoubtthatthetendencytoconstancyinthetermsoftheircontract，observableinserfandmetayer countries，isonthewholeaprotectiontothecultivators，andthatchangeandcompetition，commonamongstcottiers，aredisadvantageoustothem。Thethirddisadvantageofcottierrentsistheabsenceofsuchadirectandobviouscommoninterestbetweenlandlordandtenant，asmightsecuretothecultivatorassistancewhenindistress。Therecanbenocaseinwhichthereisnot，inreality，acommunityofinterestbetweentheproprietorsofthesoil，andthose whocultivateit；buttheircommoninterestintheotherformsofpeasantholding，ismoredirectandobvious，andtherefore moreinfluential，uponthehabitsandfeelingsofbothtenantsandlandlords。Theownerofaserfreliesuponthelaborofhis tenantsforproducinghisownsubsistence，andwhenhistenantbecomesamoreinefficientinstrumentofcultivation，he sustainsaloss。Theownerofametairie，whotakesaproportionoftheproduce，cannotbutseethattheenergyand efficiencyofhistenant，arehisowngain:languidandimperfectcultivationhisloss。Theserf，therefore，reliesuponhislord\'s senseofinterest，orfeelingsofkindnessforassistance，ifhiscropsfail，orcalamityovertakeshiminanyshape；andhe seldomisrepulsedordeceived。Thishalfrecognizedclaimtoassistanceseems，weknow，occasionally，sovaluabletothe serfs，thattheyhaverejectedfreedomfromthefearoflosingit。Themetayersreceiveconstantlyloansoffoodandother assistancefromthelandlord，whenfromanycausestheirownresourcesfail。Thefearoflosingtheirstock，theirrevenue， andalltheadvancesalreadymade，preventthemostreluctantlandlordsfromwithholdingaidonsuchoccasions。Eventhe Ryot，miserableasheordinarilyis，andgreatasisthedistancewhichseparateshimfromthesovereignproprietor，isnot alwayswithoutsomeshareintheseadvantages。Hisexertionsarefelttobethegreatsourceoftherevenueofthestate，and undertolerablywellregulatedgovernments，theimportanceisfeltandadmitted，ofaidingthecultivatorswhendistressed，by forbearance，andsometimesbyadvances。(2) Theinterestsofthecottiertenantarelessobviouslyidentifiedwiththoseofthe proprietor:changesoftenants，andvariationsofrent，arecommonoccurrences，andtheremovalofanunluckyadventurer， andtheacceptanceofamoresanguinebidder，areexpedientsmoreeasyandpalateabletotheproprietors，thanthatof mixingthemselvesupwiththerisksandburthensofcultivation，byadvancestotheirtenants。InthehighlandsofScotland， indeed，thechiefassistedhisclanlargely。Theywerehiskinsmenanddefenders:boundtohimbytiesofblood，andthe guardiansofhispersonalsafety。Thehabitsengenderedwhilethesefeelingswerefresh，arenotyetwornout。LordStafford hassenttoSutherlandverylargesuppliesoffood。ThechiefoftheisleofRumseysupportedhispeopletosuchanextent， thathehaslatelyfounditworthwhiletoexpendveryconsiderablesumsinenablingthemtoemigrate。(3)Butthecottier merelyassuch，theIrishcottier，forinstance，hasnosuchholdonthesympathiesofhislandlord，andtherecanbeno questionthatofthevariousclassesofpeasanttenantry，theystandthemostthoroughlydesolateandaloneinthetimeof calamity:thattheyhavetheleastprotectionfromtheordinaryeffectsofdisastrousreverses，orofthefailureoftheirscantyresourcesfromanyothercauses。Sucharethedisadvantagesofthistheleastextensivesystemofpeasantrents。Theprincipaladvantagethecottierderives fromhisformoftenure，isthegreatfacilitywithwhich，whencircumstancesarefavourabletohim，hechangesaltogetherhis conditioninsociety。Inserf，metayer，orryotcountries，extensivechangesmusttakeplaceinthewholeframeworkof society，beforethepeasantsbecomecapitalists，andindependentfarmers。