第7章

whichthenon-agriculturalpopulationbearsaverysmallproportiontothehusbandmen，itisusuallyinvaintoexpect，that theadditionalcapitalandskillnecessarytoeffectgreatnationalimprovementsincultivation，canbegeneratedanywherebut onthelanditself，andamongitsactualoccupiers。Ifonce，therefore，thepeasantryaresofarreducedintheircircumstances andcharacter，astohaveneitherthemeans，nor，afteratime，thewishorhope，toacquirepropertyandimprovetheir condition；thestateofagriculturalproduction，andtherelativenumbersofthenon-agricultural。andotherclassesmustbe nearlystationary；and，undersuchcircumstances，allplansfortheadvancementofagriculture，andimprovementofthe conditionofthepeasants，whicharenotfoundedontheprinciplethatthemeansofthecultivatoraretobe，inthefirstplace， enlarged，prove，almostnecessarily，abortive。Lawswhichconferuponhimpoliticalrightsandsecurity，areinthemselvesa meredeadletter，whilepovertyweighshimdown，andkeepshimfastinhisposition。TheFrenchmetayershadlongceased tobesubjecttothearbitrarypoweroftheproprietors:theirpersonsandpropertieswere，withsomeexceptions，assecureas thoseofanyclassinFrance；yettheircondition，andthecharacteroftheircultivationwere，atbest，stationary，and，insome districts，certainlydeclining。ItwastheonegreatobjectoftheFrencheconomists，tosubstituteforthisclassofcultivators， capitalistspayingmoneyrents，andthefaultoftheirplans，foraccomplishingtheirpurpose，wasthis，thatinsteadof recommendingmeasuresforthegeneraltransformationofthemetayersthemselvesintocapitalists，theyfoundedalltheir hopesofeffectingthechangetheythoughtsoallimportant，ontheremovalofthemetayers，andthegradualspreadof capitalists，fromthedistrictsinwhichtheyhadalreadyestablishedthemselves。Thiswasaprocess，whichcouldonlyhave goneonatallunderaveryfavourablestateofthemarketsforagriculturalproduce，andwhich，itwillbeclear，musthave takenagestocomplete，ifweconsiderthesmallpartofFranceoccupiedbycapitalists，andtheverylargeproportionofher surfacetilledbymetayers。Thetransformationofthemetayersthemselveswaslessdifficult，butitwasopposedbythemoral obstaclewearespeakingof，whichformstherealimpedimenttotheprogressofimprovement，underalltheformsof peasantrent。Itrequiredadistinctsacrificeofimmediateincome，onthepartoftheproprietorsorthegovernment。The metayerswereoppressedbytaxes，morethanbyrent:theshareofthelandlordintheproducehadnever beenincreased；but theexactionsofgovernmentfromthetenant\'sportion，hadreducedhimtothestateofmiserywhichTurgotdescribes。To enablethecultivatorsthentoamendtheircircumstances，toaccumulate，andultimatelytochangetheirformofholding，it wasnecessarytobeginbylighteningtheactualpressureonthem:toeffectthis，eitherthegovernmentmusthaveremitted partofitstaxes，ortheproprietorshaveconsentedtopaypartofthem，andtorelinquishthusapartoftheirownrevenue。 Onthesideofthestate，publicnecessity，partlyreal，andpartlyassumedbyministerswhodidnotforeseetowhatpointthey weredrivingthepopulation；onthepartoftheproprietors，whatTurgotispleasedtocalltheillusionsofselfinterestill understood，preventedsucharemissionoftheburthensofthepeasantryasmighthaveenabledthemtomakeastartin advance:theycontinuedthereforepoor，inefficient，stationary；andtheagriculturalresourcesofthestatewerestuntedand stoptintheirgrowthwiththepeasantry。Inspiteofthemiseriesofthatrevolution，throughwhichthefreedomofthe cultivatorsfromtheirancientoppressionshasbeenearnt，therevenuesofthebodyofagriculturistshavesoincreased，that Franceconsumesmorethanthreetimesthequantityofmanufacturedcommoditiesshedidbeforetherevolution，andher nonagriculturalpopulationhasdoubled。Thesefactstellatoncehowmuchsirelostinstrengthandwealth，bythefeebleness oftheagriculturaleffortsofthepeasantryundertheoldregime。ButconvulsionslikethatwhichinFrancedestroyedthe relationsbetweenlandlordandtenant，andconvertedalargeportionofthemetayersintosmallproprietors，arenottobe countedonintheordinarycourseofhumanaffairs；andwhenonceeithertheexactionsoflandlords，or ofthestate，or indeedanyothercircumstances，havereducedapeasanttenantrytopenury，thesamedifficultyconstantlyopposesitselfto thecommencementofimprovement。Nooneiswillingtomake，nooneordinarilythinksofmaking，adirectsacrificeof revenue，forthepurposeofaugmentingtheiractualmeans；andnothingshortofthatwillenablethemtostart。InIndia，the Anglo-IndiangovernmenthavebeencreditablyreadytogivemoresecurityandmorecivilrightstotheirIndiansubjectsthan theybeforeenjoyed；butwhenitbecameaquestionofdirectsacrificeofrevenue，notwithstandingtheclearestconvictionin theirownminds，thatthepopulationwouldbeincreased，cultivationimproved，andthewealthandresourcesoftheir territoriesrapidlymultiplied，stilltheexigenciesofthegovernmentwouldnotpermitthemtoremittheactualrentstothe amountof25percent。，or15percent。，eventoensurealltheseconfessedulterioradvantages；andthereforetheyconcludedthatthestateofcultivation，andthepovertyofthetenantrymustcontinueastheywere。(2)Fromthesamecauses，theposterityoftheemancipatedserfsofeasternEuropeareshutoutfromthepossibilityofforminga bodyofcapitalisttenants，fittedtotakechargeofthecultivationofthedomainsoftheproprietors。Personalfreedom， hereditarypossessionoftheirallotments，rightsandprivilegesinabundance，thelandlordsandsovereignsarewillingto grant；anditwouldbeextravaganttosaythesegrantsareworthnothing:butthatwhichisnecessarytoenablethepeasants toprofitbytheirnewposition，thatis，animmediaterelaxationofthepressureuponthem，anincreaseoftheirrevenue， proceedingfromadirectsacrificeofincomeonthepartofeitherthecrownorthelandlord，issomethingmuchmore difficulttobeaccomplished。InPrussia，therentchargefixedupontheserf，nowconstitutedaproprietor，forms，aswehave seen，oneoftheheaviestrentsknowninEurope。Andamongthevariousschemesforimprovingtheconditionofthe peasantry，afloatintheeastofEurope，Iknowbutofone，thatoftheLivoniannobility，inwhichadirectsacrificeofrevenueonthepartofthelandlordsiscontemplatedasthebasisoftheexpectedamelioration。(3)Itisunquestionablytheactualpenuryofthepeasants，andthelittlewhichhasbeendonetoenablethemtotakethefirst stepstoemergefromit，whichhave，inagreatmeasure，frustratedallthehopesofaugmentedwealthandimproved civilization，whichhavebeenentertainedbythebenevolentreformersofthenorth。Itisthistoo，whichhasbeenthecauseof theapathywithwhichthepeasanthasreceivedthegiftofpoliticalrights，andwhichhasmadethevariousboonsbestoweduponhimalmostnominal。Abstractingthenfromtheeffortsoflandlordsorgovernments，andlookingatthewholeextentofthatpartoftheglobe whichisatpresentlanguishingundertheinefficienteffortsofadepressedpeasanttenantry，itappearsthatwhenoncetheir circumstanceshavebecomereducedandtheirpovertyextreme，nothingbutarelaxationofthetermsoftheircontractwith thelandlord，oradiminutionoftheburthensimposedbythestate，cangivethemanopportunityofmakingthatfirst movementinadvancewhichmustbetheinitiativeoftheirnewcareer。Thedifficultyofprocuringsucharelaxation，arising oftenfromthenecessitiesortheblindness，morerarelyfromthepureselfishness，ofthelandlordsorsovereigns，isthereal causeofthestagnationandinefficiencyoftheartofagriculhire，andofthedurationofthepresentformsofholdingovera greatpartoftheworld。Inthehandsofapeasantrythoroughlydepressed，cultivationmayspread，butitspowerswillnot increase；thepeoplemaymultiply，buttherelativenumbersofthenonagriculturalclasseswillnotbecomemuchgreater；and abstractingfromtheincreaseofgrossnumbers，thewealthandstrengthofthepopulation，andtheelementsofpoliticalinstitutions，undergonoalteration。Suchthen，isthemiserablecausewhichhasmaintainedtherudeformsofprimitiveholdingsolongandsoextensively unchanged，andwhichseemsunhappilytopromisethemalongperiodoffuturedominion，overtoomanywidedistrictsoftheearth。Wemayobserveonsomesmallspots，ofwhichEnglandisone，theeffectsofadifferentsystem。Agricultureisfurther advancedtowardsperfection，andhencearisesacapacityofsupportingmuchmorenumerousnon-agriculturalclasses， whichaffordabundantandexcellentmaterialsforabalancedformofgovernment；hencetoo，intellect，knowledge，leisure， andalltheindicationsandelementsofhighcivilizationmultipliedandconcentrated。Werethewholeoftheearth\'ssurface cultivatedwithlikeefficiency，howdifferentwouldbetheaggregateofthecommercialmeans，politicalinstitutions，theintellectandcivilizationoftheinhabitantsofourplanet!Theadvancingwealthofabodyofpeasantrydoesnot，however，alwaysleadeithertothepermanentimprovementoftheir owncondition，ortoanalterationintheconstituentelementsofsociety，orinthedegreeofitscivilization。Arapidincrease ofthenumbersofthecultivators，andafteratimeapeasantryequallypoorasatfirst，andmorenumerous，aresometimes theresultofanaugmentationoftherevenuesofapeasanttenantry。Morethanonefavorablecircumstancemustconcur，to makethecommencementoftheirprosperityabasisforageneraladvanceofthenation，andfortheprogressive augmentationofitsvariouselementsofitsstrengthandcivilization。Whatthosecircumstancesare，weshallhavehereafter toobserve，whenexaminingthecauses，whichatdifferentstages，andindifferentpositionsofsociety，promoteorretardimprovedhabitsinthebodyofthepeople。Atpresentitisenoughifwesee，thatthelongenduranceandstationarystateofpeasanttenuresoveragreatpartoftheworld，aremainlyattributabletothestateofpovertyinwhichthecultivatorshaveso longfoundthemselves:astateofpoverty，whichwhileitlasts，effectuallypreventsanymovementsinadvancefrom originatingwiththepeasantsthemselves，andwhichcanonlyberelievedbysuchsacrificesonthepartofotherclasses，astheyarerarelyableandwillingtomake。Whilewehavebeenreviewingthedifferentclassesofpeasantrents，thosefactshavebeenstudiouslydweltuponand reproduced，whichshewthatimprovementintheefficiencyofagriculture，followedbyanincreaseoftheterritorialproduce ofacountry，andconsequentlyofitsgeneralwealthandstrength，isthefoundationonwhichapermanentandprogressiveincreaseintherevenuesofthelandedproprietorscanbestsustainitself。Strangeopinionsastoanecessaryoppositionbetweentheinterestsoftheproprietorsofthesoil，andthoseoftherestofthe communityandofthestate，havelatelybeencurrent。Thefallacyoftheseitwasthoughtwouldbemoreeasilyandmore distinctlyexposedbyasimpleexpositionoffacts，astheyexistintheworldaroundus，thanbyfollowingthosewhohave promulgatedsuchopinions，intoalabyrinthofabstractargument。Thedogmasalludedtoaresufficientlyfamiliartoall readersoflaterwritersonPoliticalEconomy。Theirsubstanceandtheirspiritmaybecollectedfromthefollowingpassages。 \"Thecapacityofacountrytosupportandemploylaborers，isinnodegreedependentonadvantageousnessofsituation， richnessofsoil，orextentofterritory。\"(4)\"Itappears，therefore~thatintheearlieststagesofsociety，andwhereonlythebest landsarecultivated，norentiseverpaid。Thelandlords，assuch，donotbegintoshareintheproduceofthesoiluntilit becomesnecessarytocultivatelandsofaninferiordegreeoffertility，ortoapplycapitaltothesuperiorlandswitha diminishingreturn。Wheneverthisisthecase，rentbeginstobepaid；anditcontinuestoincreaseaccordingascultivationis extendedoverpoorersoils；anddiminishesaccordingasthosepoorersoilsarethrownoutofcultivation。\"(5)\"Anincreaseof rentisnot，therefore，asisverygenerallysupposed，occasionedbyimprovementsinagriculture，orbyanincreaseinthe fertilityofthesoil。Itresultsentirelyfromthenecessityofresorting，aspopulationincreases，tosoilsofadecreasingdegree offertility。Rentvariesinaninverseproportiontotheamountofproduceobtainedbymeansofthecapitalandlabor employedincultivation，thatis，itincreaseswhentheprofitsofagriculturallabordiminish，anddiminisheswhenthey increase。\"(6)\"Theriseofrentisalwaystheeffectoftheincreasingwealthofthecountry，andofthedifficultyofprovidingfor itsaugmentedpopulation。Itisasymptom，butitisneveracauseofwealth。\"(7)\"Nothingcanraiserent，butademandfor newlandofaninferiorquality，orsomecause，whichshalloccasionanalterationintherelativefertilityofthelandalready undercultivation。\"(8)\"Theinterestofthelandlordisalwaysopposedtothatoftheconsumerandmanufacturer。\"(9)\"The dealingsbetweenthelandlordandthepublicarenotlikedealingsintrade，wherebyboththesellerandthebuyermayequally besaidtogain，butthelossiswhollyononeside，andthegainwhollyontheother。\"(10)\"Rentthenisacreationofvalue，but notacreationofwealth；itaddsnothingtotheresourcesofacountry，itdoesnotenableittomaintainfleetsandarmies；for thecountrywouldhaveagreaterdisposeablefundifitslandswereofabetterquality，anditcouldemploythesamecapital withoutgeneratingarent。Itmustthenbeadmitted，thatMr。SismondiandMr。Buchanan，forboththeiropinionswere substantiallythesame，werecorrect，whentheyconsideredrentasavaluepurelynominal，andasformingnoadditiontothe nationalwealth，butmerelyasatransferofvalue，advantageousonlytothelandlords，andproportionablyinjurioustotheconsumer。\"(11)Theutterfallacyoftheseopinions，whenappliedtoanyclassofpeasantrents，hasbeenshewnseparatelyforeachclassin thecourseoftheremarkswhichhavealreadybeenmade:viz，forlaborrents，atp。61。，formetayers，atp。105。，forryots，atp。140。，andforcottierrentsatp。153。Butletusforamomentpicturetoourselvestheeffectsofanaddress，byaphilosopherofthisschool，toanassembly composedofsovereignproprietorsofterritoriesoccupiedbyryots，andofthelandholdersofcountriescultivatedbyserfs， metayers，orcottiers。Hewouldassurethem，fromMr。Macculloch，thattheextentandrichnessofthetractsofcountrythey mightown，affectedinnodegreetheirpowerofsupportingandemployinganindustriouspopulation:thatintheearliest stagesofsociety(beingthosewithwhichtheyarethemostfamiliar)norentsareeverpaid:thattheyonlybegintobepaid whenitbecomesnecessarytocultivatelandsofaninferiordegreeoffertility。Hewouldfurtherinformthelandholders，that noimprovementsoftheirincomecouldeverbypossibilityoriginateinimprovementsinagriculture，orinanincreased fertilityofthesoil。Hewouldtellthemtoo，thateveryaugmentationoftheirrentalmustresultentirelyfromthenecessityof resorting，aspopulationincreased，tosoilsofadecreasingdegreeoffertility。Thatthedecrepitudeofagriculture，andthe prosperityoftheownersoftheland，advancedalwayshandinhand；thattheirrevenuesmustvaryalwaysinaninverse proportiontotheamountofproduceobtainedbymeansofthecapitalandlaboremployedincultivation，andthattheirrents， therefore，wouldincreaseastheprofitsofagriculturallabordiminished，andwoulddiminishastheprofitsofagriculturallaborincreased。TheteachermightnexttakeMr。Ricardo\'sforhistext-book，andafterenforcinghisdogmasfromthisparentsource，he mightproceedfartherwithhisrevelations，andexpoundtohisaudience，thattheirinterestsaslandlordswerealways opposedtothoseofthenon-agriculturalclassesofthecommunity，thattheincreaseoftheirshareoftheproduceofthesoil wasacreationofvaluebutnotacreationofwealth；thatsuchanincreaseaddednothingtothegeneralstockofriches，nothingtothecommonresourcesofthestate，nothingtoitsabilitytomaintainitspublicestablishments。Wemayimaginesurelytheamazementofthelisteningcircleoflandholdersofvariousdescription……Theywouldknowthat theyweresurrounded，astheirforefathershadbeen，byapeasantpopulationyieldingapartoftheirproduceortheirlabor， asatributefortheuseofthegroundfromwhichtheyraisedtheirfood，andtowhichtheymust clingordie。Thelordsofthe soilwouldfeeltherefore，thattheirrevenue，aslandedproprietors，owedneitheritsoriginnoritscontinuancetothe existenceofgradationsinthequalitiesofland。Theywouldknowthat，asfarastheirexperiencehadgone，with improvementsinagriculture，andwiththeincreaseofthefertilityofthesoil，theamountofproducewhichformedtheir annualrentshadsteadilyincreased，andtheywouldhavefoundthattheybecamewealthierasthelaboroftheirpeasant tenantryproducedmorefromtheearth，andthattheybecamepoorerasitproducedless。Itwouldbeimpossibleforthemto doubt，thattheirpowerofgivingemploymentandsupporttoapopulationoflaboringcultivators，dependedmainlyonthe quantityandqualityofthelandattheirdisposal。Theycouldnotshuttheireyestothephysicalfact，thatincreasingproduce convertedintoincreasedrents，constitutedafreshcreationofmaterialriches。Theycouldonlyfeelbewildered，whenthey weretold，thatinthecaseofsuchanincrease，thoughtheremightbeacreationofvalue，therecouldnotbeacreationof wealth。Theymustbeawarethatthedistributionoftheirrevenuewasthedirectsourceofthemaintenanceofthegreater partofthenon-agriculturalclassesofthepopulationamidstwhichtheylived；theycouldnothear，withoutastonishment， thattheincreaseoftheirrevenuewasamisfortunetothoseclasses。