第10章

Addingthentheeffects，ofhergreaterprogressintheartofsubstitutingcreditandpaperforcoin，andofthegreaterrapidity ofhercirculation，totheresultsofthesuperiorityofEnglandinthemanufactureofcommoditiesforforeignsale，itwill appearthatallthecausesconnectedwiththevalueofthepreciousmetalswhichtendtoproduceahighmoneyvalueof commodities，areinmorepowerfulactionherethaninanyotherEuropeancountry，andthatwhatevermaybethepossible ejectsofthosecausesinloweringthevalueofthepreciousmetals，andonmoneyprices，thoseeffectsarelikelytobefeltmoreextensivelyandpowerfullyinourowncountrythaninanyother。LeavingtheindividualcaseofEngland，however，wereturntothegeneralproposition，thatabstractingaltogetherfromany differenceintheproductivepowersofagriculture，themoneypricesofrawproduceindifferentcountriesmayvaryfromadifferentvalueofthepreciousmetalsalone。Ithasbeenshewnthen，thatpricesofrawproduce，highwhencomparedwiththoseofneighboringcountriesofsimilarsoil andclimate，mayproceedfromthreecausesactingseparatelyorjointly，andallofthemquitedistinctfromthedecreasing fertilityofthesoil，namely，fromhigherwages，highertaxes，oralowrelativevalueofbullion；thelastofwhichalonea writerofgreateminencehasdeclaredtobesoinfluential，thatitoccasions\"farthegreaterpartofthehighpriceofcornin \"thiscountrycomparedwithmostofthestatesinEurope。\"(25)Highmoneyprices，therefore，comparedwiththoseofthe neighboringcountries，ofsimilarsoilandclimate，cannotbereceivedasanyindicationofadecreasingpowerintheagricultureofthedearercountry。Wehavealreadyseenthatneitheralowrateofprofits，norahighvalueofrawproduce，comparedwithothercommodities fabricatedathome，arecertainindicationsofthedecreasingproductivepowerofagriculture。Thereisacircumstancewhich atfirstsightappearsamoresureindicationofsuchadecreasethananyofthosewehaveyetexamined；anappearancehoweverstillfallacious。When，abstractingfromtheeffectsoftaxation，anapparentdiminutiontakesplaceintherevenuesoftheproducingclasses consideredjointly，whenthereisafallintherateofprofits，notcompensatedbyariseofwages，orafallofwagesnot compensatedbyariseintherateofprofits，therehasbeen，itmaybeargued，somedecreaseintheproductivepowerof laborandcapital，andforthemomentwewillsupposethisargumentsound。Whensuchdecreaseoccurs，ithaslatelybeen assumedascertain，thatthefailuremusthavebeeninagriculture，andnotinmanufactures，becausetheefficiencyof mechanicalandmanufacturinglaborusuallyincreasesinsteadofdecreasingintheprogressofnations。Butthislastposition isfarfrombeinguniversallytrue。Themajorityofthenationsoftheglobeareperhaps，at thismoment，improvingin manufacturingpower，andthereisnophysicalreasonwhytheyshouldnotcontinuetoimprove。Butwhenwetakepolitical andmoralcausesintoourview，thehistoryoftheworldforbidsustoconcludethattheprogressofmankindinthe mechanicalandmanufacturingarts，isalwaysnecessarilyinadvance。Egypt，theAfricanshoreoftheMediterranean，Asia Minor，andtheMorea，canaidmechanicalindustrywithbutafeeble`partoftheingenuityorpower，whichboththeirstory andtheirmonumentsattestthattheyoncepossessed。Capitalandscienceare，inourdays，indispensableassistantstothe artisan，andthedecayofthedomesticarts，andthefailingefficiencyoftheindustryconnectedwiththem，must，therefore，be expectedtocomeinthetrainoftheevilswhichassailthedecrepitudeofnations，andgraduallyimpairtheirresources。 Englandisatthismomenttheprincipaltheatreofallthatpowerandskillcaneffect，inthevariousdepartmentsofhuman industrywhicharedistinctfromagriculture；andyet，ifdaysaretocomewhenherfreedom，andwealth，andthemany elementsofheractualpowerforsakeher，itisinthesedepartmentsofindustrythattheprogressofdecaymaybeexpected toexhibititselfthemoststrikingly。Thepowerofherartizans，andthewondersofhermanufactures，willassuredlydisappear withthecapitalandsciencewhichnowsupportthem。Inanationsocircumstanced，themeansofthepopulationmaybecomeless，andtheannualconsumptionofallclassesshrink，thoughtheefficiencyofagricultureshouldremainstationary。Wehavebeenarguingontheadmission，thatadecreaseintherateeitherofwagesorprofits，theotherofthetworemaining stationary，isaproofofadiminishedproduceandlessenedproductivepowerinsomeofthedepartmentsofnational industry；andhavemerelyattemptedtoshew，thatevenwithsuchanadmission，anassumption thatthedecreasenecessarily originatesinagriculture，isinadmissible。