Theserfhasmanystagestogothroughbeforehe arrivesatthispoint，andwehaveseenhowharditisforhimtoadvanceonestep。Themetayertoomustbecometheowner ofthestockonhisfarm，andbeabletoundertaketopayamoneyrent。Bothchangestakeplaceslowlyandwithdifficulty， especiallythelast，thesubstitutionofmoneyrents，whichsupposesaconsiderablepreviousimprovementintheinternal commerceofthenation，andisordinarilytheresult，notthecommencement，ofimprovementintheconditionofthe cultivators。Butthecottierisalreadytheownerofhisownstock，heexistsinasocietyinwhichthepowerofpayingmoney rentsisalreadyestablished。Ifhethrivesinhisoccupation，thereisnothingtopreventhisenlarginghisholding，increasinghis stock，andbecomingacapitalist，andafarmerinthepropersenseoftheword。ItispleasingtoheartheresidentIrish landlords，whohavetakensomepains，andmadesomesacrifices，toimprovethecharacterandconditionoftheirtenantry， bearingtheirtestimonytothisfact，andstatingtherapiditywithwhichsomeofthecottiershave，undertheirauspices， acquiredstock，andbecomesmallfarmers。Mostofthecountriesoccupiedbymetayers，serfs，andryots，willprobably containasimilarraceoftenantryforsomeages。IftheeventsofthenexthalfcenturyarefavourabletoIreland，hercottiers arelikelytodisappear，andtobemergedinaverydifferentraceofcultivators。Thisfacilityforglidingoutoftheiractual conditiontoahigherandabetter，isanadvantage，andaverygreatadvantage，ofthecottierovertheothersystemsofpeasantrents，andatonesforsomeofitsgloomierfeatures。Makingallowancesforthepeculiaritiespointedout，theeffectsofcottierrentsonthewagesoflabor，andotherrelationsof society，willbesimilartothoseofotherpeasantrents。Thequantityofproducebeingdeterminedbythefertilityofthesoil， theextentoftheallotment，andtheskillandindustryofthecottier；thedivisionofthatproduceonwhichhiswagesdepend， isdeterminedbyhiscontractwiththelandlord；bytherenthepays。Andagain，thewholeamountofproducebeing determinedasbefore，thelandlord\'sshare，therent，dependsuponthemaintenancelefttothepeasant，thatis，uponhiswages。Theexistenceofrent，underasystemofcottiertenants，isinnodegreedependentupontheexistenceofdifferentqualitiesof soil，orofdifferentreturnstothestockandlaboremployed。Where，ashasbeenrepeatedlyobserved，nofundssufficientto supportthebodyofthelaborers，areinexistence，theymustraisefoodthemselvesfromtheearth，orstarve；and。this circumstancewouldmakethemtributarytothelandlords，andgiverisetorents，and，astheirnumberincreased，toveryhighrents，thoughallthelandswereperfectlyequalinquality。Cottierrents，likeotherpeasantrents，mayincreasefromtwocauses；first，fromanincreaseofthewholeproduce，ofwhich increasethelandlordtakesthewholeorapart。Or，theproduceremainingstationary，theymayincreasefromanaugmentationofthelandlord\'sshare，thatofthetenantbeingdiminishedtotheexactamountoftheadditionalrent。Whentherentincreasesandtheproduceremainsstationary，theincreaseofrentindicatesnoincreaseoftherichesand revenueofthecountry:therehasbeenatransferofwealth，butnoadditiontoit:onepartyisimpoverishedtothepreciseamounttowhichanotherisenriched。When，ontheotherhand，increasedrentsarepaidbyincreasedproduce，thereisanadditiontothewealthofthecountry，not ameretransferofthatalreadyexisting:thecountryisrichertotheextent，atleast，oftheincreasedrent:and，probably，toagreaterextentfromtheincreasedrevenueofthecultivators。Itisobviouslytheinterestofthelandlordofcottier，asofotherpeasanttenants，thatanincreaseofhisrentsshouldalways originateintheprosperityofcultivation，notinpressureonthetenants。Thepowerofincreasefromthelastsourceisverylimited:fromimprovement，indefinite。