Finally，observingthatinryotmonarchiesthefleetsand armiesofthestatewerewhollymaintainedfromtherentsofthesovereignproprietor，andthatinserfandmetayercountries， rentsalwayscontributedmoreorlesstosimilarpurposes；theywouldlistenwithamazementtothedoctrine，thatthe increaseoftheterritorialrevenuesofastate，addedinnocaseanythingtoitspublicstrength，ortoitsabilitytomaintainitsmilitaryestablishments。Itisdifficulttoimagine，thatamongacirclefullofsuchrecollectionsourlecturerwouldmakeconverts。Hisaudiencewould beapttobelieve，thatthephilosophertheywerelisteningtomusthavefallenfromsomeotherplanet:thatthesceneofhis experiencemusthavedifferedwidelyfromthescenesoftheirs，andthatitwasquiteimpossible，thevariouspropositionshe wasendeavouringtoimpressuponthem，couldhavebeenderivedfromareviewofthefactswithwhichtheyweredailyfamiliar。Intruth，itisnoteasytoreadanyoftheproductionsofthisschool。ofwriters，withoutseeing，thattheirsystemastorent，is derivedexclusivelyfromanexaminationoftheclassoffarmers\'rents。Andthisclass(howeverinterestingtousas Englishmen)hasalreadybeenstatednottoextenditselfoverone-hundredthpartofthecultivatedsurfaceoftheearth。We shallpresently，inexaminingthatparticulardivisionofrents，haveoccasiontoshew，thatthewriterswehavebeenquoting andtheirfollowers，havebeennotlesshastyanderroneousindeducingprinciplesfromthenarrowclassoffactsbeforetheir minds，thantheyhavebeenrashinattemptingtoapplythoseprinciplestotheexplanationofthephenomenaconnectedwithrent，overthatvastportionofthesurfaceoftheglobetowhichtheirfactsareobviouslyandutterlyinapplicable。Weleavenowthenthoseprimitivetenures，whichdecidethelotofthatlargeportionofthehumanrace，whichproducesits ownfoodwithitsownhandsfromthesoil，andturntotracetherevenuesofthelandedproprietorswhenanotherclassof agriculturistshavetakenpossessionofthetaskofcultivation，ontermsdifferentinthemselvesandaffectedintheirvariationsbydifferentcauses。1。InEnglandtoo，alargernumberofanimalsarekeptforpleasure，andavarietyofpurposesunconnectedwithcultivation: thepoweroffeedingthesemustbereckoned，whenwearecalculatingtheefficiencyofheragriculture。 2。SeeBuchanan\'seditionofSmith，Appendix，p。66。3。Inthatinstance，thetenantwhobeforeowedhalfhislabortothelandlord，isprotectedagainstthedemandofmorethan twodaysintheweek，oronethird。 4。Macculloch\'sPrinciplesofPoliticalEconomy，p。327。 5。Ibid。p。282。 6。Ibid。p。269。 7。Ricardo\'sPoliticalEconomy，2ndEdit。p。62。 8。Ibid。p。518。 9。Ibid。p。428。 10。Ibid。p。424。 11。Ibid。2ndEdit。p。501。 CHAP。VII。 SECT。I。 Farmers\'Rents。Introduction。Therentsweareabouttoexamine，offeratfirstsight，itmustbeconfessed，alessattractivefieldofinvestigationthanthose whichwehaveleft。Wehavenolongertoconsiderrentsasmainlydeterminingbytheirformsandtheirresultsthedestinies ofnations。Thosenowbeforeuscanonlyexistwhenthemostimportantrelationsofthedifferentclassesofsocietyhave ceasedtooriginateintheownershipandoccupationofthesoil。Whenaraceofcapitalistshavemadetheirappearance，to takechargeofthevariedindustryofapopulation，andadvancefromtheirownfundsthewagesofitslabor，propertyinland， andtheformsoftenancyitmaygivebirthto，nolongerinfluenceinthefirstdegree，eitherthespringsofgovernment，orthe constituentelementsofsociety。Thecompositionofthecommunitybecomesmorecomplicated，otherinterestsandother sourcesofpowermingletheirforcestodeterminethecharacterandconditionofapeople，andaffectthedetailofalltheir multipliedconnexions。Eveninthisstateofthings，however，thatcannotbeotherthananimportantattempt，whichseeksto discoverthemannerinwhichtherevenuesofthelandedclassswellandenlargethemselveswiththeprogressofthecommunity，soastopreservesomeproportionwiththegrowingwealthofthebodyofthepeople。Buttheexaminationofthevariouscauseswhichaffecttheprogressofrentsatthismoreadvancedperiodofapeople\'s existence，isnotmerelyinterestinginitself。Inthepresentpeculiarstateofpublicopiniononthesesubjects，suchan examinationcanhardlyfailtothrowausefullightonotherdivisionsofthesubjectofthe\"distributionofthenational wealth。\"Itwilldisencumber，forinstance，ofmanyfalsefactsanderroneousopinions，ourfutureexaminationofthecourse ofprofitsandwagesinthemoreadvancedstagesofsociety。Itwilltendtoremoveacommon， thoughstrangeandpainful belief，astosomenecessaryconnexionbetweentheprogressofthemassofrentsandagradualdecreaseinthenational powerofprovidingfoodforincreasingnumbers。Itwill(incidentally)helptoexplainthemutationswhichtakeplaceinthe relativenumbersandinfluenceoftheagriculturalandnon-agriculturalclasses。These，andsimilarresults，whichwillpresent themselvesinthecourseoftheenquiryonwhichweareabouttoenter，will，inadegreecompensate，itmustbehoped，for theratherdryandabstractnatureofsomeofthecalculationsandreasoningswhichmustbeemployed。 OriginofFarmers\'Rents。Thatsystemofcultivationbypeasants，whichwehavebeenexamining，andthevariousrelationsbetweenthelandlordsand thehusbandmentowhichitgivesbirth，havebeensucceededonparticularspotsoftheglobe，slowlyandpartially，byadifferentmodeofmanagingagriculture，andtheeffectofthischangeonrentswehavenowtotrace。Afteracertainprogressincivilizationandwealth，thewagesofthelaboringclassconsistnolongerofarevenuewhichthey themselvesextractfromtheearth；foodaccumulatesinthehandsofcapitalists(orpersonsusingtheiraccumulatedstockto makeaprofitfromit)insufficientquantitiestoenablethemtoadvancethelaborerhismaintenanceduringtheprogressof hisvarioustasks；theyreceivetheproduceofthosetaskswhencompleted，andthegreatessentialstephasthenbeentaken，whichconfersonaclassofmendistinctfrombothlandlordsandlaborers，themanagementofthenationalindustry。Thischangeusuallybeginswiththenon-agriculturalclasses；itistheartizansandthehandicraftsmenwhofirstrange themselvesunderthemanagementofcapitalists；andtothispointmostnations，whichhaveany。 pretensionstocivilization， haveadvanced。Thecaseisdifferentwiththecultivators。Amongsomeofthemostpolishedpeopleoftheglobe，andover thegreaterpartofitssurface，theagriculturallaborersarethemselvesthemanagersofagriculture:theirwages，aswehave seen，neversubsistinanyothercharacterthanthatofarevenueoftheirown，andtheyexertanddirecttheirlaborattheirowndiscretion。Thereare，however，districtsofverysmallcomparativeextent，inwhichboththeagriculturalandotherlaborersarefedand employedbycapitalists。Thesecapitalistsreceiveofcoursetheproduceofthelabortheymaintain，andareresponsibletotheownerofthesoilforitsstipulatedrent。Oneoftheimmediateconsequencesofthischangeisthepowerofmovingatpleasurethelaborandcapitalemployedin agriculture，tootheroccupations。Whilethetenantwashimselfalaboringpeasant，forced，intheabsenceofotherfundsfor hismaintenance，toextractithimselffromthesoil，hewaschainedtothatsoilbynecessity；andthelittlestockhemight possess，sinceitwasnotsufficienttoprocurehimamaintenanceunlessusedforthesinglepurposesofcultivation，was virtuallychainedtothesoilwithitsmaster。Butwhentheemployersofthelaborersholdintheirhandsanaccumulatedfund equaltotheirsupport，thisdependanceonthesoilisbroken:andunlessasmuchcanbegainedbyemployingtheworking classontheland，asfromtheirexertionsinvariousotheremployments，whichinsuchastateofsocietyabound，thebusinessofcultivationwillbeabandoned。Rent，insuchacase，necessarilyconsistsmerelyofsurplusprofits；thatis，ofallthatcanbegainedbyemployingacertainquantityofcapitalandlaborupontheland，morecouldbegainedbyitinanyotheroccupation。SeveranceoftheConnectionbetweenRentandWagesRentsthusconstituted，ceaseatoncetodecidetheamountofwages。Whileobligedtoextracthisownfoodfromtheearth， thequantityofproducewhichthelaborerretained，theamount，thatis，ofhisrealwages，depended，wehaveseen，mainlyonthecontractmadewiththeproprietor。Whentheengagementofthelaboreriswithacapitalist，thisdependanceonthelandlordisdissolved，andtheamountofhis wagesisdeterminedbyothercauses。Theseweshallhereaftertrace；buttheterminationoftheinfluenceofrentsonwages， isaneraintheprogressofboth，toomarkedtobepassedinsilence。Itisthiscircumstancewhichmainlydistinguishesthe agriculturallaborersofEnglandfromthoseoftherestoftheworld。ForifweexceptHollandandtheNetherlands，England istheonlycountryinwhichthesystemofrentsweareabouttoexamine，prevailsexclusively，orevenprincipally。 SECTIONII。 DifferentModesinwhichFarmers\'Rentsmayincrease。Whenrentsconsistofsurplusprofits，therearethreecausesfromwhichtherentofaparticularspotofgroundmayincrease， First，anincreaseoftheproducefromtheaccumulationoflargerquantitiesofcapitalinitscultivation；Secondly，themore efficientapplicationofcapitalalreadyemployed；Thirdly，(thecapitalandproduceremainingthesame)thediminutionofthe shareoftheproducingclassesinthatproduce，andacorrespondingincreaseoftheshareofthelandlord。Thesecausesmay combineindifferentproportionsintheaugmentationoftherentsofacountrycultivatedbycapitalists，butwhenthedistinctpowerandmodeofoperationofeachareonceunderstood，theirjointactionwillbeeasilycalculated。OntheProgressandEffectsofaRiseofRentsfromanIncreaseofProduce，causedbytheUseofmoreCapitalinCultivation。Inthinlypeopledandrudecountries，thequantityoflaborandcapitalemployedinthecultivationofthesoil，isusuallysmall whencomparedwiththeextentofgroundoccupied。Widenaturalpasturesonwhichafewcattlepickupaprecariousliving， ploughedlandsworkedtoexhaustion，andthencarelesslyrested，rudeimplements，scantybuildings，deficientfencingand draining，thesecircumstancesallmarktheagricultureofPolandorHungary，andverymanyothercountries，now，asthey didthatofEnglandinotherdays。Asthenumbersandskillofthepeopleincrease，themodesofcultivationandthefaceof thecountrychange:thedistrictsdevotedtoforestsorroughpasturageshrink，thegroundis eitherconvertedintorich meadows，orploughedup，andmade，byajudiciousrotationofcrops，tocombinewithandstrengthenthegeneralsystemof thefarmer。Theportionoftheoldcultivatedlandsoncedevotedtoleysandfallowsiscarefullyattendedto，becomeslessin extent，andhasitsproductivenessincreasedbybeingmadetobeargreencropswhilerestingfromcorn。Whilethischangeis inprogress，thecattlemaintainedfordraftorslaughtermultiplyrapidly:betterandmorenumerousimplements，drains， fencesanbuildingsmaketheirappearance:all，andperhapsmorethanall，thelaborandcapitalwhichoncelooselyoccupied500acres，arenowconcentratedforthemorecompletetillageof100。Wehavetoexaminewhatmustbetheeffectsofthisprogressiveincreaseofcapitalonthesurplusprofitsorrentsrealizedoneachportionofthesoil。Cornmaybesellingeitheratamonopolyprice，thatis，atapricewhichmorethanpaysthecostsandprofitsofthosewho growitundertheleastfavourablecircumstances；oratsuchapriceaswillonlyrepaytheircommonprofits。Letusfirst considerit，assellingatamonopolyprice。`Then，abstractingfromalldifferenceoffertilityinthesoilscultivated，therent willconsistofthatportionofthepriceoftheproduce，whichexceedsthecostofproduction，andtheordinaryrateofprofit onthatcost。Let10percent。betheordinaryrateofprofit。Ifthecornproducedonanyspotoflandby？00。soldfor？15。， therentwouldbe？。Ifintheprogressofimprovementthecapitalemployedonthesamelandweredoubled，andthe producedoubled，then？00。wouldyield？30。，and？20。beingcapitalandprofits，thesurplus，or？0。，wouldberent，and therentwillbedoubled。Ifcorn，then，isatamonopolyprice，increasedproduceobtainedbyincreasedcapital(pricesremainingthesame)mayincreasetherents，inproportiontotheincreasedcapitallaidout。Suchacaseasthis，thoughveryunusual，mayoccur:andthereforemustnotbeomitted。Insmallcommunitiescornmaybe constantlyatamonopolyprice。ItissoprobablyintheIsleofJersey，wherethereisalwaysapressingdemandforraw produce，whichinwarkeptuprentsto？4。perEnglishacre，andinpeaceto？。or？。Inlargercountriestoo，though possessingmuchuncultivatedsoil，cornmay，foralongperiodoftime，beatamonopolyprice，pro……videdtheincreaseofpopulationkeepssteadilyaheadoftheincreaseoftillage。Itmustbeconfessed，however，thatacontinuousmonopolypriceofcornisacircumstancewhich，thoughnotimpossible，is veryunusualincountriesofconsiderableextentandgreatvarietyofsoil。Insuchcountries，iftheproduceofthesoilsin cultivationsellsformorethanwillrealizetheusualrateofprofitonthecapitalemployed，otherlandsarecultivated；ormore capitallaidoutontheoldlands，tillthecultivatorfindshecanbarelygettheordinaryprofitonhisoutlay。Then，ofcourse， tillagewillstop，andinsuchcountries，therefore，cornisusuallysoldataprice，notmorethansufficienttoreplacethe capitalemployedundertheleastfavorablecircumstances，andtheordinaryrateofprofitonit:andtherentpaidonthebetter soilsisthenmeasuredbytheexcessoftheirproduceoverthatofthepoorestsoilcultivatedbysimilarcapitals。IfAbeasoil whichproducestoaquantityofcapital(n)10quarters，andpaystheordinaryprofitsonstock；thenB，iftothesamecapital (a)ityields12quarters，willhavethepriceoftwoquartersassurplusprofits，andwillpayitasrent。Letussupposea countrythen，possessinggradationsoftoil，increasinginfertilityfromAtoZ，ofwhichAreturnsto？00。？10。，andthe othersprogressivelytoZ，morethan？10。Thiswillrepresenttherealpositionofthesoilscultivatedinsuchextensive countries。Intheprogressifnumbers，ofwealthandknowledge，letussupposearudeandunskilfulmodeofcultivation graduallygivingplacetoabetter；andadditionalcapitalandlaboraccumulatingforthemorecompletecultureofeveryclass ofsoil:andthenletusobservewhatwouldbethenecessaryeffectsuponrents(orsurplusprofits)ofthisgeneralaccumulationofcapital，inthecultivationofsoilsofunequalgoodness。LetAhavebeenformerlycultivatedwith？00。yieldingannually？10。，？0。beingtheordinaryprofitsonstock:andBwith？00。yielding？15。:andCwith？00。yielding？20。:andsoontoZ。Asallabove？10。oneachwouldbesurplusprofits。 orrent，therentofBwouldbe？。，andthatofC？0。，&；c。&；c。Insomeindefinitetimeleteachofthesequalitiesofsoilbe cultivatedwithacapitalof？00。，andtheirrelativefertilityremainingasbefore，lettheirproducebeproportionably increased，Awillproduce？20。，B？30。，C？40。Allabove？20。oneachwillnowbesurplusprofits，orrent。Therentof B，therefore，willhavebecome？0。，thatofC？0。Thatis，therentofeachwillhavedoubled。Itisinthismannerthatthe increasingamountofcapitalemployedonthelandofanimprovingcountrynecessarilyelevatesrents(orthesurplusprofits) onallthebettersoils；andthisquiteindependentlyofalterations，eitherintherelativefertilityofthesoilscultivated，orintheamountofproduceobtainedbytheapplicationofgivenquantitiesofcapitaltotheinferiorsoils。Itmaybesuggested，perhaps，thatthoughweadmittheadditionalcapitalemployedontheworstsoil，toyieldthesame profitasthatwithwhichitwasoriginallycultivated，(acircumstanceofwhichweshallpresentlyexaminetheprobability)， stillitisnotprobablethatthebetterlandswillyieldalargerproducetotheadditionalcapitalused，exactlyproportionedto thesuperiorityoftheiroriginalfertility。Thismaybeso，andariseofrentswillstilltakeplace，butitwillbedifferentinamount。Theyyieldedtothefirst？00。laidoutascapital，A？10。，B？15。，C？20。Letthemyieldtothesecond，A？10。，B？13。，C？18。Allabove？10。oftheadditionalproducewillberent，Bwillthenpay？。additionalrent，C？。Therelative fertilityofthedifferentsoilswillbechanged。Thesuperiorityofthebettersoilswillhavebecomeless，ifconsideredrelatively tothewholemassofcapitalnowemployedoneach；butstillrentswillrisegenerally:notsomuch，however，itwillbe observed，asiftherelativefertilityofthevarioussoils，aftertheadditionaloutlayonall，remainedpreciselythesame。Itis probable，thatinmostinstancestheactualrisewillaccordwiththefirstcalculation；andthattheseveraladditionswillbe proportionedtotheoriginalgoodnessofthesoils。IfBandChadacertainsuperiorityoverA，whencultivatedinrough pastures，corncrops，andfallows，thenwhenthepastureandfallowsofeachhave，bytheapplicationofmorelaborand capital，beencoveredwithpulse，roots，orartificialgrasses，itisprobablethatthesuperiorproductivenessofeachwill continuetobeinaboutthesameproportion。All，however，thatisnecessarytoeffectariseofrentsoverthesurfaceofa countrypossessingsoilsofunequalgoodness，isthis:thatthebettersoilsshouldyieldtotheadditionalcapitalemployed uponthemintheprogressofcultivation，somethingmorethanthesoilsconfessedlyinferiortothem；forthenwhilemeans canbefoundofemployingfreshcapitalonanysoilbetweentheextremesAandZ，attheordinaryrateofprofit，rentswillriseonallthe。soilssuperiortothatparticularsoil。