Hereafter，weshallhaveoccasiontoprove，thattheadmissionitselfistoolarge； thatadecreaseintherateofprofitwithstationarywages，doesnotofitselfindicateanydiminutionoftheproductivepower inthepopulation；thatitisevenquiteconsistentwithadvancingefficiencyinthenationalindustry，andmaybeaccompanied byasteadyincreaseofthepowerofaccumulatingfreshcapital；butthedevelopementofthispropositionbelongstoanotherpartofoursubject。Wehaveattemptedthen，asweproposed，toestablish，First，thatthereisnonecessarydecreaseinthereturnstoagricultural laborandcapital，ascultivationspreadstosoilsofinferiorquality，orextractsagreaterproducefromthesoilsalready cultivated；andsecondly，thatseveralcircumstancesusuallysupposedtoindicatetheexistenceofsuchadecreaseof agriculturalpower，namely，afallofprofits，ahighrelativevalueofrawproducecomparedwithothercommodities，ora highpriceofrawproduceathome，comparedwiththatgrownincountriesofsimilarsoilandclimate，mayoneandall originateindistinctanddifferentcauses。Thereremains，itappearstome，nomethodofascertainingthefertilityofthesoils， governingprices，whichareactuallycultivatedinanycountry，relativelytothefertilityofthosecultivatedinthesame countryatearlierperiods，orinothercountriesatthesameperiod，butactualcomparison。Onebranchofsuchanenquiry mightbedifficult:itmaynotbeeasytocomparethecostsofproductioninonecenturywiththoseofanothercentury，inthe samecountry。Itiseasiertocompare，atthesameperiod，thecostofproducingcorninadearcountry，withthecostof producingitinneighbouringcountries，inwhichitbearsalowerprice，andhasalowerrelativevalue。Itwouldnotbe impracticable，forinstance，totakeEngland，andPolandorGermany，andtomakethemthesubjectsofsuchacomparison， selectingfromthepoorestsoilsequaldistrictsofconsiderablesizeineach；(forallobservationsonsmallplotsofgroundare， formanyreasons，fallacious；)itwouldbenecessarytoascertain(abstractingfrommoneyprices)thequantityoflaborand thequantityofauxiliarycapitalemployedineachcountry；andtheirrespectiveproduce。Theresultwouldshewwith sufficientaccuracytheproductivepowerofagriculturallaborandcapitalineachcountry。Ifitshouldappear，thatinthe countrywheremoneypricesandrentsarethehighest，thelaborandcapitalemployedinagriculturereallyyieldmore producethansimilarquantitiesemployedincountrieswherethemoneypricesofrawproducearecomparativelylow，then wemustascribethehighpricesofthedearercountryeithertoheaviertaxation，tohigherrateofwages，ortoalowervalue ofthepreciousmetals，ortothejointinfluenceofallthesecauses；nottothepovertyofthesoilsbroughtintocultivation，or tothepoorreturnstothedosesofcapitalgraduallyappliedtotheoldsoils。Andanyincreaseoftherevenuesofthelanded proprietors，whichmayhavetakenplace，must(abstractingfromchangesinthevalueofmoney)betraced，notcertainlytoa decreasewhichhasnotoccurredinthereturnstoagriculturalindustryonthesoilsgoverningprices；buttoagradual increaseofproduce，commontoallsoils，butgreatestinamountonthebest；andtosuccessiveimprovementsinthe efficiencyofagriculturalcapital。 SECTIONVI。OnsomeIndicationsoftherealSourcesofincreasingRents，whicharetobeobtainedinparticular Instances，byobserving，First，theVariationswhichtakeplaceinthecomparativeNumbersofthe agriculturalandnon-agriculturalClasses；and，Secondly，theAlteration。whichskewthemselvesintheLandlord\'sproportionoftheProduce。Ithasbeenstated，thatnothingshortofapreciseenumerationofthewagesandcapitalexpendedinobtainingsimilar quantitiesofproduce，willenableustodecide，withperfectcertainty，uponthecomparative(26)actualfertilityofthesoils whichgovernprices，eitherindifferentcountriesatthesametime，orinthesamecountryatdifferenttimes。Sucha comparisonmaybeoftenimpossible。Yetinobservingthegrowthoftheterritorialrevenuesofacountry，weshallnaturally bedesiroustoknow，ineveryinstance，whetherthatgrowthhasproceeded\"fromtheemploymentofanadditionalquantity oflaborwithaproportionallylessreturn，\"(Mr。Ricardo\'ssolecauseofrents，(27))orfromthemoregenialsources，ofincreasedproduceobtainedbyincreased。capital，andimprovementsintheefficiencyofthecapitalpreviouslyemployed。Therearetwocircumstanceswhichmayguideusinourenquiriesonthispoint，ifnottoperfectandconclusivecertainty，yet toahighandsatisfactorydegreeofprobability:andtheseare，First，thevariationswhichtakeplaceintherelativenumbers oftheagriculturalandnon-agriculturalclasses。