Itisclearlytootheinterestofthelandlord，thatthecottiertenantryshouldbereplacedbycapitalists，capablebothof pushingcultivationtothefullextenttowhichskillandmeanscancarryit:insteadofthelandbeingentrustedtothehandsof merelaborers，strugglingtoexist，unabletoimprove，andwhenmuchimpoverishedbycompetition，degraded，turbulent，anddangerous。AsitisproposedtoconsiderthepresentconditionofboththeIrishandEnglishpoorattheendofthework，whenweshall havetheassistanceofallthemoregeneralprinciplesweshallventuretounfold，thesubjectofcottierrentsneednotbe fartherpursuedhere。Theyhavealreadybeensufficientlyexamined，toshewthepointsinwhichtheywillagreewithordifferfromotherpeasantrents。1。Wherethephenomenoncanbeobservedofamildandefficientgovernmentoveraraceofryottenants，asinChina，they arefoundtoincreasewithextraordinaryrapidity。 2。Aurenzebe\'sInstructionstohisCollectors。 3。SeeEmigrationReport。 CHAPTERVI。 SUMMARYOFPEASANTRENTS。 InfluenceofRentonWages。Oneimportantfactmuststrikeusforciblyonlookingbackonthecollectivebodyofthoseprimaryorpeasantrents，which wehavebeentracing，intheirvariousforms，overthesurfaceoftheglobe。Itistheirconstantandveryintimateconnectionwiththewagesoflabor。Inthisrespecttheserf，themetayer，theryot，thecottier，arealike:thetermsonwhichtheycanobtainthespotofground theycultivate，exerciseanactiveandpredominantinfluence，indeterminingtherewardtheyshallreceivefortheirpersonal exertions；or，inotherwords，theirrealwages。Weshouldtakeaveryfalseviewofthecauseswhichregulatetheamountof theirearnings，ifwemerelycalculatedthequantityofcapitalinexistenceatanygiventime，andthenattemptedtocompute theirshareofitbyasurveyoftheirnumbers。Astheyproducetheirownwages，allthecircumstanceswhichaffecteither theirpowersofproduction，ortheirshareoftheproduce，mustbetakenintotheestimate。 Andamongthese，principally， thosecircumstances，whichwehaveseendistinguishonesetofpeasanttenantryfromanother。Themodeinwhichtheirrent ispaid，whetherinlabor，produce，ormoney:theeffectsoftimeandusageinsoftening，orexaggerating，ormodifying，the originalformorresultsoftheircontract:allthesethings，andtheircombinedeffects，mustbecarefullyexamined，andwell considered，beforewecanexpecttounderstandwhatitiswhichlimitsthewagesofthepeasant，andfixesthestandardofhisconditionandenjoyments。While，then，thepositionofalargeproportionofthepopulationoftheearthcontinuestobewhatithaseveryetbeen，such astoobligethemtoextracttheirownfoodwiththeirownhandsfromitsbosom；theformandconditionofpeasanttenures， andthenatureandamountoftherentspaidunderthem，willnecessarilyexercisealeadinginfluenceontheconditionofthe laboringclasses，andontherealwagesoftheirlabor。 InfluenceofPeasantRentsonAgriculturalProduction。Thenextremarkableeffect，commontoalltheformsofpeasantrents，istheirinfluenceinpreventingthefulldevelopementoftheproductivepowersoftheearth。Ifweobservethedifferencewhichexistsintheproductivenessoftheindustryofdifferentbodiesofmen，inanyofthe variousdepartmentsofhumanexertion，weshallfindthatdifferencetodepend，almostwholly，ontwocircumstances:first， onthequantityofcontrivanceusedinapplyingmanuallabor:secondly，ontheextenttowhichthemerephysicalexertionsof men\'shandsareassistedbytheaccumulatedresultsofpastlabor:inotherwords，onthedifferentquantitiesofskill， knowledge，andcapital，broughttothetaskofproduction。