Oncemore，then，thegeneralaccumulationofthecapitalemployedincultivation，whileitaugmentstheproduceofall gradationsofsoils，somewhatinproportiontotheiroriginalgoodness，mustofitselfraiserents；withoutreferencetoany progressivediminutioninthereturntothelaborandcapitalemployed，and，indeed，quiteindependentlyofanyothercause whatever。Weknowthatagreatincreaseintheamountofcapitalemployedinagriculture，isobservableintheprogressofall improvingcountries，asithastakenplaceinourown。Thiscause，therefore，mustnecessarilyhaveaveryconsiderableshareinproducingtheriseofrents，whichordinarilytakesplaceinallcountriesincreasinginrichesandpopulation。Thismightreasonablybeexpected:ageneralincreaseoftheproduceoftheland，followingtheapplicationofadditionalcapitalandlabortoitsmoreperfectcultivation，seemsaverynaturalandobviouscauseofariseofrents。Ithas，however，beenverypositivelydenied，thatrentscaneverbethusincreased；eveninthestrongestcasewehaveput，thatofanundiminishedreturntoadditionalcapital，andanunalteredproportionintheproduceofthedifferentsoils。Ithasbeenstated，indeed，thatsuchanundiminishedreturntotheadditionalcapitalbestowedupontheoldlandis impossiblefromthelawsofnature；andthatifpossible，itwouldeffectuallykeepdownrents:thatallimprovementsin agriculturemustchecktheirprogress，andsobeprejudicialtotheinterestsofthelandlords:andthatnothingcanraiserents butsomecausewhichshallaltertherelativefertilityofthelandsincultivation。ThesearethewellknownopinionsofMr。 Ricardo。Thatgentlemanhavingadoptedasthebasisofaverycomplicatedandingenioussystemofthedistributionofwealth，thesinglefactofaprogressiveandinvariablediminutiontothereturnsofagriculturallabor，decidedthatthiswas###第8章thecause，andthesolecause，ofeverygeneralriseofrentswhichcouldtakeplaceintheprogressofnations。Itbecame necessary，then，forhimtoshewthateveryothersupposedsourceofincreasingrentswasimaginary，andamongthemthe onewehavebeenstating，namely，agenerallyincreasedproduce，fromtheemploymentofgreaterquantitiesofcapitalin cultivation。Mr。Ricardoaccordinglyfirstdeclares:\"Thatwitheveryincreasedportionofcapitalemployedupontheland，theremustbeadiminishedrateofproduction。\"(1)Thisproved，itwouldofcoursebeimpossiblethattheproduceshouldincrease，aswehavesupposedittoincrease，inthe sameproportionasthecapitallaidout。Buthefurtherdeclares，thatifitcouldsoincrease，noriseofrentswouldfollow:he says:\"Ifcapitalcouldbeindefinitelyemployedupontheoldlandwithoutadiminishedreturn，therecouldbenoriseof rent。\"(2)\"Improvementsinagriculture，whicharecommontoalllands，anddonotmuchdisturbtherelativeproportions whichbeforeexistedbetweenthem，cannotraiserent，becausenothingcanraiserentbutademandfornewlandofan inferiorquality，orsomecausethatshalloccasionanalterationintherelativefertilityofthelandalreadyundercultivation。\"\"Rentinvariablyproceedsfromtheemploymentofanadditionalquantityoflabor，withaproportionallylessreturn。\"(3)Theopinionthatthepowersofagriculturalcapitalnecessarilydecrease，asthequantityemployedincreases，istheoneof which，perhaps，itisthemostimportanttoseetheunsoundness:ifnoadditionalproducecouldeverbeobtainedfromthe soil，withoutadiminishedreturntothecapitalandlaboremployed，suchalawofproductionwouldmateriallyinfluence，no doubt，thoughindifferentdirections，thefortunesofallclassesofsociety。Andiftherebenosuchlaw，thosewhohaveset outwithassumingitsexistenceandunceasingactionandinfluence，mustnecessarilyhavebeenledintoveryseriousmistakes astotherealcausesofthatgradualincreaseoftherevenuesofthelandedproprietorswhichisusuallyseentokeeppacewiththeprogressoftheartofcultivation。Mr。Ricardo\'sviewsofthenecessarydecreaseinthereturntoeverysuccessiveportionofthecapitalandlaborbestowedon thesameland，areputverydistinctlyandforciblybyMr。Mill，whosework，inmanyofitsparts，isacondensedexpositionofMr。Ricardo\'sopinions。\"Apieceofland，\"Mr。Millsays，inthecommencementofhisSectiononrent，(4)\"maybecapableofyieldingannually10 quartersofcorn，ortwice10，or3times10。Ityields，however，thefirst10，withacertainquantityoflabor，thesecond10 notwithoutagreater，thethird10withagreaterstill，andsoon；everyadditional10requiringtoitsproductionagreater costthanthe10whichprecededit。Thisiswellknowntobethelaw，accordingtowhich，byagreaterexpenditureofcapital，agreaterproduceisobtained，fromthesameportionofland。\"ThelawthusunhesitatinglydescribedbyMr。Mill，andasunhesitatinglyreasoneduponbyMr。Ricardoandallhisfollowers， asthesolebasisoftheirtheoryofrent，isone，theexistenceofwhichitrequires，atleast，strongfactstoprove。Ifevery successiveadditiontotheproduceofthesoilrequiresadditionalcosttoobtainit，thenimprovedcultivationandincreasedcropsare，really，onlystepsinthedeclensionofthepowersofagriculture。TheaveragecornproduceofEnglandatonetimedidnotexceed12bushelsperacre；itisnowaboutdouble。Arcweto believethatthereisalawofnature，whichmakesitinevitablethatthecostofgetting24bushelsfromoneacreisreallymorethanthecostofgettingthesamequantityfromtwo？Veryobviousconsiderationspoint，surely，toanoppositeconclusion。Themorecontractedspaceinwhichtheoperationsof thehusbandry，whichproducesthe24bushels，arenowcarriedon，mustgivesomeadvantages，andsavesomeexpense；the fencing，draining，seed，harvestwork，andeventillagetosomeextent，mustsurelybelesswhenconfinedtoanacre，than whenspreadovertwo。Theancientagriculturistswerecertainlyofthisopinion，asIbelievethemodernsare。\"Necdubium，\"saysColumella，\"quinminusreddatlaxusagernonrectecultusquamaugustuseximie。\"(5)Thatthereisacertainpoint，beyondwhichhumanlaborcannotbeemployeduponalimitedspotofground，withouta diminishedreturntoitsexertions，mustbeadmittedatonce。lintintheprogressofthoseimprovementsintheartof cultivation，bywhichitsmostprofitableamountofproduceisapproached，itmaybeverypossible，thateverysuccessiveportionofthecapitalandlaborconcentratedontheland，maybemoreeconomicallyandefficientlyappliedthanthelast。Suchalawwouldbeatleastasprobableaprioriasthatwhichsupposesthatheaviercrops，andlessproductivecultivation，areinseparable。Ifindeedweweretoconfineourviewstosomeveryminutespotofground，toasquareyard，forinstance，wemightforan instantbemisledintoacquiescingintheplausibility，atleast，ofthisunpleasantversionofthelawsofnature。Whensucha spothadbeenweeded，anddug，anddrained，andmanured，aswellasourpresentknowledgemadepossible，itmightseemthatmorelabourbestoweduponitmustbemorefeeblyrewarded。Evenastosuchalimitedspotwemightpossiblybemistaken:butwhenweincludeinourviewlargerdistricts，suchasare usuallycultivatedunderthedirectionofoneperson，thecasebecomesaltogetherdifferent；becausewemustthentakeinto calculationtheincreasedpowergainedbyincreasedskillinthecombinationandsuccessionofdifferentcrops，andinthemodesofconsumingthem，andmakingthemreactonthefertilityofthefarms。Ithasalreadybeenstated，thatinthecoursewhichagriculturehasordinarilyfollowed，fromrudenesstowardsperfection， menhavebeganbydevotingaconsiderableportionofthegroundtopasture，whileanotherhasbeenkeptploughedforgrain crops，andrestedbyoccasionalfallows，orleys，astheexhaustedfieldswereoncecalledinEngland，whenabandonedtotheirnaturalproduceforatime，thoughdestinedtobeploughedupagain。Letussuppose1000acrestohavebeenthustreated；thatthedemandforhumanfoodincreases，andthatitbecomesnecessarybymorelaboriouscultivation，toforcethepowersofthesoil。Themeasuresthishasordinarilyledto，havebeenthebreakingupthewhole，oraportionofthepastureland，coveringthe fallowsandleyswithroots，artificialgrasses，andvariousgreencrops；feedinganincreasednumberofcattle，withthe produceofploughedground，producingthusmoreanimalmanure，keepingthepowersoftheearthinmoreconstantandvigorousaction，andobtainingthusfromeverypartofthefarmamoreabundantproduce。Whilethesechangesareinprogress，muchmorecapitalandlabormustbebestoweduponthecultivationof1000acres。 Nowhowdoesthefundamentalpropositioninthetheoryofrent，promulgatedbyMessrs。Ricardo，MillandMacculloch，applytothestateofthingsheredescribed？Asthenationalagriculturethusbecomesintheprogressofagesmorecompleteandscientific，maynottheincreasedlabor andcapitalusedberequitedatleastasamplyasthesmallerquantitybeforeemployed。underamoreignorantorindolent system。Musteveryadditional10bushelsofcornnecessarily，beobtainedbyalargercomparativeoutlay？Isthere-reallya lawofnaturewhichmakesthisresultinevitable？Surelyitisneitherimpossiblenorimprobable，thattheearth，underan improvingsystemofhusbandry，maydisclosepowersofrewardingasbountifullytheskilfulandefficientindustrybestowed uponher，asshedidthelanguidandignorantoperationsofalesslaboriouscultivation。Thereisanindefinitepoint，no doubt，beyondwhichagriculturalproductioncannotbeforcedwithoutaloss；butwemustnot，therefore， conclude，that manwithincreasingknowledgeandmeans，cannotadvancefromhisrudestessaystowardsthisindefinitepoint，without sustainingateachstepalossofproductivepower，andthathewhoextracts40bushelsofwheatfromanacreofground，is necessarilyworsepaidthanhewhoextracts30；andhewhoextracts30，worsethanhewhoextracts10。Thestatureofman islimited:thereisapointbeyondwhichweknowthatitwouldbeidletoexpectthatahumanbeingshouldincreasein height，withoutdecreasinginstrengthandenergy。Ifweweretoargue，thence，thateveryinchaddedtoayoungperson\'s statureinhisprogresstomaturitymustbefollowedbyincreasingdebility，weshouldargueveryill:butnotworsesurely thanthose，`whohavingobservedthatinthecultureoftheearththereisapointbeyondwhichfreshlaborbestowedmust producefeeblerresults；layitdownasalaw`ofnature，thatnoadditionallaborcanatanytimebebestowedupontheearth，withoutareturn，lessinproportionsthanthatyieldedtothelaborbeforeapplied。Wemayreject，therefore，asfanciful，thedoctrineofMr。Ricardoandhisschool，whentheywouldteachus，that\"withevery increasedportionofcapitalemployeduponthelandtherewillbeadecreasedrateofproduction。\"Andwemayproceedto considerthosepositionsinwhichtheymaintain，thatevensupposingthemwronginthis，andadmittingthatcapitalmay continuetoaccumulatewithundiminishedpoweronthelandscultivated，stillnoaugmentationofrentscouldpossiblyproceedfromsuchacause。Theseopinionsareembodiedinthefollowingpassages:\"Ifcapitalcouldbeindefinitelyemployedwithoutadiminished returnontheoldland，therecouldbenoriseofrent，forrentinvariablyproceedsfromtheemploymentofanadditionalquantityoflabor，withaproportionallylessreturn。\"(6)Thetruthofthelastofthesetwopropositionsdependsevidentlyuponthatofthefirst，ofwhichweshallpresentlyseethe value。Mr。Ricardoafterwardsstatesthat\"Improvementsinagriculture，andinthedivisionoflaborarecommontoallland， theyincreasetheabsolutequantityofrawproduceobtainedfromeach，butdonotmuchdisturbtherelativeproportions whichbeforeexistedbetweenthem。\"Andthencehearguesthatsuchimprovementswillnotraiserents，because\"Nothing canraiserent，butademandfornewlandofaninferiorquality，orsomecausewhichshalloccasionanalterationinthe relativefertilityofthelandalreadyundercultivation。\"(7)Totrythesoundnessofthesepositions，letustakeacasewhereall thecircumstancesofwhichtheyaffecttostatetheeffectsconcur，thatis，Wheremorecapitalisemployedupontheland withoutadiminishedreturn，andwherethisadditionalcapital，increasingtheabsolutequantityofrawproduceobtainedfrom eachgradationofsoil，doesnotdisturbtheproportionswhichbeforeexistedbetweentheirproduce。LetArepresenta。class oflandwhichreturnsonlytheordinaryprofitsofstockat10percent。andpaysnorent；LetB，CandDrepresentother portionsofbetterland，alsocultivatedwithacapitalof？00。，andlettheirproducebeasfollows: ABCD？10。？15。？20。？30。Allabove？10ineach，willbesurplusprofits，orrent，ofwhichrentBwillpay？。，C？0。，andD？0。Nextletthecapital employedoneachbedoubled，withoutadiminishedreturn，andwithoutdisturbingtheproportionbetweentheproduceof each，oralteringtheirrelativefertility，theirproducewillbeasfollows: ABCD？20。？230。？40。？60。 Allabove？20。ineachwillbesurplusprofit，orrent，ofwhichBwillpay？0。，C？0。，andD？0。 Thatis，therentofeachwillbedoubled。Anditisclear，thatwitheveryadditionalportionofcapital，laidoutwithsimilareffect，rentswillincreaseproportionably， thatis，willdouble，whencapitalisdoubled，treble，whenitistrebled，quadruple，whenitisquadrupled，andsoon indefinitely，aslongascapitalcanbeemployedupontheoldlandwithoutadiminishedreturn，andwithoutalteringtherelativefertilityofthesoilscultivated。Itissufficientlyevident，thatabstractingfromallothercausesofincrease，rentsdo，andmustriseinthismanner，inall improvingcountries，asmoreandmorecapitalisinvestedinagriculture。Wehaveseen，however，thatitisnotessentialtotherisethattheproportionbetweenthefertilityolthesoilsshouldbeexactlystationary。(8)Fromhisgeneraltrainofreasoning，onewouldbetemptedtobelieve，thatMr。Ricardo，indeny-ingthattheaccumulation ofcapitalcouldeverraiserents，withoutsomedecreaseinitsproductivepowers，hadwhollyoverlookedthenecessarily unequaleffectsofadditionalcapitalonsoilsofunequalfertility:andhadassumedinhisownmind， thattheeffectproduced ontheworstsoilsbyalltheadditionalcapitalemployedonagriculture，wouldequaltheeffectitproducedonthebest。On thepresentoccasion，however，hecommittednosuchoversight，hehimselfhasaddedthesupposition，thattheirproduce shouldbeproportionallyincreased，andhisdenialofthenecessaryeffectsofthisunequalincreaseonrentsisthereforethe moreunaccountable。Anotherassertionwemayobserveis，thatnothingcanraiserentsbutademandfornewlandofan inferiorquality，orsomecausewhichshalloccasionanalterationintherelativefertilityofthelandalreadycultivated。This opinioniscertainlynotlesserroneous，thanthatwhichdecidesontheentireinefficiencyofanindefiniteaccumulationof capital，inraisingrents，butitismoreeasilyaccountedfor。Mr。Ricardo，overlookingaltogetherthepeasanttenantry，which occupyninety-ninehundredthsoftheglobe，hadpersuadedhimselfthattheexistenceofagradationofsoilsofdifferent fertilitywastheonlycause，whyrentseverexistedatall。Itwasnotunnatural，therefore，thatheshouldconclude，thatan alterationintheirrelativefertilitywasthesolecauseofeveryvariationofrents:butevenadmittingforamomentthe correctnessofthesepremises，thisconclusionwouldbefallacious。Ifwesupposetheexistenceofagradationofsoilstobe (whatitmostcertainlyisnot)thesolecauseofthepaymentofrents，itwouldstillbeuntrue，that\"nothingcanraiserents butsomecausewhichshalloccasionanalterationintherelativefertilityofthe。landscultivated。\"Ifwetakeitforgranted withMr。Ricardo，thatadifferenceinthenaturalfertilityofsoilsisthesoleoriginofrent；stillitistheabsolutedifferenceof theirproductswhichmustalwaysdeterminetheamountoftherentspaidatanygiventime，andthisdifference，and consequentlytheamountofrentsmaybeincreasedindefinitely，whiletheproportionbetweentheseveralproductsofallthesoilscultivatedtoequalquantitiesofcapital，thatis，whiletheirrelativefertility，remainsunaltered。Ifabstractnumbers，bearingacertainproportiontoeachother，aremultipliedbythesamenumber，weknowthatthoughthe proportionbornebytheproductstoeachother，willbethesameasthoseoftheoriginalnumbers；yetthedifferencebetween theamountsoftheseveralproducts，willincreaseateachstepoftheprocess。If10，15，20，bemultipliedby2or4，and become20，30，40，or40，60，80，theirrelativeproportionswillnotbedisturbed80and60bearthesameproportionto40， as20and15doto10:butthedifferencesbetweentheamountoftheirproductswillhaveincreasedateachoperation，andfrombeing5and10，become10and20，andthen20and40。Soifsoilshavearelativefertility，whichisindicatedbytheirproducingtoacapitalof？00，respectively？10。，？15。and？30。，andthenthecapitalemployedbedoubled，andtheproducedoubled，theirproducewillbecome？20。，？30。and？60。；andthedifferencebetweentheamountoftheirproducts，ortheirrentswouldbedoubled，thoughtheirrelative fertilityremainedpreciselywhatitwas。Although，therefore，thedifferencebetweentherelativefertilityofsoilswerethe solecauseofrents，itwouldnotfollow，thatnothingcouldraiserentsbutsomecausewhichalteredtherelativefertilityof thelandscultivated，sinceanycausewouldraiserents，whichincreasedtheamountofproduceofall，whileitlefttheir relativefertilityuntouched；andjustsuchacausewouldbethatindefiniteincreaseofcapitalontheoldsoils，withouta diminishedreturn，whichMr。Ricardosostoutlydeclares，wouldmakeitimpossible，thattherevenueofthelandedproprietorscouldeverincreaseatall。(9)Uponpushingthisverysimplearithmeticalcalculationalittlefarther，itwillbeseenyetmoreclearly，thatMr。Ricardowas utterlymistakeninsupposing，evenonhisownshewing，thatanincreaseddifferenceintherelativefertilityofsoilswas essentialtoariseofrents，sincerentsmayclearlyrise，evenwhilethedifferencebetweentherelativefertilityofthesoilsis diminishing；providedtheabsolutequantityofproduceineachclassisincreasing。If？00。beemployedonclassesA，Band C，withaproduceof？10。，？15。and？20。，andsubsequently？00。，withreturnsof？00。，？28。and？35。，therelative differencesoftheproductswillhavediminished，andthesoilswillhaveapproximatedinfertility；stillthedifferenceofthe amountsoftheirproductswillbeincreasedfrom？。and？0。to？。and？5。，andrentswillhaverisenaccordingly。 Improvements，therefore，whichtendtoapproximatethedegreesoffertilityofthecultivatedsoils，mayverywellraiserents，andthatwithouttheco-operationofanyothercause。Thisprocessgoesonofteninpractice。Theturnipandsheephusbandry，andthefreshcapitalemployedtocarryiton， producedagreateralterationinthefertilityofthepoorsoils，thaninthatofthebetter；stillitincreasedtheabsoluteproduceofeach，and，thereforeitraisedrents，whileitdiminishedthedifferencesinthefertilityofthesoilscultivated。Wehaveattemptedtoshew，thatincreasingproducefromallthequalitiesofsoilinacountry，producedbytheapplicationof morecapitalandlabor，willnecessarilyraiserentsinanextensivecountryfarmedbycapitalists，fromtheunequalreturnsto thatcapitalandlaboronlandsofunequalgoodness:thatrentswillthusberaisedwithoutitsbeingnecessarytosuppose anyalterationintherelativefertilityofthesoilscultivated，anyresorttoinferiorsoils，oranydiminutionintheproduce obtainedbyagriculturallaborontheoldsoils:andthatthereisnofoundationwhateverfortheopinion，thatineverystageof suchaprocess，everyportionofadditionalproducesuccessivelygotfromthesamelands，mustnecessarilybeobtainedbyalessadvantageousexpenditureoflaborandcapital。Mr。Ricardo，however，isnotonlyofopinion，aswehaveseen，thatincreasedproducesoobtainedcouldneverraiserents， butheassertsthatitwouldactuallylowerthem，atleastforatime；thatis，tilltheonlycausewhichhecontendscanever possiblyraiserents，comesintoplay，andadditionalcapitalislaidoutwithadiminishedreturn，eitheruponfreshlands，or uponsomeportionoftheoldland。Thewayinwhichhedefendsthisratherstartlingopinion，thatincreasingcropswillbe thecauseofdecreasingrents，isthis:heassumes，thatiftheproduceofthelandbeincreasedwhilethepopulationisstanding still，andthedemandisstationary，someofthelandwillbethrownoutofemployment；andthedifferencebetweenthe fertilityofthelandsactuallycultivated，willbediminished；acircumstancewhichinMr。Ricardo\'ssystemisinvariablystated， aswehaveseen，toleadtoadecreaseofrents。(10)\"If\"hesays，\"amillionofquartersofcorn，benecessaryforthesupportof agivenpopulation，anditberaisedonlandofthequalitiesof1，2，3，andifanimprovementbeafterwardsdiscovered，by whichitcanberaisedonNo。1and2，withoutemployingNo。3，itisevidentthattheimmediateeffectmustbeafallofrent: forNo。2，insteadofNo。3，willthenbecultivatedwithoutpayinganyrent:andtherentofNo。1，insteadofbeingthe differencebetweentheproduceofNo。3andNo。1，willbethedifferenceonlybetweenNo。2andNo。1。Withthesame populationandnomoretherecanbenodemandforanyadditionalquantityofcorn；thecapitalandlaboremployedonNo。3 willbedevotedtotheproductionofothercommoditiesdesirabletothecommunity，andcanhavenoeffectinraisingrent， unlesstherawmaterialfromwhichtheyaremadecannotbeobtainedwithoutemployingcapitallessadvantageouslyonthe land，inwhichcaseNo。3mustagainbecultivated。\"ThispassagecontainsthesubstanceofthereasoningonwhichMr。Ricardofoundshisfrequentlyrepeatedassertion，thatagriculturalimprovementsarealwaysdetrimentaltothelandlords。Nowwhatwouldhappenwhileproducewasforsometimeslowlyandsteadilyincreasing，whilepopulationanddemand continuedthesame，andnomore，weneednottroubleourselvestoenquire。Itisacase，whichitwillbeadmittedonall handsisneverlikelytooccur。NeitheristhisthecaseputbyMr。Ricardo；hesupposesasuddenspreadofimprovement，by which，asbythestrokeofamagicwand，two-thirdsofthelandofacountryaremadetoproduceasmuchasthewholedid immediatelybefore，whilethepopulationcontinuesthesame，andnomore，inwhichcasehesupposesthecultivationofone-thirdofthelandwouldbeunnecessary，andcease，andthatrentswouldfalloverthewholecountry。Itisonlynecessarytoremembertheslowlyprogressivemannerinwhichagriculturalimprovementsarepractically discovered，completed，andspread，toperceivehowveryvisionarythissuppositionofMr。Ricardo\'sreallyis。Iftwo-thirds ofthelandsofEnglandshouldeverproduceasmuchasthewholedoesnow，(aneventextremelyprobable)wemaybequite surethatitwillbebynosuddenandmagicalstridethattheimprovementwillestablishitself:thatthemeansofeffectingit willbediscoveredinsmallportionsatatime，perhapsatconsiderableintervals，andwillbeadoptedintogeneralpractice tardily，andwemayalmostpredict，reluctantlyandsuspiciously。(11)Inthemeantime，populationandthedemandforraw producewillnothavebeenstandingstill。Inthcprocessbywhichincreasedsuppliesoffood areproducedforanincreasing population，weobservenosuchwidedislocationsbetweenthesupplyanddemand，nosuchsuddenstartsandjerksasMr。 Ricardoisdriventosuppose，inordertoprovethatallimprovementsinagricultureareunfavorabletotheinterestsofthe landlords。Asthemassofthepeopleslowlyincrease，weseethegradualpressureofdemandstimulatingtheagriculturiststo improvements，whichbyanimperceptibleprogressionofthesupply，keepthepeoplefed。Whiletheseprocessesaregoing on，everyincreaseofproduce，occasionedbythegeneralapplication，totheoldsoils，ofmorecapital，actinguponthemwith unequaleffect，accordingtothedifferencesoftheiroriginalfertility，raisesrents；andtheinterestsofthelandlordsareatno momentopposedtoimprovements，whichwhiletheyincreasetilemassofrawproduce，areasfavorabletotheaugmentationoftherevenuesoftheownersofthesoil，astheyareessentialtothewellbeingofthepeople。Itmayseemhardlynecessarytostate，thatincreasedrents，broughtaboutinthemannerwehavenowbeendescribing， constituteaportionoffreshwealthcreatedbytheindustryofthecountry，andareanunquestionableandsatisfactory evidenceofthegeneralincreaseofitsresources。Itsohappens，however，thatthesametrainofreasoningwhichhasledMr。 Ricardoandhisschooltodenythatrentscaneverriseexceptfromonecause(namely，thelayingoutcapitaluponsome portionoflandwithalessreturn，andtheconsequentdiminutionoftheshareoftheproductiveclassesinalltherest，)has ledthemtomaintain，asoneoftheconsequencesofthisdoctrine，thatariseofrentisinallcasesameretransferofwealth alreadyexisting，neveracreationofit；thatitaddsnothingtotheresourcesofacountry；thatitdoesnotenableitto maintainfleetsandarmies；thatitisameretransferofvalueadvantageousonlytothelandlord，andproportionablyinjurious totheconsumer。SupposingMr。Ricardo\'sopinion，astotheoneexclusivecauseofeveryincreaseofrents，tobecorrect， thenthisdoctrinemustalsobecorrect。(12)IfthesoilsA，B，CandD，produce，A？10。，B？15。，C？20，D？80。；thenthe shareoftheproducingclassesineach，being？10，Awillpaynorent；andtherentsofB，CandDwillbe？。，？0。，and？0。respectively。Ifonlyonemodeofraisingtheamountofrentspaidbythesesoilsexisted，namely，thereductionofthe shareoftheproducingclassesfrom？110。tosomeothersum，say？108。，andthetransferofthedifferencetothelandlords； thentheproducebeingstillforA？10。，B？15。，C？20。，D？180。，buttheshareoftheproducingclassesbeingreducedto？108。ineach；rentswouldrisetotheextentof？8。onthewhole。A，whichbeforepaidnorent，wouldpay？。，B？。，C？2。，D？2。Butthoughrentshadrisen，theresourcesofthecountrywouldremainpreciselywhattheywere。Therewould havebeenapartialtransferofwealth，andnoalterationinitsamount；thattransferwouldhavebeenadvantageouscertainly totheland。lords，andproportionablyinjurioustotheproducingclasses；andfromtheriseintherelativevalueofraw produce，which，forreasonsweneednotstatenow，wouldaccompanythechange，thetransferwould，tosomeextent，be injurioustoconsumersofeveryclass。Inthiscase，wehavesupposedtheproduceinconsonancewithMr。Ricardo\'sviews， tobestationary；(13)thisisonemodeunquestionablyinwhichrentsmayrisetoanunlimitedextent；butitisonlyone， certainlytheleastcommon，andbymuchtheleastefficientcauseoftheincreaseoffarmers\'rents:andinlayingdowngeneral principlesonthesubjectofrent，wecanhardlyavoidbeinginvolvedinerrorbyconfiningourselvestosuchanimperfect viewofthevarioussourcesofitsincrease，andarguingonanassumptionsocontrarytoobviousfactsandeverydayexperienceasthis，thatwhilerentsarerising，theamountofthenationalproduceisalwaysstationary。Theeffectsonnationalwealthofariseofrentsfromincreasedproduction，obtainedbytheemploymentofadditionalcapital， areofawidelydifferentcomplexionfromthoseexclusivelycontemplatedbyMr。Ricardo。LetusagainsupposeA，B，C，D， toproducerespectively？10。，？15。，？20。，and？80。，inacountryinwhiehtheartofagricultureisbackwardand imperfect。Asskillandwealthincrease，letitscultivationbecomemoreandmorecomplete，and thecapitalemployedon thesesoilsbedoubled；andletthemyield(pricesremainingthesame)，A？20。，B？30。，C？240。，D？60。Awillstillpay norent，buttherewillhavebeenariseofrentsontheothersoils，amountinginthewholeto？5。，Bwillpay？0。，C？20。， D？0。，andthesenewrentswillbeaclearadditiontothenationalresources，foundedonthecreationoffreshwealth:no classwillbethepoorer，nothingwillhavehappenedwhichisinjurioustoanyone；therewillhavebeennotransferofwealth； therelativevalueofrawproducewill(foranythinginvolvedinthischange)haveremainedperfectlystationary:andin proportiontothisadditiontoitsformerresources，willthecountryaboundmoreinthe\"necessaries，conveniences，and enjoymentsofsociety，\"andbebetterable\"tomaintain，fleetsandarmies，\"ormakeanyotherfinancialeffort，thanitwas。 Theincreasedrent，however，willformbutapart，andnotthemostimportantpart，oftheaugmentedwealthandadditional resources，whichthesamemultiplicationofcapitalthatcreatedtherent，willproduceandplacein otherhandsthanthoseof thelandlords。Inthecasewehaveput，itwillbeobserved，thatwhilerentshavedoubled，agriculturalcapital，wagesand profits，havedoubledtoo。Thelandofthecommunityproducestwicewhatitdid，anditsterritorialresourceshavedoubled， althoughitsfrontierhasnotbeenextended；andwhilethisprocessiscontinuedandrepeated，whichintheprogressofa skilfulandwealthypeople，itmaybemorethanonce，suchapeoplewillcontinuetomultiplyinnumbers，inriches，andin politicalstrength，comparedwithneighbouringnations，amongwhomaruderandmoreinefficientmodeofculturemay continuetoprevail。Increasedrents，`therefore，originatingintheaccumulationofcapitalontheland，andinincreased production，arenotonlythemselvesaclearadditiontotheresourcesofacountry，butnecessarilyindicateayetgreater additioninthehandsoftheproducingclasses；anadditionwhichissubstantiallyequivalenttotheprogressiveenlargementoftheterritoryitself。Thereisonesenseinwhichtheproposition，thatrentisnoadditiontothewealthandresourcesofacountry，isatruth， thoughaveryinsignificanttruth:whenitismerelymeant，thattheproduceofthelandandlaborofacountrybeing determined，theappropriationofapartofitasrent，makesthenation，collectively，noricherthanitwasbefore；thiscertainly isatruth，orratherapueriletruism。Theproduceofthelandandlaborofacountrybeingoncedetermined，theamountofits collectivewealthcannotofcoursebeaffectedbythesubsequentappropriationofit；whetheritbedevotedwhollytowages， toprofits，oreventaxes，thenationcollectivelyisasrichandnoricherthanitwas。Butwhenitisasserted，asMr。Ricardo obviouslymeanstoassert，thatintheprogressofsociety，increasingrentsmerelyindicateatransferofapartofthewealth alreadyexisting，andneverformanyrealadditiontotheresourcesofanation，thepropositionisanobviousfallacy，founded onhisownpeculiarlyimperfectviewofthesourcesinwhichsuccessiveadditionstotherentsofacountryoriginate。 DifferentEffectsofCapitolemployedindifferentShapes。Sofarwehavetracedtheeffectsonrentsoftheaccumulationofcapitalgenerally:thatis，withoutdistinguishingbetween theeffectsofthedifferentshapesinwhichitmaybeappliedtothelandduringtheprogressofitsincrease:andsofarasthenecessaryeffectofsuchanaccumulationonrentswasaloneinquestion，thisgeneralviewwassufficient。Buttoobservemoredistinctlytheprobableprogressoftheincreaseofcapitalemployedinagriculture，andtheultimatelimit toit；andtotraceitseffectsontheinterestsofthecommunity，ontherelativenumbersandweightoftheclasseswhich composeit；andonthenatureanddirectionoftheirindustry，wemustcarefullydistinguishbetweentheeffectsofincreasing capitalwhenitisappliedtothesupportofadditionallabor，andwhenitisappliedasauxiliarytotheindustryofthelaborersalreadyemployed，withoutanyincreaseintheirnumber。IamawarethatifwefollowMr。Ricardo，andsomelaterwriters，thedistinctionheremadeisfanciful。Accordingtothem， thisauxiliarycapitalistheresultoflabor，and，tracingitsufficientlyfarback，oflaboralone。Itsemployment，therefore，may beconsideredastheemploymentofthelaborwhichwasusedtoproduceit:andwhetheramanworksfortendaysin producingaploughtobeemployeduponthesoil，orworkstendaysuponthesoilitself，hedoesvirtuallythesamething；in eithercasetendayslaborhasbeenemployedincultivation。Therearesomepointsofview，perhaps，inwhichthisforced identificationoftheresultsoflabor，withlaboritself，maynotbeinadmissible，andmayevenbefoundconvenientforthe purposesofcalculation。Mr。Ricardo，andthewriterswhohavefollowedhim，universallyspeakofthelaborwhicha commodityhascost，asthesolefoundationandmeasureofitsvaluerelativelytoallothercommodities。Aquantityofcorn producedbyamonth\'slaborofoneman，andaploughproducedbyamonth\'slaborofanotherman， would，accordingto them，beofpreciselythesamevalue。Henceallcommoditiesmustbeestimatedassomuchaccumulatedlabor。\"Capital，or whatisthesamething，labor，\"isanexpressionofMr。Ricardo\'swhichflowsnaturallyenoughfromtheirtheoryoftheorigin andmeasureofvalue。Thistheoryitisnotnecessaryforourpresentpurposetoexamine。Ibeg，however，inpassing，tobe numberedamongthosewhobelieveitdefective，andwhothinkthatincomparingtheexchangeablevalueofdifferent commodities，othercircumstancesmustbetakenintoconsideration，besidesthequantityoflaborbestoweddirectlyor indirectlyuponeach。Butwhethersuchatheoryofvaluebesoundorunsound，forthepurposesofourpresentinvestigation， itwillbenecessarytothinkandspeakoflabor，andoftheresultsoflaborastwodifferentthings。Itwillhardlybedenied， thattheusinganimplementormanuretoproduceaneffectinagriculture，orusingdirectlyonthelandthelaborwhichthe implementormanuremayhavecost，aresubstantiallydistinctanddifferentoperations；thattheymayleadtodifferent results，andeachbepracticableorprofitableonlyunderdifferentcircumstances。Nowitissomeoftheeffectsofsuch differencesthatIamabouttopointout，becauseIthinktheknowledgeofthemwilllayopenimportantviewsofthepresent conditionandpossibleprogressofnations，andofthecausesofthosechangeswhichtakeplacegraduallyintherelativenumbersandinfluenceofthedifferentbodiesofmenofwhichtheyarecomposed。Thefirstdifferencewhichwewillremark，betweentheapplicationofcapitaltoagricultureinthesupportofadditional laborers，andintheshapeofimplements，manures，drains，oranythingwhichistheresultofpastlaborasauxiliarytothe effortsofthelaborersactuallyemployed，isthis，thatinthefirstcase，thequantityofhumanpower，comparedwiththe capitalemployed，remainsunaltered；thatinthesecondcase，itisinvariablyincreased。Ifacapitalisusedinemployingthree menonthesoil，andthenthatcapitalisdoubled，andsixarcemployed，thepoweremployedincultivationisdoubled，butit isnotmorethandoubled；wehavenoreasonforassumingthatthelaborofthethreemenlastemployed，willbemore efficientthanthatofthethreemenfirstemployed。Butifinsteadofemployingthesecondcapitalinemployingthreefresh laborers，meansarefoundofapplyingitinsomeoftheshapesofauxiliarycapitaltoincreasethepowerofthethreelaborers alreadyemployed，wemaythensafelytakeitforgrantedthattheefficiencyofthehumanlaboremployeddirectlyand indirectlyinagriculturehasbeenincreased，andthatthethreemenassistedbythisauxiliarycapital， willhavepowerswhich sixmenemployingalltheirpowerdirectlytothesoil，wouldnotpossess。Toperceivethisdistinctly，itseemstobeonly necessarytocalltomindwhatmustbetheconstantmotivetoemployhumanlaborinframingmachineryorimplements，or inobtainingauxiliarycapitalofanykind，inpreferencetoemployingthatlabordirectlytoobtaintheendforwhichthe auxiliarycapitalistobeused；andwhataretheusualstepsbywhichtheagriculturalandmanufacturingeffortsofcivilized nationsgainefficiency，ortravelfromtherudenessandfeeblenessoftheindustriouseffortsofthesavage，tothepowerandcomparativeperfectionoftheartsofcivilizedman。