Adifferenceinthese，occasionsallthedifferencebetweenthe productivepowersofabodyofsavages，andthoseofanequalbodyofEnglishagriculturistsormanufacturers:andit occasionsalsothelessstrikingdifferences，whichexistbetweentheproductivepowersofthevariousbodiesofmen，whooccupygradationsbetweenthesetwoextremes。Whentheearthiscultivatedunderasystemofpeasantrents，thetaskofdirectingagriculture，andofprovidingwhatis necessarytoassistitsoperations，iseitherthrownwhollyuponthepeasants，asinthecaseofryotandcottierrents，or dividedbetweenthemandtheirlandlords，asinthecaseofserfandmetayerrents。Inneitherofthesecasesistheefficiency ofagriculturalindustrylikelytobecarriedasfarasitmightbe。Poverty，andtheconstantfatiguesoflaboriousexertion，put bothscience，andthemeansofassistinghisindustrybytheaccumulationofcapital，outofthereachofthepeasant。And whenthelandlordshaveoncesucceededingettingridinpartoftheburthenofcultivation，andhaveformedabodyof peasanttenantry，itisinvaintohopeformuchsteadysuperintendanceorassistancefromthem。Thefixedandsecurenature oftheirproperty，andtheinfluencewhichitgivesthemintheearlystagesofsocietyoverthecultivatingclass，thatis，over thegreatmajorityofthenation，leadtotheformationoffeelingsandhabits，inconsistentwithadetailedattentiontothe conductofcultivation；whiletheyveryrarelypossessthepowerandthetempersteadilytoaccumulatethemeansofassisting theindustryemployedontheirestates。Someskill，andsomecapital，mustbefoundamongtheveryrudestcultivators:but themostefficientdirectionoflabor，andtheaccumulationandcontrivanceofthemeanstoendowitwiththegreatest attainablepower，seemtobethepeculiarprovince，theappointedtask，ofaraceofmen，capitalists，distinctfromboth laborersandlandlords，morecapableofintellectualeffortsthanthelower，morewillingtobring sucheffortstobearonthe improvementofthepowersofindustry，thanthehigher，ofthoseclasses。Onthepeculiarfunctionsofthisthirdclassofmen insociety，andofthevariouseffectsmoral，economical，andpolitical，producedbythemultiplicationoftheirnumbersand theirmeans，weshallhereafterhavetotreat。Theirabsencefromthetaskofcultivation，whichiscommontoallthewide classesofpeasanttenures，preventsthatperfectdevelopementoftheresourcesoftheearth，whichtheirskill，their contrivance，andthepowertheyexercisebytheemploymentofaccumulatedresources，doandcanaloneeffect。 SmallNumbersoftheNon-agriculturalClasses。Resultingfromthisimperfectdevelopementofthepowersoftheearth，willbefoundastuntedgrowthoftheclassesof societyunconnectedwiththesoil。Itisobvious，thattherelativenumbersofthosepersonswhocanbemaintainedwithout agriculturallabor，mustbemeasuredwhollybytheproductivepowersofthecultivators。Wherethesecultivateskilfully，they obtainproducetomaintainthemselvesandmanyothers；wheretheycultivatelessskilfully，theyobtainproducesufficientto maintainthemselvesandasmallernumberofothers。Therelativenumbersofthenon-agriculturalclasseswillneverbeso great，therefore，wheretheresourcesoftheeartharedevelopedwithdeficientormoderateskill andpower，astheyarewhen theseresourcesaredevelopedmoreperfectly。InFranceandItaly，theagricultureofthepeasanttenantryisgoodwhen comparedwiththatofsimilarclasseselsewhere，andthesoilandclimateare，onthewhole，excellent；yetthenumberof non-agriculturistsisinFranceonlyas1to2，inItalyas4to18，whileinEngland，withaninferiorsoilandclimate (agriculturalclimate，thatis，)thenon-agriculturistsaretothecultivatorsas2to1。(1)Therelativenumbersandinfluenceof thenon-agriculturalclassespowerfullyaffect，aswehavehadoccasionbeforetoremark，thesocialandpolitical circumstancesofdifferentcountries，and，indeed，mainlydecidewhatmaterialseachcountryshallpossess，fortheformation ofthosemixedconstitutionsinwhichthepowerofthecrown，andofalandedaristocracy，arebalancedandcontrolledbytheinfluenceofnumbers，andofpropertyfreedfromalldependanceonthesoil。