Man，inhisattemptstoobtainorfashiontohiswants，thematerialobjectsofhisdesires，differsfromtheloweranimals principallyinthis，thathisintellectenableshimtocontrivethemeansofusingtheresultsofhispastlabortopushthe efficiencyofhisactualexertionsbeyondthelimitsofhismereanimalpowers。Whilelivingonthegameoftheforest，the hunterdevotesaportionofhistimetoforminghisbowandarrows。Iftheweapons，whenmade，enabledhimtosecureno moregamethanhecouldhaveacquiredbyhisunassistedexertionsinthetimespentinmakingthem，wemaybesurethe acquisitionofthemwouldnotcontinnetotempthim。Thehusbandmanafterscratchingthegroundforatimewiththe crookedbranchofatree，devisedatlastanartificiallyconstructedironplough:butiftheeffectsonthesoilofthisplough whenused，werenogreaterthanthosewhichthelaborwouldhaveproduced，whichwasspentinconstructingtheplough， hadthatlaborbeenapplieddirectlytotheland，thenwemaybesurethattheploughwouldnothavebeenmade。Itissowith allthehelpscontrivedbymantoassisthislaborfromthefeeblestandsimplesttothemostcomplicatedandpowerful。Ifthe laboremployedinconstructingasteamenginecouldbeappliedwiththesameeffectastheengineitselfinthevariousarts andcallingsoflife，wemaybesurethatsteamengineswouldneverhavebecomecommon。Whenever，therefore，weseea nation\'sstockofwealthaccumulatingintheshapeofauxiliarycapital:when，insteadofusingtheircapitaltosupportfresh laborersinanyart，theypreferexpendinganequalamountofcapitalinsomeshapeinwhichitisassistanttothelabor alreadyemployedinthatart，thenwemayconcludewithperfectcertainty，thattheefficiencyofhumanindustryhasincreasedrelativelytotheamountofcapitalemployed。Inagriculture，theeffectsofauxiliarycapitalInstrengtheninghumanpower，arelessobvious。perhaps，thaninmanufactures； butcertainlynotlessimportant。Ifweobservethequantityofimplements，ofliveanddeadstock，offences，drainsand buildingstobefoundon。thesurfaceof1000acresoflandinahighlycultivatedcountry，andcomparethemwiththewild andill-occupieddistrictsofrudenations，weshallseethateveninagriculture，theeffortsmadebyhumanintellect，tousethe resultsofpastlaborinstrengtheningtheactualpowerofthehusbaudmantodevelopetheresourcesoftheearth，havebeen veryconsiderable。Thedifferentextenttowhichdifferentnationshaveachievedthis，formsoneofthemostimportant distinctionsbetweenthem。Asman，inhisrudeststate，andwhenchieflyemployedinsatisfyinghisbarephysicalwants，is distinguishedfromthebrutecreationbyhiscapacitytousethehoardedresultsofhispastexertionstoaugmenthis commandoverthematerialworld；sowhenweviewhiminamoreadvancedstate，andattempttoweighandestimatethe causesoftheverydistinctproductivepowersofdifferentcommunities，perhapsequallyenlightened， weshallfindthe differentdegreesofsuchpowerattainedbyeachtobedetermined，andalmostmeasured，bythedifferentextenttowhich theyhavecarriedthisoriginalprerogativeofthehumanrace。Thenecessariesandluxuriesoflifearesupplied，inall countriesremarkablefortheircivilization，bytheassistanceofacertainquantityofauxiliarycapital。Butintheamountof thatcapitalpossessedandusedbyeach，thereisawidedifference。Inthisrespect，Englandstandsfaraheadofthewhole civilizedworld，andnotlessremarkablyinheragriculturethaninotherdepartmentsofherindustry。Itappearsfromvarious returnsmadeatdifferenttimestotheBoardofAgriculture，thatthewholecapitalagriculturallyemployedinEngland，isto thatappliedtothesupportoflaborers，as5to1；thatis，therearefourtimesasmuchauxiliarycapitalused，asthereisof capitalappliedtothemaintenanceofthelaboruseddirectlyintillage。InFrance，theauxiliarycapitaluseddoesnotamount (asappearsfromCountChaptal\'sbook，)tomorethantwicethatappliedtomaintainrusticlabor。InotherEuropeancountries，thequantityis，Isuspect，verymuchless。Bearinginmindthen，thatateverystepintheaccumulationofauxiliarycapitalincultivation，adifferenceiscreatedinthe powerofhumanlabor，whichdoesnotoccurwhencapitalincreasesonlyintheshapeofadditionalmaintenanceforfresh workmenonthesoilitself；wemayproceedtotheseconddifferencebetweentheeffectsoftheemploymentofauxiliary capital，andofcapitalapplieddirectlytothesupportofadditionallabor，whichisthis:thatwhenagivenquantityof additionalcapitalisappliedintheshapeoftheresultsofpastlabor，toassistthelaborersactuallyemployed，alessannual returnwillsufficetomaketheemploymentofsuchcapitalprofitable，and，therefore，permanentlypracticable，thanifthesamequantityoffreshcapitalwereexpendedinthesupportofadditionallaborers。Letussuppose？00。employeduponthesoilinthemaintenanceofthreemen，producingtheirownwages，and10percent。 profitonthem，or？10。Letthecapitalemployeduponthissoilbedoubled。Andfirstletthefreshcapitalsupportthree additionallaborers。Inthatcase，theincreasedproducemustconsistofthefullamountoftheirwages，andoftheordinary rateofprofitonthem。Itmustconsist，therefore，ofthewhole？00。，andtheprofitonit；orof？10。Nextletthesame additionalcapitalof？00。beappliedintheshapeofimplements，manures，oranyresultscfpastlabor，whilethenumberof actuallaborersremainsthesame。Andletthisauxiliarycapitallastontheaveragefiveyears:theannualreturntorepaythe capitalistmustnowconsistof？0。hisprofit，andof？0。theannualwearandtearofhiscapital:or？0。willbetheannual return，necessarytomakethecontinuousemploymentofthesecond？00。profitable，insteadof？10。，theamountnecessarywhendirectlaborwasemployedbyit。Itwillbeobvious，therefore，thattheaccumulationofauxiliarycapitalincultivation，willbepracticablewhenthe employmentofthesameamountofcapitalinthesupportofadditionallaborhasceasedtobeso:andthattheaccumulation ofsuchcapitalincultivationmaygoonforanindefiniteperiod:thatis，itmaygoonaslongashumancontrivancecanuse ittourgeontheprogressofhumanpowerinaddingtothefertilityofthesoil，orwhatisthesamething，totheefficiencyof thelaborersemployeduponit:providedonlythattheadditionalproduceobtainedateachstepoftheprocessissufficienttopaytheordinaryrateofprofitonthefreshauxiliarycapitalsoemployed，togetherwiththewearandtearofthatcapital。Stepbystep，however，asthemassofsuchcapitalincreases，theingenuityofmanmustbeatworktodevisefreshmodesof usingit。Toemployadditionallabortoincreasetheproduceoftheland，allthatisnecessaryistohavethemeansof maintainingit。Toemploymoreoftheresultsofpastlaborinassistingtheactualtillersoftheearthrequiresconstantcontrivanceandincreasingskill。`Withtheincreaseofthemassofauxiliarycapitalemployedinagriculturerentswillrise，fromtheunequaleffectsofthat capitalonsoilsofunequalgoodness。Buttheriseofrentsfromtheemploymentofanygivenquantityofauxiliarycapital， willbelessthanthatwhichwouldtakeplacefromtheemploymentofanequalamountofcapitalinthemaintenanceof additionallabor。Theadditionalannualproduce，wehaveseen，willbeless，andthedifferencebetweentheamountofthe produceofequalcapitalsonsoilsofdifferentgradationsoffertility(onwhichdifferencerentsdepend)willbeofcourse large，whentheproduceislarge，andless，whenitissmaller。Forinstance，letA，B，CandDproduceasfollows: ABCD？10。？15。？20。？30。Thedifferences，surplusprofits，orrentsonB，CandD，willbe5+10+20，ortogether？5。Letanadditional？00。 employedinthemaintenanceofadditionallabor，raisetheirproducetoABCD？20。？30。？40。？60。Rentswillbedoubled。Theadditiontothemwillamounttoanother？5。Butlettheadditionalcapitalof？00。beappliedin theresultsofpastlabor，auxiliarytothelaboralreadyemployed；andlet？0。besufficienttopaytheprofitsofthatcapital， andreplaceitsannualwearandtearonA。IfB，CandDyieldaproducetothenewcapitalfullyproportionedtotheir originalsuperiorityoverA，stilltheirproducewillnotexceed(suppose，)A140，B(115+32)=147，C(120+34)154，D(130 +36)=166。Thejointrentsofthethreewillnowbe？7。insteadof？5。:butinsteadofrentsbeingdoubled，and，asinthe lastinstance，theadditionamountingto？5。，itwillamountonlyto？2。；although，inthemeantime，theamountofprofits realizedbythefarmerswillhavedoubled，asintheformercase。Thepro。gressofrents，therefore，thoughsteadyand constant，willbemoreslow，andbearalessproportiontotheincreasedcapitalemployed，andtheadvanceoftheincomesof thecapitalists，whentheadditionstotheagriculturalcapitalofthecountryaremadeintheshapeofauxiliarycapital，than whenthoseadditionsaremadeintheshapeofcapitalemployedinthesupportofadditional labor:anapparentdisadvantage tothelandlords，whichisamplycompensatedtothembythepossibilityofemployingprogressivelyincreasingmassesof suchauxiliarycapitaltoobtainfreshproduce，whenthemaintainingadditionallaboronthesoilforthatpurposewouldbe unprofitableandimpracticable。Wearetobearinmind，then，thattheprogressofauxiliarycapitalbothincreasesthe commandofmanoverthepowersofthesoil，relativelytotheamountoflabordirectlyorindirectlyemployeduponit；and diminishestheannualreturnnecessarytomaketheprogressiveemploymentofgivenquantitiesoffreshcapitalprofitable thatitpresentsinitsaccumulationasourceofadditiontothemassofrents，lesscopious，butmoredurable，andlongerinarrivingatitsultimatelimits，thanthatderivedfromthedirectemploymentofmorelabor。EjectsoftheAccumulationofauxiciliaryCapitalinAgricultureontherelativeNumbersandInfluenceofthedifferentClassesoftheCommunity。Theaccumulationinlargerandlargermassesoftheresultsofpastlabor，nottomaintainthelaboringpartoftheactual population，buttoaugmenttheefficiencyoftheirindustry，isaprocesswhichexercisesadecisiveinfluence，notonlyonthe comparativeproductivepowerofdifferentnations，butonthevariouselementsoftheirsocialandpoliticalcomposition。And inthispointofviewtherearetwoprominenteffectsofthismodeofincreasingtheefficiencyofthecultivationwhichmust benoticed:First，thegreatincreaseoftherelativenumbersofthenon-agriculturalclasses:Secondly，thegreatincreaseof therevenuesandinfluence(andordinarilyofthenumbers)oftheintermediateclasses，ortheclassesexistingbetweenthe proprietorsandlaborers。Thesechangesintherelativenumbersofthedifferentpartsofthecommunity，exercisea considerableinfluenceinmouldingthefortuneandcharacterofnations。Theeffectsofsuchchangesweshallhavetotracein anotherpartofourwork；itisourobjectnowtoshewthemannerinwhichthechangesthemselvesareproduced。 TheEmploymentofauxiliaryCapitalaugmentstherelativeNumbersofthenon-agriculturalClasses。Whenadditionalproduceisobtainedbytheuseofaproportionalquantityofadditionallaboralone，the。relativenumbersof theagriculturalandnon-agriculturalclassesremainunaltered。Letussupposeacapitalofonemillionofmoneymaintaining onemillionofagriculturallaborers:theprofitsonthemillion，at10percent。willbe？00，000。，andwemayassumetherents paidtobeasmuchmore。Thenumbersofthenon-agriculturalpopulationwilldependonthequantityofrawproducewhich thelaborers，fromtheirrevenueofonemillion，thecapitalistsandlandlordsfromtheirrevenuesof？00，000each，canspare toexchangeformanufacturedarticlesandnon-productivelabor。(14)Letthatnumberbe250，000 souls，orone-fourthofthe agriculturists。Letussupposetheagriculturalcapitalemployedinsuchacountrydoubled，andtheagriculturallabordoubled； thatinsteadofoneminionoflaborers，twomillionsareemployed，andthattheproduce，profitsandrentsarealldoubledtoo。 Thehabitsofthepeopleremainingthesame，thequantityofrawproduceappliedtothemaintenanceofnon-agricultural labor，willbedoubledalso；thenon-agriculturistswillbecome500，000，andtheirrelativenumbercomparedwiththe increasednumberofnon-agriculturistswillbepreciselywhatitwas。Theirinfluence，andthatoftheproduceoftheirindustry onthehabitsofthemassofthepeople，therelativeweightoftheiremployersinthecommunity，willalsobepreciselywhatitwas，andnomore:thoughthepopulationofthecountrywillhavedoubled，ornearlydoubled。Letusnextsupposetheagriculturalcapitalinsuchacountrytobedoubled，buttheadditionstobeusednotasfoodto maintainmorelaborersonthesoil，butinsomeshapeauxiliarytothelaborersalreadyemployed。Andletustaketheaveragedurationofsuchauxiliarycapitalatfiveyears。Thenprofitswinhaveincreasedfrom100，000to200，000。The###第9章increaseofrentsmaybetakenat50，000，andthesumnecessarytoreplacetheannualwearandtearofacapitalofone millionlastingfiveyearswillbe？00，000。Herewillbeagrossadditionalsumof？50，000。producedoriginallyintheshape ofagriculturalproduceandwhollyapplicabletothemaintenanceofnon-agriculturallabor；thenumbersofthe non-agriculturallaborerswillincrease，whilethoseoftheagriculturistsremainstationary，andthisincreasemaygoonswellingandrepeatingitself，tillthenon-agriculturistsequalorexceedtheagriculturists。ThishastakenplaceinEngland，wheretheauxiliarycapitalemployedincultivationisgreaterthaninanyotherpartofthe world，andwherethenon-agriculturalpopulationisactuallytotheagriculturalas2to1。Inallotherextensivecountries，theagriculturistsformthemajority。InFrancetheycomprisetwo-thirdsofthepopulation:inmostothercountriesmuchmore。Theincreaseofauxiliarycapitaliscertainlynottheonlycircumstancewhichaffectstheproportionatenumbersofthetwo greatclassesofcultivatorsandnon-cultivators。Anycausewhichincreasestheefficiencyoftheactualcultivatorsmaydoso， buttheincreaseofauxiliarycapitalistheonlycausewhich，intheordinaryprogressofcivilizednations，wearesuremust exerciseaprogressiveinfluenceinthisrespect。 TheIncreaseofauxiliaryCapitalincreasestheRevenueoftheintermediateClasses。Thenextpointinwhichtheeffectsoftheemploymentofauxiliarycapital，andofcapitalconsumedinthedirectmaintenance oflabor。differ，isthis，thatwiththerelativeincreaseofauxiliarycapital，agreatincreaseordinarilytakesplaceintherelative revenuesofthemiddling，or，touseamorecomprehensivephrase，oftheintermediateclasses。Thiseffectisnotpeculiarto theincreaseofauxiliarycapitalincultivation，butfollowsitsaccumulationinallthebranchesofhumanindustry。Wemust enlargeonthiselsewhere:butourviewoftheeffectswhichmaybeexpectedtoaccompanyariseofrentscausedbythe generalaccumulationofcapitalontheland，wouldbeincompletewithoutadvertingtoit。Ifwesupposeanycapital(？00。 forinstance)employeduponthesoil。whollyinpayingthewagesoflabor，andyielding10percent。profit，therevenueofthe farmerwillevidentlybeone-tenththatofthelaborers。Ifthecapitalbedoubled，orquadrupled andthenumberoflaborers bedoubledorquadrupledtoo，thentherevenueofthefarmerswillcontinuetobearthesameproportiontothatofthe laborers。Butifthenumberoflaborersremainingthesame，theamountofcapitalisdoubled，profitsatthesameratebecome？0。，orone-fifththerevenueofthelaborers。Ifthecapitalbequadrupled，profitsbecome？0。，ortwo-fifthsoftherevenue ofthelaborers:ifcapitalbeincreasedto？00。，profitswouldbecome？0。，orhalftherevenueofthelaborers。Andthe wealth，theinfluence，andprobablytosomeextentthenumbersofthecapitalistsinthecommunity，wouldbeproportionablyincreased。Thispoint，atleast，theaccumulationofauxiliarycapitalincultivationhasreachedinEngland。Thewholecapitalemployed， istothatadvancedinwagesatleastas5:1。Theauxiliarycapital，therefore，isequaltoatleastfourtimesthecapitalusedin themaintenanceoflabor，andtheincomeofthecapitalistsemployedinagricultureequaltoatleasthalfthewagespaidtoagriculturallaborers。Ihavesupposedinthecalculationshithertomade，thattheamountoflaboremployedincultivationhasbeenstationary， whiletheamountofauxiliarycapitalhasbeenaccumulating。Thisislittlelikelyevertobetrueinpractice。Agreatincrease ofcapital，ofwhateverdescription，usedinanyart，usuallymakestheemploymentofsomeadditionaldirectlabornecessary。Thiscircumstance，however，willnotpreventthesteadyprogressoftherelativeincreaseoftheauxiliarycapital。Thetwolastnoticedresultsoftheincreaseofauxiliarycapitalemployedinagriculture，namely，therelativeincreaseofthe numbersofthenon-agriculturalclasses，andtherelativeincreaseoftherevenuesandnumbersoftheintermediateclasses， arebothchangesofconsiderableimportanceintheprogressofsociety。Supposingtwonationstohavemadeinother respectsnearlyanequalprogressinartsandmanufactures；theabundanceorscantinesswithwhicheachwillbesupplied withthedecenciesandartificialcomfortsoflife，willdependentirelyonthecomparativesizeof thatportionofeach community，ofwhichtheindustryisdirectedtooccupationsdistinctfromagriculture:andineverynationtoo，theamountof thefundwhichformstherevenueoftheintermediateclasses，oroftheclasseswhichinvariousgradationsseparatethehigherfromthelowerorders，isacircumstanceofgreatmomenttothepoliticalandsocialcharacterofthepeople。Whiletherevenueofthecapitalistsequalsonlyone-tenththatofthelaborers，theyformnoprominentportionofthe community，andindeedmustusuallybelaborersorpeasantsthemselves。Butamassofprofitsequalto，orexceeding one-halfthewagesoflabor(whichmassexistsinEngland)naturallyconvertstheclassreceivingitintoanumerousand variedbody。Theirinfluenceinacommunityinwhichtheyarethedirectemployersofalmostallthelaborers，becomesvery considerable:andwhatisinsomerespectsofmoreimportance，sucharichandnumerousbodyofcapitalists，as，descending fromthehigherranks，theyapproachthebodyofthelaborersbyvariousgradationstilltheyalmostminglewiththemforma speciesofmoralconductors，bywhichthehabitsandfeelingsoftheupperandmiddlingclassesarecommunicateddownwards，andactmoreorlesspowerfullyuponthoseoftheverylowestranksofthecommunity。Therelativeprevalenceofartificialcomforts，consequentontheexistenceofalargeindustriousnon-agriculturalpopulation； ranksofsocietyapproachingandblendinginsuccessiveorders，sothatthehigherarelinkedwiththelower，andachannelof communicationformedthroughwhichtheirmoralinfluencemay，toacertainextent，constantlypasstotheirinferiors；these arccircumstances，thepracticaleffectsofwhichweshallhavetotraceinanotherportionofourwork，whenweare examiningtheordinaryprogressofthenumbersofnations。Theywillbefoundtohaveanimportantbearingonoursubject， whileweremarkvariouscircumstancessuccessivelyunfoldingthemselvesintheprogressofcivilization，whichtendto moderatethedispositionofapeople，toexerttheirfullphysicalpowersofincreasingtheiraggregatenumbers，andhelptosubjecttheanimalpassionsofmantothepartialcontrolofmotives，aimsandhabitspeculiartohimasarationalbeing。Wewillconcludehereourexaminationofthefirstsourceenumeratedofariseoffarmers\'rents，namely，theprogressive accumulationandunequaleffectsofcapitalonallgradationsofsoils。 Wehavefound，thatsuchanaccumulationordinarilytakesplaceintheprogressofpopulationandwealth:Thattheriseofrents，whichproceedsfromthiscause，iswhollyindependentofthecultivationofinferiorsoils，andofthe expenditureofcapitalontheoldsoilswithadiminishedreturn；andthatitmightgoonindefinitely，thoughneitherofthesecircumstanceseveroccurred:Thattheadditionalcapitalmaybeemployedinmaintainingadditionalagriculturallaborers；orinvariousshapesinwhichitisonlyauxiliarytothelaborersalreadyemployed:Thatwhenfreshcapitalisusedinagricultureinthelattershape，thepowerofthehumanlaborapplieddirectlyorindirectly tothesoil，maybeassumedtobeincreasing；whilethequantityofadditionalproducenecessarytomaketheemploymentofagivenquantityofcapitalprofitable，isdecreasing:Thathencetheaccumulationofauxiliarycapitalwithincreasingeffectonthelandmaygoon，foranindefiniteperiod，after theemploymentofadditionalcapital，withoutadiminishedreturninmaintainingmoreagriculturallabor，hasbecomeimpossible:Thatwiththeemploymentofgreatermassesofauxiliarlycapital，therelativenumbersofthenonagriculturalclasseswill increase；andalsotherevenue，theinfluence，andordinarilythenumberandvariety，oftheintermediateclasses，whichconnectthehigherwiththelower。Wehaveseen，thatthegeneralincreaseofproductionwhichfollowssuchanaccumulationofcapitalontheoldsoil，isa mostimportantandbeneficialadditiontotheterritorialresourcesofthepeopleamongwhomittakesplace:andthatthere ispracticallynoperiodofsuchanincrease，atwhichtheinterestsofthelandedproprietorsarenotinstrictunisonwiththose ofthepopulation。 SECTIONIII。OnthesecondSourceoftheIncreaseofFarmers\'Rents，orontheincreasingEfficiencyoftheCapitalemployed。Intheprogressofagriculture，andaftertheestablishmentoffarmers\'rents，someimprovementsmaybeexpectedtotake placeintheefficiencyofthecapitalemployedincultivation。Boththeskillandpowerofthecultivatingclassincrease。Their skill，becausemuchthoughtissedulouslyappliedtothesubjectbymenfreedfromthetoilsomeandabsorbingoccupations ofthemerelaborer，andnotdistractedlikethelandlordsbyloftierpursuitsandmoreenticingoccupations。Withtheincrease ofskill，themeremanualexertionsofthelaborerandthemostordinaryandrudestimplementsandmeansbecomemore efficient，becausebetterdirectedandcombined。Butastheagriculturistsincreaseinskill，theyusuallyincreasealsointhe powerwhichtheycanapplytoeffecttheirpurposes。Theincreaseofauxiliarycapitalinallitsshapes(oneinvariableeffectofadvancingwealthandknowledge)hasaconstanttendency，aswehaveseen，toputsuchincreasedpowerintotheirhands。Ofincreasedskillandincreasedpower，anincreaseintheefficiencyofthecapitalemployedincultivationisanecessary consequence，andmayshewitselfbytwoeffects。 1st。Lesscapitalmaybenecessarytoproduceagivenquantityofproducefromaspotofground。2nd。Thesamecapitalmayproducefromthesamespotofgroundalargerproducethanitbeforeyielded。Thelastofthese improvementsordinarilyincludesthefirst。When，onanyspotofground？00。canbesoemployed，astoproducealarger returnthanthesameamountofcapitaldidbefore，thensomesmallerquantityofcapitalwillusuallyobtainthesameproduce which？00。oncedid。Butthefirstimprovementmentioned，doesnotalwaysincludethelast；formeansaresometimes discoveredofgettingthesameamountofproducecheaper，whennomeanshavebeenhitonofincreasingit。Inwhichever result，however，theincreasingefficiencyofthecapitalemployedshewsitself，rentswillrise，andunlesstheprogressof improvementoutstripstheprogressofpopulation，andthegrowthofproduceexceedsthegrowthofdemand，(anevent rarelytobeexpected，)thisriseofrents，fromtheincreasedefficiencyofthecapitalemployed，willbepermanent；anditwill ordinarilycoincide，asweshallpresentlysee，withanextensionoftheagriculturalwealth，thepopulation，strength，and resourcesofthecountry。If？0。canbemadetoproducewhat？00。formerlyproducedfromthesamespotofground，say？10。，theprofitsrealizedwillhaverisenfrom10percent。tosomewhatmorethan20。Oftheseprofits，somewhatmore than？0。willbesurplusprofitsorrents。Again，if？00。formerlyproducedacertainquantityofcornwhichsoldfor？10。， andcannowbesoemployed，asfromthesamespottoproducecornwhichatthesamepriceswouldsellfor？20； additionalsurplusprofitswillbemadeonthatland，andadditionalrentbepaidforit:providedthatthewholeimprovement isnotdiscovered，completed，andgenerallyadopted，sorapidly，astomakethenowincreasingquantityofcornoutstripthe progressofpopulationanddemand。Forinthatcase，pricesmightfall，andrentsremainstationaryorrecede。Itisnot necessaryagaintodiscusstheprobabilityofthisdislocationbetweenthedemandandsupply。Theriseofrentswhichwould followsuchanincreasedefficiencyaswehavebeenassuming，ofthecapitalemployedinagriculture，wouldclearlybequite independentofanyspreadoftillagetoinferiorsoils。Suchariseofrentsmighttakeplace，andgoonincreasingwiththeincreaseofpopulationindefinitely，thoughnoinferiorgradationsofsoilwereinexistence。Thereisaclearadditiontothenationalresourceswhenrentsrisefromtheincreasedefficiencyofagriculturalcapital。But thisaddition，(unlikethatwhichaccompaniesariseofrentsfromthegreateraccumulationofcapitalonthesoil，)isusually confinedto，ormeasuredby，theincreasedrentsthemselves。When？00。produces(pricesbeingthesame)cornworth？20。，insteadofcornworth？10。，thewealthofthenationisincreasedbytenpoundsworthofcorn，andnomore。When？0。willproducethesamequantityofcornwhich？00。didproduce，thenationisenrichedtothesameamountinanother shape；for？0。maybewithdrawnfromagriculturewithoutitsproducebeingdiminished， andthenationwillbeenrichedby beingputinpossessionofanyothercommoditieswhichthecapitalof？0。maybeemployedtoproduce。Theincreaseof nationalwealthwill，ineithercase，beconfinedtotheamountof？0。，thesamesumbywhichrentsrise。Increasedrents， therefore，fromtheincreasedefficiencyofcapital，thoughanadditiontothenationalwealthandresources，donotindicate solargeanadditiontothoseresources，asincreasedrentsproceedingfromtheaccumulationofcapitalincultivation；foran increasefromthislastsourceisaccompanied，aswehaveseen，byagreatadditiontothemeansoftheproducingclasses， whichmustbeaddedtothenewrentsbeforewecanestimatethewholeadditiontothenation\'sresources，whichsuchariseofrentsindicates。Sofarincreasedrentsfromabetteruseofthecapitalemployedinagriculture，mayseemtocomeaccompaniedbyless extensiveadditionstothenationalresources，thanincreasedrentsproceedingfromthegradualincreaseintheamountofthe capitalemployedincultivation。Buttherearesomeresultsoftheincreasingefficiencyofagriculturalcapitalthatremaintobenoticed，whichverymuchaugmenttheeffectsonpublicprosperityofaprogressiveriseofrentsfromthissource。Ithasalreadybeenshewn，thataspreadoftillagetoinferiorsoilsdoesnotnecessarilyaccompany，orfollow，ariseofrents， whentheefficiencyofthecultivator\'scapitalincreases；thatsuchanextensionisinnosenseeitherthecauseofsuchariseor essentialtoit。Butstill，infact，thesameincreasedproductivenessofagriculturalcapital，whichoccasionsariseofrentson theoldlands，usuallymakesitpossibletoextendtillagetolandsofinferiornaturalfertility，withasampleareturnasthat obtainedfromtheoldsoilsbeforetheimprovementtookplace。WhentheturniphusbandrywasfirstadoptedbytheNorfolk farmers，itwasfoundtoincreasethefertilityoftheirlandssomuch，thatfarms，whichbeforeyieldedaverysmallrent，now yieldedoneconsiderablylarger。Butanother，andinanationalpointofview，amuchmoreimportantresultfollowed。There existedinEnglandlargetractsoflightsandysoil，supposedtobewhollysterile，onwhichthisnewmodeofhusbandrywas practicable，andwhentheproduceofkindredsoils，ofsomewhatbetterstaple，yieldedmuchmorethantheordinaryprofits ofstock，andpaidconsiderablerents，itbecamepossibletocultivatesomeofthemorebarrentractswithoutaloss。They wererapidlyreclaimedfromthewaste，andtheagricultureofEnglandhassincebeengraduallyspreadingitselfoverlarge districtsofthisdescription，whichbeforeyieldedlittleornohumanfood，andcontributednothingtoincreasethatmassofwages，profits，andrents，whichcomposejointlytheresourcesofthecountry。Noristhistheonly，thoughitisthemostobviousmanner，inwhichanincreasedefficiencyofagriculturalcapitalwidensthe agriculturalresourcesofnations，atthesametimethatitiselevatingrents。Suchanimprovementusuallyleadstotheemploymentofagreaterquantityofcapitaloverthewholecultivatedsurfaceofthecountry。Ifthecapital，whichbeforeyieldedtheordinaryrateofprofit，say10percent。，nowyields？20。，andpaysarentof？0。， thefarmerwilloftenfindthathecanemployanotherportionofcapital，say？00。，whichthoughitmaynotpaysomuchas hisoldcapitalnowdoes，willstillpayonsomesoilsbarelyperhaps？10。，theordinaryprofitsofstock；onothers，perhaps，？11。，？12。，and？18。，thatis，somethingmoreoneachthantheusualrateofprofit，thoughnotsomuchastheoldcapital hasbeenmadetoyieldbytheimprovedefficiencyofitsapplication。Ontheselastsoils，rentswillthenberisingfromtwo causes；fromtheincreasedefficiencyoftheoldcapital，andfromtheunequaleffectsonsoilsofdifferentdegreesoffertility， ofthenewcapital，whichbeginstoaccumulateonthem。Whenanopportunityoffersofthusgraduallyaugmentingthe capitalwhichtheycanprofitablyemployontheoldlands；thefarmersofaprosperouscountrywillslowlytakeadvantageofit。Forreasonshereaftertobeexplained，incountrieswherecapitalabounds，theownersofitarealwaysimpelledby self-interesttousethevariousadditionswhichtheyemploy，asmuchaspossible，intheshapeofauxiliarycapital，andas littleastheycanhelpintheshapeofwagesoflabor。Thegradualincreaseoftherelativequantityofauxiliarycapitalis， therefore，theordinaryeffectoftheprogressiveincreaseofthewholemassofcapitalemployedinagriculture。Thisis naturallyfollowed，forthereasonswehavestated，byaprogressiveincreaseoftheefficiencyofhumanindustry；andinthis manner，themeansaregraduallydeveloped，ofcontendingsuccessfullywithsoilsofalow degreeofnativefertility，andof obtaining，withoutadiminutionofagriculturalpower，thesuppliesforanincreasingpopulation。Asthecultivatedterritory thuswidens，largequantitiesofcapitalaccumulatebothupontheoldsoilsanduponthesuccessiveadditionstothetinedground，andtheresourcesofanationtomaintainanumerouspopulationareatoncemultipliedandextended。Althoughthentheimmediateadditiontothenationalwealth，whichisindicatedbyariseofrentsfromtheincreased efficiencyofthecapitalemployed，islimitedtotheamountoftheincreasedrentitself:yetthespreadoftillagetoinferior soils，andtheincreaseofcapitalontheoldsoils，whichusuallyfollowsucharise，produceanadditionalextensionoftheresourcesofapeople，whichisofverygreatimportancetothewelfareandstrengthofeveryincreasingcommunity。Wehaveseen，thataspreadoftillagetoinferiorsoilsisbynomeansessentialtotheriseofrents，whichtakesplacewhen agriculturalcapitalbecomesmoreefficient。Buttheestablishmentofthisfact，doesnotdisclosealltheerrorsofthosewho havethoughtandtaughtthat\"Rentdependsexclusivelyontheextensionoftillage:thatitishighwheretillageiswidely extendedoverinferiorlands，andlowwhereitisconfinedtothesuperiordescriptionsonly。\"(15)Wheneverariseofrents takesplacefromtheincreaseddemandforagriculturalproduce，thespreadoftillagetoinferiorsoilspresentsthepractical limittothatrise。Itisclear，thatif，aspopulationincreased，allfreshsupplieswerenecessarilyextractedfromtheoldsoils alone，therewouldbenoassignablelimittotheincreaseoftherelativevalueofrawproduce，ofthesurplusprofitsmadeon theland，orofrents。Butwhileadditionalquantitiesofproducecanbeobtainedfrominferiorgradationsofsoils，thepriceof rawproducewillneverexceedthecostofprocuringitfromthelowestgradationwhichitisfoundexpedienttocultivate: andiffromtheincreasingefficiencyofagriculturalcapital，thecostofgettingproducefromthatgradationisnotgreater thanitwasontheoldsoilsbeforetheimprovement，thepriceofrawproducewillnotriseatall。Theinferiorsoils，therefore， thoughtheircultureisnotessentialtoariseofrents，presentalwaysaboundarytothatrise。Theirexistenceisaprotection totheinterestsoftheconsumerswithoutinterferingwiththoseofthelandedproprietors。Theypreventcornbeingsoldata monopolyprice，andcutofftheincreasedrentswhichsuchapricecreates；withoutinterferingwiththebeneficialincreaseof therevenuesofthelandedproprietors，whichflowseitherfromthesourceweareexamining，thebetterapplicationofcapital，orfromthatwehavebeforeexamined，theincreasedquantityofcapitalemployedinthenationalagriculture。Improvements，therefore，intheefficiencyofthecapitalemployedincultivation，raiserents，byincreasingthesurplusprofitsrealizedonparticularspotsofland。Theyinvariablyproducethisincreaseofsurplusprofits，unlesstheyaugmentthemassofrawproducesorapidlyastooutstriptheprogressofdemand；aneventofrareoccurrence。Suchimprovementsintheefficiencyofthecapitalemployed，dousuallyoccurintheprogressofagriculturalskin，andoftheaccumulationofgreatermassesofauxiliarycapital。Ariseofrentsfromthiscause，isgenerallyfollowedbythespreadoftillagetoinferiorsoils，withoutanydiminutioninthereturnstoagriculturalcapitalontheworstspotsreclaimed。Thisspreadoftillagemustnot，however，beconfoundedwiththecausesoftheriseofrentsontheoldsoils，withtheorigin ofwhichriseitiswhollyunconnected，whileitservesinitsconsequencestomoderateandlimitthoseaugmentedrents。 SECTIONIV。OnthethirdSourceoftheIncreaseofFarmers\'Rents，namely，aDecreaseintheShareoftheproducingClasses，theProduceremainingthesame。Ariseintherelativevalueofrawproduce，(thecostofproducingothercommoditiesremainingstationary)fromwhatever causetheuseproceeds，winalwaysbefollowedbyadecreaseoftheshareoftheproducingclassesintheproductsofthesoil，relativelytothelaborandcapitaltheyemploy；andbyacorrespondingriseintheproducerentsofthelandlords。Let？00。belaidoutonA，asoilpayingnorent，andyieldingonlytheordinaryprofitsofstock；andlettheproducebe50 quartersofcornsellingat？。4……perquarter，or？10。Iftherelativevalueofcornrises，andthepriceisraised2s。aquarter， the？00。laidoutonAwillproduce？115。，ofwhich？。willbesurplusprofits。Thefarmers\'profits，athisnextcontract withhislandlord，willbereducedtothelevelofthoseofhisneighbours。Thiscanonlybedonebyhisretainingsomuchonly oftheproduceofhisland，asattheadvancedpriceswillpayhim？10。；thelandlordwilltaketheremainder，orthepriceof theremainder，anditwillbecomerent。A，whichbeforepaidnorent，willnowpayarentof？。，andinlikemanner，uponall thesuperiorsoilswhichbeforepaidrent，therewillbearise，fromthedecreaseoftheshareoftheproducingclassesintheirproduce，theproduceitselfremainingstationary。Sofar，thedecreaseoftheshareoftheproducingclasses，andthecorrespondingriseofrents，havebeenwhollyunconnected withthecultivation，oreventheexistence，ofinferiorsoils。Theriseofrawproduce，proceedsalways，inthefirstinstance， fromanincreasingdemandwithoutacorrespondingincreaseofthesupply。