Ishallnotbeunderstoodofcourse，asmeaningtoassert，thatthepresenceofalargeproportionofnon-agriculturistsis essentialtotheexistenceofdemocraticinstitutions:wehaveabundanceofinstancestothecontrary。Butwhenapowerful aristocracyalreadyexistsonthesoil，aswherepeasantrentsprevail，itneedsmust；thentheefficientintroductionof democraticelementsintotheconstitution，dependsalmostentirelyuponthenumbersandpropertyofthenon-agricultural classes。Theindirectinfluenceofpeasanttenurestherefore，inlimitingthenumbersofthenon-agriculturalclasses，mustbe reckonedamongthemostimportantofthepoliticalresultsofthosetenures。 IdentityoftheInterestsofLandlordswiththoseoftheirTenantryandtheCommunity。Alittleattentionissufficienttoshew，thatunderalltheformsofpeasanttenures，theinterestsofthelandlordsare indissolublyconnectedwiththoseoftheirtenantryandofthecommunityatlarge。Theinterestofthestateobviouslyis，that theresourcesofitsterritoryshouldbefullydevelopedbyaclassofcultivatorsfree，rich，andprosperous，andtherefore equaltothetask。Theinterestofthetenantmusteverbetoincreasetheproduceoftheland，onwhichproducehefeeds，to shakeofftheshacklesofserviledependence:andtoattainthatformofholdingwhichleaveshimmostcompletelyhisown master，andpresentsthefewestobstructionstohisaccumulationofproperty。 Theinterestsofthelandedproprietorconcurwiththeseinterestsofthestateandthetenantry。Thereisindeedamethodbywhichhisrevenuemaybeincreased，neitherbeneficialtothecommunity，noradvantageousto thetenant；thatis，byencroachingonthetenant\'sshareoftheproduce，whiletheproduceitselfremainsunaltered。Butthisis alimitedandmiserableresource，whichcontainswithinitselftheprinciplesofaspeedystoppageandfailure。Thatfull developementoftheproductivepowersofaterritory，whichisessentialtotheprogressiveriseoftheproprietor\'sincome， canneverbeforwardedbytheincreasingpenuryofthecultivators。Whilethepeasantistheagentorprincipalinstrumentof production，theagricultureofacountrycanneverthrivewithhisdeepeningdepression。IfthewasteplainsofAsia，andthe forestsofEasternEurope，areevertoproducetotheirproprietorsarevenueatalllikewhatsimilarquantitiesoflandyieldinthebettercultivatedpartsoftheworla；itisnotbyincreasingthepenuryoftheraceofpeasantrybywhicharenowlooselyoccupied，thatsucharesultwillbebroughtabout。Theirincreasedmiserycanonlystaythespreadofcultivationand diminishitspowers。Themiserablescantinessoftheproduceofagreatpartoftheearth，isvisiblymainlyowingtotheactual povertyanddegradationofthepeasantcultivators。Buttherealinterestoftheproprietorsnevercanbetosnatchasmall gainfromadwindlingfund，whichateveryinvasionoftheirsislesslikelytobeaugmented，whentheymightensurea progressiveincreasefromtheindefiniteaugmentationofthefunditself。Itisobviouslythereforemostadvantageoustothe proprietors，thattheirrevenuesshouldincreasefromtheincreasingproduceoftheland，andnotfromthedecreasingmeansofitscultivators；andsofartheirinterestisclearlythesamewiththatofthestateandthepeasantry。Andfurther，itisnolesstheinterestofthelandlords，thanitisthatofotherclassesinthestate，thattheruderandmore oppressiveformsofhiscontractwithhistenantshouldgraduallybeexchangedforothers，moreconsistentwiththesocial andpoliticalwelfareofthecultivators。