Ifacountryhadnosoiltoresorttobesidesthose alreadycultivated，thedemandmightkeepconstantlyaheadoftheslowlyincreasingsupply，andthepossibleincreaseintherelativevalueofrawproduce，andtheconsequentriseofrents，wouldbeindefinite。Butwheninferiorgradationsofsoilexist，andcanberesortedto，theriseintheexchangeablevalueofrawproduceis limited。Itwillatopwhenthepriceofcornissufficienttoreplace，withtheordinaryrateofprofit，theexpenceofcultivating asmuchofthoseinferiorsoilsaswillyieldtheproducenecessarytorestorethebalancebetweenthedemandandsupply。 Thisstateofthingsiswhatusuallyexistsinextensivecountriespossessingsoilsofvariousdegreesofgoodness，anditisthat whichweshallmoreparticularlyexaminewhiletracingtheeffectsofariseofrentsfromadecreaseoftheshareofthe producingclassesintheproductsofthesoil。Butwemustnot，therefore，losesightofthefact，thattheriseofrentswhich takesplacefromthecausewearenowtracing，isantecedentto，andindependentof，thespreadoftillagetoinferiorsoils， andmusttakeplacetoamuchgreaterextentthanweevernowseeit，weretherenoinferiorsoilsinexistence。 TheIncreaseofproduceRentsismeasuredbythedecreasingFertilityofSoils。Where，inconsequenceofanincreasingdemandforrawproduce，cultivationisspreadingtoinferiorsoils，ifthereturnfrom thosesoils，inspiteoftheincreasingskillandaugmentedpoweroftheagriculturists，bestilllessthanthereturnfromtheold soilsbeforewas，thepermanentriseofproducerentsfromthiscausewillbemeasuredbythedifferencebetweenthereturn toacertainquantityofcapitalandlaborfromthenewsoils，andthereturntothesamequantityofcapitalandlaborfromtheworstoftheoldsoils。IfonA，aqualityofsoil，payingnorent，acertainquantityoflaborandcapitalproduces55quartersofcorn，andonBasoil worsethanA，thesamequantityoflaborandcapitalcanproduceonly53quarters，thenwhenthedemandforcorn，andthe useinitsrelativevaluebecomessuchthatBcanbecultivated，andpaytheordinaryprofitsofstock，Awillpayarentoftwo quartersofcorn:forB，whichproduces53quarters，returningtheordinaryprofitsofstock，A，whichproduces55quarters， mustreturntheordinaryprofitsofstock，andalsotwoquartersofcorn；whichtwoquarters，orthepriceofthem，willbecomesurplusprofitsorrent。Itwillbeobviousthattheriseofrentsinthiscase，formsnoadditiontotheresourcesofacountry。Theincreasedrentsof theoldsoilsareameretransferofaportionofthewealthalreadyexistingfromtheproducingclassestothelandlords:the nation，collectively，isneitherrichernorpoorerthanitwas；therehasonlybeenachange，andbynomeansadesirable change，inthedistributionofwealthwhichitalreadypossessed。Inthisrespect，asinmanyothers，ariseofrentsfromthiscausecontrasts，muchtoitsdisadvantage，witharisefromthetwocausesofwhichwefirstanalyzedtheoperation。Buttheapprehensionswhichhavebeenentertained，astoanecessaryfallingoffinthereturnstocapitalandlaborgenerally， whichithasbeensupposedmustalwaysfollowadiminutioninthereturnstoagricultural industryontheworstsoils cultivated，arehappilyextravagantandgroundless。Suchadiminutioninthepowerofagriculturalindustry，thougha possibleevent，takesplaceintheprogressofawealthypeopleveryrarely。Idoubtifitevertakesplaceatall；andwhenit doestakesplace，wemustnothastilyconcludethatbecausethequantityofcornremaininginthehandsoftheproducing agriculturalclassesisdiminished，theremustthereforebeafalleitherinprofitsorwages，orthatsuchproducingclasses wouldhavethemeansofconsumingeitherlesscorn，orlessofanyothercommodity，thantheydidbeforethereductionof theirshareintheproduceofthesoil。Fortheseconclusions，whichlookatfirstveryliketruths，areinfactfallacious，asa shortexaminationwillshewus。 ThedecreasingFertilityofSoilsmaybebalancedbytheincreasedEfficiencyofmanufacturingLabor。Humanindustryisnotwhollyemployedinproducingrawproduce:anditsincreasingefficiencyinotherdepartmentsmay balance，andmorethanbalance，thedecreasingpowersofagriculture:mayenablethesocietytosparetheadditional proportionofmenandcapitalrequiredtoproduceanundiminishedquantityoffoodforincreasingnumbers，andthat withoutlesseningthemassofwealthenjoyedbyanyclassofmen。Thiswillappearmoreclearlyfromanexampleortwoto whichIsolicitthereader\'sattention，ascontainingtheproofofafactveryimportanttobeunderstood，inexaminingthe possibleprogressofhumansociety，afterpopulationhasbecomedense，andcapitalandtheartshavemadegreatprogress。 Letusfirsttakethesimplestcasewhichinvolvestheprinciplewewishtoexplain，andletussupposetenshipwrecked marinerscastonsomeuninhabitedshore，anddividingbetweenthemthetaskofprovidingtheircommonfood，clothing，and shelter。Duringthefirstyear，lettheexertionsoffivemenbesufficienttosupplytheirtable，andtheexertionsoftheother fivetheirfood，raiment，&；c。Inthenextyear，foodmayhavebecomemorescarce，andthetimeofeightofthemenmaybe occupiedinprocuringit。Butinthemeantime，theskilloftheartisandivisionmayhavesoimproved，thattwomenmaybe abletosecuretothewholepartythesamequantityofclothing，shelter，&；c。thatbeforeengrossedtheindustryoffive。Inthis case，four-fifthsofthelaboringhandswillbeoccupiedinprocuringfood，insteadofone-halfasbefore。Stilltheconsumption ofarticlesofeverydescriptionwillremainthesamethroughoutthelittlecommunity。Wemayputthecaseyetstronger。If onemanbecameabletosupplytheclothing，&；c。theymightspareninetogoinquestoffood，andmightactuallyconsumemorefood，andasmuchofeverythingelse，astheydidwhilefoodwasmoreeasilyprocured。Letusnextobserve，whateffectswouldbeproducedbyasimilarchangeintheproductivepowersofdifferentclassesofthe community，ifsuchchangeoccurredamongapeoplewhosesocialrelationswerelesssimplethanthoseoftheknotofmen wehavebeenfiguringtoourselves，andletussupposeacommunityconsistingof24men，employed，one-halfinproducingcorn，andone-halfinproducingcloth。Letcorn，forourpresentpurpose，representallthevarietiesofrawproduce，andcloth allcommoditiesproducedbythenationalindustrywhicharedistinctfromrawproduce。Letthecorn-growersproduce14quartersofcorn，andthecloth-makers14piecesofcloth，ofeachofwhichlet12goto wagesand2toprofits。Then，ifeachpartyexchangehalftheirproducewiththeotherdivision，everylaborerineachwill havehalfaquarterofcorn，andhalfapieceofcloth；andtheirtwoemployerswillhaveapieceofclothandaquarterofcorneach。Next，letussupposethislaboringpopulationdoubled:thatthereare48laborersinsteadof24，andthattoproducedouble thequantityofcorn，ithasbecomenecessary，fromthedecreasingfertilityofthefreshsoilsresortedto，toemployin agriculture，notdoublethenumberofmenformerlyemployed，butmorethandouble；saythreetimesthenumber，or36men。 Then，bythesupposition，36menproducedoublethequantityofcornbeforeproduced，or28quarters。Inthemeanwhile， let:theproductivepowersofthecloth-workershavesoincreased，thattoproducedoubletheformerquan-:tityofcloth，the laborofdoublethenumberofmenisnotnecessary，butofalessnumber，sayof12:thenbythesupposition，12menwill producedoubletheformerquantityofcloth，or28pieces。Butas36menproduce28quartersofcorn，while12men produce28piecesofcloth，eachquarterofcornwillexchangeforthreepiecesofcloth。(16)Betweenthe48men，therewillbe tobedivided28quartersofcorn，and28piecesofcloth，whichwillgivethemtheiroldwagesofhalfaquarterofcorn，and halfapieceofclotheach，andwillalsoleavefourquartersofcornandfourpiecesofclothasprofits。Butthecapitalist cloth-worker，employingonlyone-fourthofthemen，willtakeonlyone-fourthoftheprofit，oronepieceofclothandone quarterofcorn。Thecorn-grower，employingthree-fourthsofthemen，willtakethree-fourthsoftheprofit，orthreequarters ofcornandthreepiecesofcloth。Astherateofwagesremainspreciselywhatitwas，sowilltherateofprofits:foreachemployerof12men，attheoldwages，willstillgetonepieceofclothandonequarterofcornastheprofitonhisadvances。Ifthepowerofthemanufacturerofcloth，insteadofdoubling，hadmorethandoubledduringthisprocess，thenitisevident thattheproducingclassesgenerallymightconsumenotmerelyasmuchcorn，butmorethanasmuchcornastheydidbefore recoursewashadtosoilsofalessfertility；for，insteadofemploying36men，theymighthaveemployedagreaternumberin cultivation，haveproducedandconsumedmorecorn，yetgetthesamequantityofclothwhichtheydidbefore。The agriculturistswillreceive，inthefirstinstance，fromthesoil，lesscorn，inproportiontotheirnumbers，thantheydidbefore theincreaseofpopulationandthespreadoftillage；butasbythesacrificeofasmallerportionofthatcorn，theycanobtain thesameamountofothernecessarieswhichtheymayneed，theywillretainasmuchormorecornfortheirown consumption，astheydidwhentheydrewlargerreturnsfromtheground。Eachmanufacturerormechanicwillgivein exchangeforthecornwhichheconsumes，alargerquantityofhisownproducethanhedidbeforethespreadoftillage；but asheproducesmorethanhedid，hewillbeabletopurchasethesameamountofcornwithoutconsuminglessofother necessaries。Theeffectsofthefailureinproductivepowerofonebranchofthepopulation，willbebalanced，perhapsmore thanbalanced，bytheincreasedproductivepowerofanotherbranch。Thosewhoproduceless，willfindtheircommodities risinginexchangeablevalue；thosewhoproducemorewillfindthemfalling。Thesevariationsinrelativevalue，willdistribute equallyalltheadvantagesanddisadvantagesofthevariationswhichtakeplaceintheproductivepowerofdifferentbranches ofindustry。Afallingoffinanyonebranch，maystillleavethenationcollectively，andeachparticularclassofit，aswell suppliedevenwiththatspeciesofproduceasbeforethedecrease，andtheonlyeffectofadecreaseinonequarter，and increaseinanother，willbeadifferenceintheproportionatenumberoflaborersandquantityofcapitalemployedindifferentoccupations。Wehaveseen，thatastheprocesswehavebeendescribingbecamecomplete，andcornroseinexchangeablevalue，arent wouldbegeneratedwhichdidnotexistbefore。Thisincreasedrent，however，unlikethosewhichwehavebeforebeen considering，willbeobviouslynoadditiontotheresourcesofthecountry。Itwillbeameretransferofwealthalready existing，fromtheproducingclassestothelandlords。Thenation，itistrue，willbericherrelativelytoitsnumbersthanitwas beforethespreadoftillage:fortheproducingclasses，wehaveseen，willhavethesamequantityofrawproduceandother necessarieswhichtheyhad；andtherewillbefurtherinthehandsofthelandlordsacertainportionoftheproduceoftheold landsasrent。Butthisadditionalwealthwillhaveproceeded，notcertainlyfromthedecreasingpowersofagriculture，but fromtheincreasedefficiencyofmanufacturingindustry，whichhasenabledthenationtosparewithoutaloss，thehands necessarytocultivatesoilsofdiminishedfertility，andrathermorethanbalancedtheeffectsofthedecreasedpowersof agriculturalindustry。Thenation，collectively，wouldnodoubthavebeenricherhadnorentbeengenerated，ifthelandlast employedintillagehadyieldedreturnsequaltothoseofthelandsbeforecultivated，andiftheadvantagesofincreased manufacturingpowerhadbeengainedwithoutanydiminutioninthereturnstoagricultural industry。Whenrentsare increasingfromthetwosources，ofwhichwebeforeexaminedtheoperation，namely，theaccumulationofadditionalcapital inagriculture，andtheincreasedefficiencyofcapitalalreadyemployed，thentheresultisanunmixedadvantage。Agriculture isitselfaddinglargelytotheresourcesofthecountry，andtheincreasingwealthwhichflowsfromtheaugmentedpowersof manufacturingindustryisbalancedbynodrawback。Itmustbedistinctlyadmittedontheotherhand，thatariseofrentsfrom theparticularcausewearenowexamining，isnorealadditiontotheresourcesofanation。Thedecreasingefficiencyof agriculturalcapitalmustalwaysbeadisadvantage，butitisconsolatorytoreflect，thatsuchadecrease，whileitchecksthe possibleadvanceofanationinwealth，isnotnecessarilyfollowedbyanyactualimpoverishment:thatneithertherateof wages，orrateofprofits，aredeterminedsolelybythereturnstothecapitalemployeduponthesoil，andthattheymay remainundiminished，andmayevensteadilyincreasewhilethefertilityofthesoilisassteadilydiminishing。Thecareerofthe humanracewouldindeedhavebeenmelancholy，hadthelawsofnaturebeensuch，thatasthenumbersofnationsincreased， additionalfoodmustnecessarilyhavebeenprocuredbythesacrificeofadditionallabor；asacrificeinvolvinginits consequencesafallintherateofwagesorprofits，whichnoincreaseofintelligence，skill，andpower，intheotherbranches ofhumanindustrycouldmakeamendsfor。Butthesupposednecessityofthesacrificeofadditionallabortoprocuregreater supplies，andthesupposedeffectsofthatsacrificeshouldittakeeffect，areeachofthemunfoundedsuppositions。Thefacts， happily，areallimaginary，onwhichtheassumptionrests，ofanironnecessitydoggingthustheprogressofmankind，and deprivingthemeverofsomeportionofnecessariesandcomfortsastheirnumbersexpand。Shouldtheproduceofagriculture begintolessen，theincreasedmeansandskillofcivilizedcommunities，wehaveseen，mayenablethemtosparethe additionalhandsnecessarytoforcetheflaggingpowersoftheearth，withoutleavinganyclassofthecommunityworse suppliedwithwealthinanyofitsshapes。 SECTIONV。 OntheFallaciousnessofsomesupposedIndicationsofthedecreasingEfficiencyofagriculturalLabor。Wehopetohaveshewnsatisfactorily，first，thatthereisnogroundforsupposingthatadditionalsuppliesoffoodforan increasingpopulation，mustnecessarilybegotattheexpenceofmorelabor。And，secondly，shouldtheybegotatthe expenceofmorelabor，thatitbynomeansfollowsthattheproducingclassesmustnecessarilysubmittoconsumelesseither offood，orofanythingelse。Stillithasbeenadmitted，thatatsomeperiodintheexistenceofnations，theremaybeariseof rentscausedbyadecreaseinthereturnstoagriculturalcapital，andtheopinionswhichhavelatelybeenprevalent，makeit importanttodestroyeverytemptationtoascribehastilytothisunpopularcause，thosesuccessiveadditionstotherevenues ofthelandedbody，whichothercausesalmostnecessarilyoccasionduringtheprosperouscareerofnations:causes，the continualactionofwhich，wehavealreadyobservedtobeinperfectharmony，andindeedcloselyconnectedwiththe progressofapeopleinwealth，andresources，andagriculturalpower，andskill。Wemustentreatthenthefurtherpatienceof thereader，whileweshewthatsomeindicationswhichhavebeensupposedtoproveinthemostunquestionablemannersomeactualdecreaseinthepowersofagriculture，willturnout，onexamination，toaffordnosuchproofatall。Thecircumstancesusuallyreferredto，withthemostconfidence，asindicatingadecreaseintheproductivepowersof agriculture，arefirst，afallintherateofprofits；secondly，ariseintherelativevalueofrawproduce，comparedwithother domesticcommodities；thirdly，ariseinthepricesofrawproduce，comparedwiththeactualpricesinneighbouringcountries ofsimilarsoilandclimate，orcomparedwithformerpricesathome，provided，inthelastcase，therisebegreaterthancanbe accountedforbyanyfallwhichmayhavetakenplaceinthevalueofthepreciousmetals。 AfallofProfitsisnoProofofthedecreasingEfficiencyofagriculturalIndustry。Adecreaseintheshareofoneoftheproducingclasses，thatis，afallintherateeitherofwagesorofprofits，isnevernecessarilytheresultofthediminishedproductivepowerofhumanindustryinanyofitsbranches。If，whenprofitsfallfrom12to10percent。wagesexperienceacorrespondingrise，therecanhavebeennodecreaseof productivepower。Aswagesalwaysengrossthelargestpartoftheproduce，amoderateandalmostinsensiblechangein wageswillbringaboutmarkedandconsiderablevariationsintherateofprofitsquiteindependentlyofanyalterationsinthe efficiencyofagriculturalorotherindustry。Letussuppose？00。tobeemployedinpayingwages，returning？12。，ora profitof12percent。Ifwagesrisefrom？00。to？02。，thatis，2percent。only，then(theproductivepoweroflaborbeing stationary，)profitsmustfallfrom？2。on？00。advanced，to？0。on？02。advanced:orfrom12percent。tosomething under10percent。:therewillhavebeenariseofone-fiftiethinwages，andaresultingfallofone-sixthinprofits。Andonthe suppositionheremade，thatalltheadvancesofthecapitalistareintheshapeofwages，itisclearthatariseof12percent。in wageswouldnotmerelydiminishtheprofitsofthecapitalist，butabsorbthementirely。 Inpractice，however，amoderateriseofwageswillnotaffectprofitssoseriouslyasintheinstancehereassumed，becauseall capitalisnotemployedinpayingwages，andtheeffectsoffluctuationsintherateofwagesarenotconfinedtotheprofitsen thewagesthemselves，butarespreadoveralargerbodyofprofits，andarethusattenuated。Ifwesuppose？00。tobe employedinproduction，andofthatsumonly？00。tobeadvancedasthewagesoflabor；theprofitsof？500。at12per cent。willbe？0。Iftherateofprofitsinthiscaseistobereducedbyariseofwagesto10percent。，thatis，toasumof？0。，theriseofwagesmustbemoreconsiderablethanintheinstancebeforeassumed。Thesumadvancedbythecapitalistis？00。:thewholeproduceis？60。Letwagesrise10percent。andbecome？10。；theadvanceofthecapitalistwillthenbe？10。，and，pricesbeingstationary，hisprofit？0。，whichwillbe10percent。withinasmall fraction。Supposing，therefore， thewholecapitalemployedtobeequaltofivetimesthesumpaidinwages(whichisperhapsnearlythetrueproportionin England，)ariseof10percent。inwages，thatis，anadditionofonly1s。toevery10s。beforeadvancedtothelaborer，will lowerprofitsfrom12percent。to10percent。，andsuchamoderateriseofwagesmightproduce，infact，nearlyallthedifferenceobservableintheratesofprofitcurrentinthedifferentstatesofEurope。(17)Inthesecalculations，wehavesupposedtheproductivepowerofthenationalindustrystationary。Wereiteverreallyso，the influenceontherateofprofitoffluctuationsintheamountofwages，wouldstrikeallpracticalobserversmoreforciblythan itnowdoes；butintruth，theproductivepowerofthenationalindustryisrarely，orperhapsnever，stationary；andwhilethat powerisvarying，theresultsofitschangesmustoftenbalancetoacertainextent，andthereforedisguise，theinfluenceof alterationsintherateofwagesonprofits。Thus，ifwesuppose，asbefore，？00。expendedwhollyinwages，andpaying12 percent。profit，theproducewillbe？12。Butiftheproductivepowerofindustrybesoincreasedthat，pricesremainingthe same，thereturnbecomes？34。8s。，thenwagesmayriseto？20。，andprofitswillnotvaryatall；theywillstillbe12per cent。；whilewageshaveincreasedone-fifth，andtheonlychangewillbeanadditiontothemassofcapitaldevotedtothe advanceofwages。Whiletheproductivepowersoflaborarevarying，therefore，wemayexpectthattheinfluenceof fluctuationsintheamountofwagesontherateofprofitsmayoftenescapenotice。Itappears，however，thatmarkedand considerablevariationsintherateofprofitsmayberesultsofchangesintherateofwagesalone。Itfollows，thatafallof profitsisnosureindicationofdiminishedproductivepowerinanybranchofhumanindustry，andconsequentlycanneverbeacceptedasaproofofthedecreasingefficiencyofagricultureespecially。Thesepropositions，withrespecttotheinfluenceofvariationsinrealwagesontherateofprofits，appeartome，Iconfess， almosttooobvioustobeformallystated，hadtheynotbeenformallydenied，andveryextensiveconsequencesfoundedon thedenial。Mr。Ricardo，andotherswhohavefollowedinhistrack，havebelievedthattheycouldtraceeverypossible variationintherateofprofits，toadecreaseintheproductivepowerofagriculturealone。Toestablishthetruthofthis opinion，theywereboundtoshew，thatnoothercausecouldaffecttherateofprofits，andofcoursethatvariationsinthe rateofwagescouldnot。Theirmodeofdoingthiswassufficientlysimple。Itconsistedindenying(whiletreatingonprofits，)thatanysuchthingasapermanentchangeintherateofrealwagescouldevertakeplace。Itwouldatfirstsightappear，thatprofitsdependpartlyontheamountoftheproduceoflabor，partlyonthedivisionofthat producebetweenthelaborersandcapitalists；andthattheiramount，therefore，mightvaryfromachangeineitherofthese particulars。Ifcertainlaborers，whosewagesamountto？00。，or100quartersofcorn，produce？12。，or112quartersof corn，profitswouldbe12percent。；buttheywouldsinkto10，ifwagesroseto？02。orquarters，justascertainlyasthey wouldiftheproductivepowerofthelaborersdiminished，and，wagesremainingstationary，theyonlyproduced？10。orquarters。Butifitcouldbeprovedthatthelaborerssharewas，intruth，invariable，thatwiththeexceptionofshortintervalsoftime， theymustcontinuetoreceive？00。orquarters，andneithermorenorless，itwouldfollow，ofcourse，thatallpermanent variationsintherateofprofitsmustproceedfromchangesintheproductivepowerofindustryalone。Wehavealready remarked，thatadiminutionofprofitsrarelyproceedsfromadiminutionintheproductivenessofnon-agriculturalindustry， whichmayraisetherateofprofits，orsustainthemwhentheyarefallingfromothercauses，butcanseldomoccasiontheir retrogression。Wereitonceadmittedthen，thatprofitsneverfallfromvariationsinwages，itwouldfollowthattheymust usuallyfallfromadecreaseoftheproductivenessofagriculturalindustry。Thetheoryofthepermanentimmutabilityofreal wages，oroftheconstantsamenessofthequantityofnecessariesconsumedbythelaborersonwhichreststhisbeliefofthe exclusiveagencyofthedecreasingpowersofagriculturallaborindiminishingprofits，(18)hardlyrequiresasetdiscussionto refuteit。ItisneveradheredtobyMr。Ricardohimself，exceptwhentreatingtheparticularsubjectofvariationsintherateof profit。Atothertimeshespeaks，withouthesitation，ofpermanentalterationsintheconditionandhabitsofthelaborer，of variationsintherateofnaturalandrealwages。Butwhenattemptingtosimplifyhisanalysisofthecircumstanceswhich influencetherateofprofits，andtorejecttheagencyofallbuthisfavoritecause，namely，thereturntothecapitallast employeduponthesoil，hegoesbacktothisposition，equallyinconsistentwithfactsandwithhisownargumentsand admissions；andasserts，againandagain，thatpermanentchangesintherateofrealwagesnevertakeplace，andneednever，therefore，betakenintoaccountinestimatingthecausesoftherateofprofits。Hisdefenceofthisassertion，whenitisattemptedtobedefended，restsonanexaggerationofsomefactsconnectedwiththesubjectofpopulation。Fluctuationsintherateofrealwages，do，undercertaincircumstances，andtoacertainextent，impelorretardtheincrease ofthenumbersofthelaboringpopulation，andbyalteringtheirrelationtothefundsfromwhichtheyaresupported，reacton therateofwages。Fromthisundoubtedfact，manyhavebeenmisled，partlybyhaste，andpartlybyover-strainedingenuity， todrawthewideandveryfallaciousinference，thateveryincreaseordecreaseinrealwageswillproduceanexpansionor shrinkingofthepopulationpreciselysufficienttorestore，afteratime，therelationwhichexisted(beforethealterationofwages)betweenthenumbersoflaborers，andthefundsfortheirsupport，andthusbringbackwagestotheirformeramount。Thisopinionoftheeffectsofalterationsinwages，onthenumbersofthepopulation，willmeetusagaininapartofasubject whenitwillbemoreourbusinesstoexamineit。Atpresent，withoutamoreextensivediscussionofit，wemayappealto obviousfactsandeverydayexperience。Weseeverydifferentratesofrealwagesprevailingincountrieswithsimilar climatesandsoils，andsometimes，asinthecaseofEnglandandIreland，underthesamegovernment。Weobserveinthe samecountries，alterationstakingplacefromcenturytocentury，andfromgenerationtogeneration，inthefood，clothing， lodging，habits，andgeneralmodeofmaintenanceofthepeople。Wehavealreadyseentoo，thataverymoderatechangein therateofwagesissufficient，whiletheproductivepowerofindustryremainsthesame，toproduceaveryconsiderable changeintherateofprofits:andwewillventure，therefore，atpresenttoassume，withoutfurtherargument，thatsucha permanentriseintherateofrealwagesisneitherimpossiblenorimprobable，asisquitesufficienttoproducealterationsin therateofprofits，equaltothedifferencesofthatrateinanyofthecountriesofEurope。Thiswillbeenoughtosupportthe positionwearemaintaining，thatafallofprofitsisneveranunequivocalproofofadiminutionintheefficiencyof agriculture，becauseitmayproceedfromadifferentdivision，betweenthelaborersandtheiremployers，oftheproduceof thenationalindustry，whiletheamountofthatproduceremainsunaltered，orisincreasinginallitsbranches。 AnincreasingrelativeValueofrawProduceisnoProofofthedecreasingEfficiencyofagriculturalIndustry。Amongtheproofsofadecreasingefficiencyinagriculturalindustry，theincreasingrelativevalueofrawproduceisusually treatedasoneofthemostdecisive。Andthis，nodoubt，wouldbeaconclusiveproof，couldwesupposetheproductive powerofmanufacturingindustry(meaningallindustryotherthanagricultural，)tobestationary，whilerawproducewasthus risinginrelativevalue。if12quartersofcornareobservedtoexchangefor12piecesofclothduringonecentury，andinthe next，12quartersofcornexchangefor24piecesofcloth；then，ifweweresurethatnochange hadtakenplaceinthe expenceofmanufacturingcloth，wemightveryrationallyconclude，thatthecostofproducingcornhaddoubled。Butwhenwetakeintoaccounttheverygreatincreasewhich，fromtimetotime，reallytakesplaceintheefficiencyofmanufacturingindustry，thecaseisaltered；andwesee，thatanincreaseintherelativevalueofrawproduceiswhatmustbeexpected， althoughtheproductivepowerofagriculturewerestationary，oreventoacertainextentincreasing。Forinstance，lettwo menproducetwoquartersofcorn，andtwomentwopiecesofclothandaquarterofcorn；andapieceofclothwill exchangeforeachother。Next，theefficiencyofagriculturalindustryincreasing，lettwomenproducethreequartersofcorn， andtheefficiencyofmanufacturingindustryincreasingyetmore，lettwomenproducesixpiecesofcloth:cornwillhave riseninrelativevalue；aquarterofcorn，insteadofexchangingforonepieceofcloth，willexchangefortwo。Inthiscase， clearly，weshouldbemistakenifweassumedthefactofadecreaseintheefficiencyofindustry，fromthatoftheriseoftherelativevalueofrawproduce。Intheprogressofnations，anincreaseofmanufacturingpowerandskillusuallyoccurs，greaterthanthatwhichcanbe expectedintheagricultureofanincreasingpeople。Thisisanunquestionableandfamiliartruth。Ariseintherelativevalueof rawproducemay，therefore，beexpectedintheadvanceofnations，andthisfromacausequitedistinctfromanypositivedecreaseintheefficiencyofagriculture。AnincreasingMoneyValueofrawProduce，comparedwiththePricesofotherCountries，isnoProofofthedecreasingEfficiencyofagriculturalIndustry。Therearevariouscauseswhichmayelevatethemoneyvalueofrawproduce；oneisundoubtedlythedecreasingfertilityof thesoilwhichgovernsprices。If，intwoneighbouringcountriespayingequalwages，thelandissuchthatitrequiresthree menintheworsetoproducetheeffectwhichtwomenwillproduceinthemorefertileofthetwo；thepoorercountrywill notbeabletosellitsproduceascheaplyasthericher。Stilldifferentpricesarenocertainindicationofadifferencein fertility。Theymayproceedfromatleastthreeotheranddistinctcauses。First，fromahigherrateofwages；secondly，fromahigherrateoftaxation；thirdly，fromadifferentvalueofthepreciousmetals。Whatevereffectonpricesmaybeproducedbythenecessityofemployingmoremeninagriculture，willbeproducedbythe necessityofpayinghigherwagestothemenactuallyemployed，orofpayinghighertaxes。Whenthecorn-grower，getting thesamequantityofproduce，isobligedtopayawayanadditionalquantity；whetherthefreshexpenceisincurredinthe shapeofwagestoadditionallaborers，orofgreaterwagestothosebeforeemployed，orofheaviertaxes，mustbeindifferent tohim；andasfarasthecostofcultivationisconcerned，itamountstothesamething。Andsupposingtwocountriestogrow cornatpreciselythesameexpenceoflaborandcapital，analterationintherateofwages，ortheamountoftaxation，may raisethecostofcultivationintheonebeyondthatintheother，thoughthedearercountrybestationary，oreven(toalimitedextent，)improvingintheefficiencyofitsagriculturalindustry。Thereisathirdcausealso，quitedistinctfromthedecreasingfertilityofthesoil，whichmayincreasethepricesofraw produceinonecountry，whilepricesinothernationsarestationary，andthatisadecreasingvalueofthepreciousmetals peculiartothedearercountry。Thatthisisacausewhichhassomeeffectuponthepricesofthedifferentcountriesofthe world，therecanbelittledoubt。Iwish，however，tobedistinctlyunderstood，asgivingnoopiniononthepossibleextentor thelimitsofthateffect。TheeminentwriterIamabouttoquotefirstonthepoint，thinksitwillappear\"thatfarthegreater partofthehighpriceofcorninthiscountry，comparedwithmostofthestatesinEurope，\"isoccasionedinthisway。\"The causes，\"Mr。Malthussays，(19)\"whichaffectthepriceofcorn，andoccasionthedifferenceinthispricesoobservablein differentcountries，seemtobetwo。First，adifferenceinthevalueofthepreciousmetalsindifferentcountriesunder differentcircumstances；secondly，adifferenceinthequantityoflaborandcapitalnecessarytoproducecorn。Thefirstcause undoubtedlyoccasionsthegreatestportionofthatinequalityinthepriceofcorn，whichisthemoststrikingandprominent， particularlyincountriesataconsiderabledistancefromeachother。Morethanthree-fourthsoftheprodigiousdifference betweenthepriceofcorninBengalandEngland，isprobablyoccasionedbythedifferenceinthevalueofmoneyinthetwo countries，andfarthegreaterpartofthehighpriceofcorninthiscountry，comparedwithmostofthestatesinEuropeis occasionedinthesameway。\"Inanotetosomefurtherobservationsonthesamesubject，Mr。Malthusafterwardssays，(20)\"Thisconclusionmayappeartocontradictthedoctrineofthelevelofthepreciousmetals。Andsoitdoesifbylevelbe meantlevelofvalueestimatedintheusualway。Iconsiderthatdoctrine，indeed，asquiteunsupportedbyfacts。Theprecious metalsarealwaystendingtoastateofrest，orsuchastateofthingsastomaketheirmovementunnecessary。Butwhenthis stateofresthasbeennearlyattained，andtheexchangesofallcountriesarenearlyatpar，thevalueofthepreciousmetalsin differentcountries，estimatedincornandlabor，orthemassofcommodities，isveryfarindeedfrombeingthesame。\"Mr。 Ricardohasstatedsimilaropinions。\"Whenanyparticularcountryexcelsinmanufactures，soastooccasionaninfluxof moneytowardsit，thevalueofmoneywillbelower，andthepricesofcornandlaborwillberelativelyhigherinthatcountry thaninanyother。Thishighervalueofmoneywillnotbeindicatedbytheexchange。Billsmaycontinuetobenegotiatedat par，althoughthepricesofcornandlaborshouldbe10，20，or30percent。higherinonecountrythananother。Underthe circumstancessupposed，suchadifferenceofpricesisthenaturalorderofthings，andtheexchangecanonlybeatparwhen asufficientquantityofmoneyisintroducedintothecountryexcellinginmanufactures，soastoraisethepriceofitscornand labor。\"(21)\"Intheearlystatesofsociety，whenmanufactureshavemadelittleprogress，andtheproduceofallcountriesis nearlysimilar，consistingofthebulkyandmostusefulcommodities，thevalueofmoneyindifferentcountrieswillbechiefly regulatedbytheirdistancefromthemineswhichsupplythepreciousmetals；butastheartsandimprovementsofsociety advance，anddifferentnationsexcelinparticularmanufactures，althoughdistancewillstillenterintothecalculation，the valueofthepreciousmetalswillbechieflyregulatedbythesuperiorityofthosemanufactures。\"(22)\"Oftwocountrieshaving preciselythesamepopulation，andthesamequantityoflandofequalfertilityincultivation，withthesameknowledgetooof agriculture，thepricesofrawproducewillbehighestinthatwherethegreaterskillandthebettermachineryisusedinthemanufactureofexportablecommodities。\"(23)Theadmissionoftheinfluenceofthiscauseonthepriceofcommoditiesindifferentcountriesisanunlucky，hutunavoidable bar，itmustbeconfessed，toanythinglikeaccuracyinananalysisoftheproportionsofthedifferentelementsofpricein differentnations。Therearenoveryobviousmeansofdeterminingtowhatextentmoneypricesmaybeaffectedbythat differentlevelofthepreciousmetals，theexistenceofwhichisherelaiddownbythejointauthorityofMessrs。Malthusand Ricardo。Andtheattempttosolvethequestion，canonlybesuccessful，Ithink，whenfoundedonanindustriousanddifficult comparisonofallpossibleelementsofprice，distinctfromthelocalvalueofthepreciousmetals。Butifceasingtotreatthis asageneralquestion，wenarrowourviewtothecauseswhichaffectthepeculiarvalueofthepreciousmetalsinGreat Britainalone，wemayconcludewithtolerablecertainty，thatthelowvalueofthosemetalsmustaffectpricesheremore powerfullythaninanyotherEuropeancountry。Inthefirstplace，Englandispre-eminentintheartandmeansof manufacturingthoseexportablecommoditieswhich，accordingtoMr。Ricardo，tendtosaturateherwithgoldandsilver；and thisisnottheonlypeculiaritywhichtendstolowerthevalueofthosemetalsinEngland。Theperfectionoftheartof substitutingforthosemetals，andtherapidityofhercirculation，servetomagnifytheeffectsoftheinfluxproducedbyher exporttrade。LetussupposeEnglandandFrancetorequireeach100，000，000forcirculation，andeachtopossessthatsum。 IftheEnglishfoundmeanstosubstitute；paperfor50ofthe100，000，000，then50，000，000ofbullionwouldbesetfree，and wouldhavethesameeffectinloweringthevalueofthemassas50，000，000ofnewlyimportedmetal。Ifbyincreasingthe rapidityofcirculation，50，000，000couldbemadetoperformfunctionswhichbeforerequired100，000，000，asimilarresult wouldfollow，andthevalueofthemassbesimilarlyaffected。NowinEngland，theartofsubstitutingforcoiniscarriedtoan extentunknownelsewhere。IndependentlyofthenotesoftheBankofEngland，andofcountrybankers，privatebillstothe amountof100，000，000(24)arecalculatedtobeconstantlycirculatingascash。TheoperationsoftheLondonclearing-house arefamiliartothepublic，andarealonesufficienttodiminish，toaveryconsiderableextent，thequantityofcashrequiredto carryonthemoneytransactionsoftheempire。Therapidity，too，oftheEnglishcirculation，weknowtobeunrivalled。