Thelandlordwhoreceiveslaborrentsmustbeafarmerhimself:thelandlordofthe metayermustsupportmostoftheburthensofcultivation，andshareinallitshazards；thelandlordofthecottiermustbe exposedtofrequentlossesfromthefailureofthemeansofhistenantry，andafteracertainpointintheirdepression，to considerabledangerfromtheirdesperation。Alltheadvantagesincidenttothepositionofalandedproprietor，areonly reapedintheirbestshape，whenhisincomeisfixed，and(extraordinarycasualtiesexcepted) certain；whenheisfreefrom anyshareintheburthensandhazardsofcultivation；whenwiththeprogressofnationalimprovementhispropertyhasits utmostpowersofproductionbroughtintofullplay，byaraceoftenantspossessedofintellectandmeansequaltothetask。 Thereceiveroflaborrentstherefore，gainsapointwhentheyarechangedtoproducerents；thereceiverofproducerents fromametayergainsapointwhentheyarechangedtomoneyrents。Thelandlordofcottiersgainsapointwhenthey becomecapitalists；andthesovereignoftheryotcultivatorsgainsapointwhentheproduceduefromthemcanbe commutedforfixedpaymentsinmoney。Thereisnoonestepintheprosperouscareerofapeasanttenantry，ofany description，atwhichtheinterestsofthelandlordsarenotbestpromotedbytheirprosperity:andthatinspiteoftheadmitted possibilityofastintedgaintotheproprietors，foundedontheincreasingpenuryofthecultivators。 OntheCausesofthelongDurationoftheSystemsofPrimaryorPeasantRents。Perhapsinanenquiryintothenatureandeffectsofthedifferentsystemsofpeasantrents。themostinterestingtractinthe wholelineofinvestigation，isthatinwhichweseektodiscoverthecauseswhichhavekeptthempermanentandunchanged，overalargepartoftheearth，throughalongsuccessionofages。Theinterestsofthestate，oftheproprietors，ofthetenantrythemselves，arealladvancedbytheprogressivechangeswhich inprosperouscommunitiessuccessivelytakeplaceinthemodeofcultivatingthesoil。Andyetinspiteoftheordinary tendencyofhumaninstitutionstochange，andofthenumerousinterestswhichinthisinstancecombinetomakechange desirable，ageshavetravelledpast，andagreatportionoftheearth\'ssurfaceisstilltilledbyracesofpeasantry，holdingthe landbytenuresandonconditionssimilartothoseimposeduponthepersonsinwhosehandsthetaskofcultivationwasfirst placed。Sucharetheserfsoftheeast，themetayerswhocoverthewestofEurope，andtheryotswhooccupythewholeofAsia。Whenwelookatthosecountriesinwhichpeasantrentshaveatanytimeprevailed，andobservetheiractualconditionwith referencetopast，orprobablechanges，thoserentsshewthemselvesinfourunequalmasses。Fromthefirstdivision，they havealreadypassed；spontaneouschanges，graduallybroughtabout，inslowsuccession，haveobliteratedallmarksofthe earlierandruderformsofholding。Araceofcapitalistsprovidingthestockadvancingthewagesoflabor，andpayingfixed moneyrents，havetakenentirepossessionofthetaskofcultivation，fromwhichtheproprietorsarecompletelyextricated。 Theportionoftheearth\'ssurfaceonwhichthishastakenplaceissmall。ltcomprisesEngland，thegreaterpartofScotland，a partofthekingdomoftheNetherlands，andspotsinFrance，Italy，Spain，andGermany。Inanotherpartoftheglobe，wesee thecauseswhichhaveelsewhereproducedthechangesjustreferredto，stillactuallyatwork，buttheirresultsyet incomplete。Withoutanydeliberatepurposeonthepartofanyclass，changesarequietlyandsilentlytakingplace，through whichtheagriculturalpopulationareadvancingtoapositionsimilartothatoftheEnglishfarmersandlaborers。Thisprocess maybeobservedinthewestofGermany:theretheserfshaveforsomeagesbeengoingthroughasluggishprocessof transmutationintoleibeigeners，hereditarytenantswithfixedlaborrents，andnotchainedtothesoil。Theleibeigenersare slowlyassumingthecharacterofmeyers，subjecttoanunalterableproducerent；averyfewstepsinadvancewillrangethe meyerbythesideoftheEnglishcopyholder；andthenallthesubstantialeffectsoftheirformercondition，astenantspayinglaborrents，willhavedisappeared。Thereisthismaterialdifference，however，betweenthepaststateofEngland，andthepresentstateofGermany。InEngland， thetenantswhoonthedisuseofthelaboroftheserftenantry，tookchargeofthecultivationofthedomainsofthe proprietors，werefoundontheland；theywereyeomen。InGermany，thetenantsofthedomainsareoffsetsfromthe non-agriculturalpopulation，andtheircapitalhasbeenaccumulatedinemploymentsdistinctfromagriculture。InEngland， thesourcefromwhichthenewtenantryproceeded，waslarge，andtheirspreadrapid。InGermany，thesourceissmaller，and thecreationofsuchatenantrymustbetheworkofamuchlongerperiod。Butthechangehasbeenslowinbothcountries。 CultivationbythelaborofthemanerialtenantswasverylongbeforeitfinallydisappearedfromEngland:thelegalobligation toperformsuchlaborhasglidedoutofsightalmostwithinmemory。SotoointhosepartsofGermanyinwhichtheprogress oftherelationsbetweentheproprietorsandthetenantryislefttotakeitsowncourse，itseemshighlyprobablethatavery longperiodwillyetelapsebeforelaborrentswhollydisappear。Spontaneouschangesinthehabitsofnationsusuallytakeplaceslowly，andoccupyagesintheirprogress。Gradualalterationsinthemodeofholdingandcultivatingland，occupiedbyapeasanttenantry，arenotconfinedtothe countriesinwhichlaborrentsprevail:metayershave，insomedistricts，givenplacetocapitalisttenants，andinothersareto befoundinastateoftransition；owningpartofthecapital，payingsometimesafixedquantityofproduce，sometimesamoneyrent，andpreparing，evidently，totakeuponthemselvesalltheburthensandhazardsofcultivation。Thetwodivisionsofrentswhichwehavejustnoticed，comprise，jointly，butasmallportionoftheearth。Inthem，aswe haveseen，amovementinadvanceofthecultivatorsthemselveshastakenplace，whichhasproceededfromtheinsensible improvementoftheircondition，andhasendedinone，andislikelytoendintheother，inanalterationintheformofrents。 Butinthatgreaterportionoftheearthwhichremainstobenoticed，therehasbeennospontaneousmovementinadvance， andthereisnotendencytoinsensiblechangetobeperceived。Yetinasmalldivisionofthatlargerportionveryrapid alterationsareinprogress，inadifferentmanner，andfromadifferentcause。Andthisconstitutesathirddivisionofpeasantrents，whenclassedwithreferencetotheirtendenciestochange。IntheEasternpartofEurope，thepeoplehaveneverreachedthemeans，oreventhewish，ofelevatingtheircondition:the modeofcultivationandtherelationsbetweentheproprietorsandtheirtenantry，might，apparently，asfarastheexertionsofthecultivatorsthemselvesareconcerned，havecontinuedunchangedwhiletheearthlasts。But，inthesecountries，theintellectandknowledgeofthehigherclassesarefarinadvanceoftheapathy，andstationary ignorance，ofthelower。Thelandedproprietorshavebeenabletocontrasttheconditionoftheircountryandtheirproperty， withthestateofmoreimprovednations，andhavebecomeanimatedbyazealousdesireofalteringtheconditionofthe peasantry，andthemodeofconductingagriculture。Thiscommonspirithasproduced，andisdailyproducing，avarietyof changes；differingindetailwiththeactualcircumstancesofdifferentdistricts，buthaving twocommonobjects；namely，the elevationofthecharacterandcircumstancesofthepresentpeasantcultivators，andtheimprovementofagricultureonthe domainsheldbytheproprietors。Wehavealreadyseen，thattheultimateresultsofthesevariouschangesareyetproblematical；thatwhatevertheymaybe，alongperiodoftimewillprobablyelapse，beforetheyarefullydeveloped。Abstracting，however，altogetherfromthethreedistrictswehavebeenconsidering，namely，thatinwhichpeasantrentshave beenactuallysuperseded，thatfromwhichtheyareslowlydisappearing，andthatfromwhichanattemptismakingforcibly toexpelthem；therestillremainsalargefourthdistrict:avastunbrokenmass，whichnomovementfromwithin，andnoinfluencefromwithout，haveyetbroughttogivesignsofapproachingchange。Astheattentionisnaturallymorecaughtbywhatisstirringandinmotion，thanbythingsofgreatermagnitudeand importancewhichareinertandstationary，thecountriesinwhichalterationsinthemodeofconductingagriculturearein progress，attractobservationmuchmorereadilythanthosewhichreallypresentamorecuriousandinterestingphenomenon； thoseinwhichtheformsofoccupyingthesoilfirstadopted，andthesystemsandrelationsofsocietyfoundedonthem，still prevail；inwhichthefaceofsocietyhasundergoneforcenturiesaslittlealterationastheface ofnature，andmenseemas unchangeableastheregionstheyinhabit。TheRyotsthroughoutAsia，andthepeasantsinaveryconsiderableportionof Europe，arepreciselywhattheyhaveeverbeen。Inspiteofthefluctuationsnaturaltoallhumaninstitutions，andofthe obviousdisadvantagesoftheirsystemsofcultivation，stilltheyendure，andarelikelytoendure，unlesssomegeneral movementtakesplaceonthepartofthehigherclasses，draggingthelowerfromtheirapathyandpoverty；orsomeinsensibleimprovementoftheircondition，enablesthelowerclassesthemselvestobeginaforwardprogress。Effortsofthehigherclasses，tointroduceforciblyimprovementsintotheconditionofthelower，arelittlelikelyeverto becomegeneralandsystematic，overanygreatproportionoftheearth\'ssurface。Tosupposeageneraldiffusionofpolitical knowledgeandphilosophy，dispellingeverywherethesluggishdreamsofselfishness，maybeapleasingreverie，butcan hardlyaffordanygroundforrationalanticipation。TheproprietorsoftheserfsofEasternEuropehavemade，itistrue， vigorousefforts，buttheywerestimulatedbytheintolerableburthensandembarrassmentswhichtheold systembrought uponthemselves，andnothingshortofsuchastimuluswouldmakesucheffortsgeneral。TheItalianorSpanishnoblesshew nosymptomsofbeingrousedtotaketheleadinalteringthetermsonwhichtheirestatesareused:eventheFrenchnoblesse， beforetherevolution，werequitepassiveundertheevilsandlosseswhichtheconditionoftheirmetayertenantrymade common。ThenativeprincesofAsiaarelittlelikelytobereformersintheagriculturaleconomyoftheircountry。seehowlittletheAnglo-Indiangovernmenthaseffectedinthisrespect。Butifthehigherclassesarelittlelikelytodisplaygeneralactivityasreformers，then，asthefoundationoffuture improvementsinthecircumstancesofthecultivatorsofalargepartoftheworld，thereremainonlysuchalterationsforthe better，asmayinsensiblytakeplaceintheconditionofthelowerclasses:suchbenefitsastheymaywinforthemselvesamidstthesilentlapseoftimeandeverydayevents。Ifthisisseen，itmustbeperceivedatonce，thattheactualstateofpenuryandmisery，whichmakesthecultivatorshelpless， andkeepsthemdestitute，isthegreatobstacletothecommencementofnationalimprovement；theheavyweightwhich keepsstationarythewealthandnumberandcivilizationofaverylargepartoftheearth。Ibelievethis，indeed，tobeonlyone caseofageneraltruth，withwhich，inourfutureprogress，weshallbecomemorefamiliar，thatthedegradationandabject povertyofthelowerclasses，canneverbefoundincombinationwithnationalwealth，andpoliticalstrength。Butwhenthe lowerclassesexistinthecharacterofpeasantcultivators，thisismorestrikinglytruethanelsewhere。Inpoorcountries，of