Secondly，thealterationswhichmaybetracedintheproportionofthe producetakenbythelandlords。Indeed，theevidencefurnishedbythesecircumstancesoughttobeaccepted，asweshallsee， bytheschoolofMr。Ricardo，asperfectanddemonstrative，althoughtheirwritingsforbidustosupposethatthiseveroccurredtothem。When，duringthespreadoftillage，\"anadditionalquantityoflaborisemployedwithaproportionallylessreturn，\"the numbersoftheagriculturistsmustbeontheincrease，comparedwiththoseofthenon-agriculturists。Asimplecalculation willshewthis。Let2，000，000ofcultivatorsproduce4，000，000ofquartersofcorn，sufficienttomaintain4，000，000of people:thenumber\"ofagriculturistsandnon-agriculturistsinsuchacommunity(abstractingfromforeigntradeincorn，) willbejustequal。Letthepopulationincreaseto8，000，000:ifthefertilityofthefreshsoilsnowcultivatedequalthefertility oftheoldsoils，then4，000，000ofcultivatorswillbeabletoproducefoodforthe8，000，000ofpeople，andtherelative numbersofagriculturistsandnon-agriculturistswillremainastheywere。Butiftoyieldthefoodoftheadditional4，000，000 ofpeoplethefreshgroundcultivatedrequires\"anadditionalquantityoflaborwithaproportionallylessreturn，\"thenalarger numberthan2，000，000oftheincreasedpopulationmustbeemployedinproducingfoodforthemselvesandtheother 2，000，000。Letthatlargernumberbe3，000，000，andthen5，000，000ofagriculturistswillbeemployedinproducingthefood of8，000，000ofpeople。Theagriculturistsconstitutedone-halfofthepopulationbeforeitsincrease，theywillnowconstitute five-eighthsofit。Andifthenumbersofthecommunitycontinuetoincrease，andthegroundfromwhichtheiradditional suppliesoffoodareraised，continuestoabsorb\"anadditionalquantityoflaborwithaproportionallylessreturn，\"thenthenumbersofthecultivatorsmustalsocontinuetoincreaserelativelytothenumbersofthenon-cultivators。Inthenextplace，ifrentsinacountryoccupiedbyfarmers，shouldeverrisefromthatcausealone，whichhasbeenso confidentlystatedbyMr。Ricardo，tobethesolepossiblecauseofariseofrents，namely，\"theemploymentofanadditional quantityoflaborwithaproportionallylessreturn，\"andaconsequenttransfertothelandlordsofapartoftheproduce beforeobtainedonthebettersoils；thentheaverageproportionofthegrossproducetakenbythelandlordsasrent，will necessarilyincrease。Thisisalmostself-evident，butitmaybeaswellperhapstogiveashortcalculation。LetB，CandD， then，besoilscultivatedwithequalcapitals，&；c。；letBproduce12quartersofcorn，C14，andD16；then，Byieldingthe ordinaryprofitsofstock，Cwillhave2，andD4quartersofcornassurplusprofitsorrent。Thelandlord\'sproportionofthe produceofCandDtakentogether，willbe6quartersoutof30，orone-fifth。Duringtheprogressofpopulation，letitbe necessarytocultivateanothersoilA，yieldingtothesamequantityofcapitalwhichisemployedonB，CandD，only8 quartersofcorn。Thenas8quartersmustnowyieldtheordinaryprofitsofstockonthecapitalemployed，B，whichbefore paidnorent，willhave4quartersassurplusprofitsorrent，C6，andD8quarters:andthelandlordwilltakefromthesoils payingrents，18quartersoutof42，orafractionmorethantwo-fifthsoftheirgrossproduce，insteadofone-fifth，hisformer proportion。Andsoprogressively，asadditionallaborandcapitalareemployedintillage，withaproportionallylessreturn， additionalportionsoftheproduceoftheoldsoilswillcontinuetobetransferredtothelandlordsassurplusprofits，inorder toequalizetheprofitsmadebyallthecultivators；andalargerproportionofthewholeproducewillthus，stepbystep， assumetheshapeofrent。(28)Inanycountry，therefore，inwhichtherehasbeenageneralriseofrents，proceeding\"fromthe employmentofanadditionalquantityoflaborwithaproportionallylessreturn，\"andtheconsequenttransmutationofapart oftheproduceoftheoldsoilsintorent，thesetworesultsmustbeobservable:First，theindustryofalargerproportionof thepopulationmustbedevotedtoagriculture；Secondly，theproportionofthegrossproducepaidtothelandlords，asrent， musthaveincreased。Ifthesetworesultsarenotobservable，theserentsmusthaveincreasedfromsomeothercauseor causes，andnotfrom\"theemploymentofadditionallaborinagriculturewithaproportionallylessreturn；\"andinthatcase， Mr。Ricardoandhisschoolmusthavebeenwrong，whentheysupposedthislasttobetheonlypossiblecauseofincreasingrents。Thisreasoningissoobvious，thatwhenbroughtintocontactwithcircumstancesastheyexistaroundus，theresultmust haveservedtorousemorewaryreasonersintoanimmediatesuspicion，orratherconviction，oftheunsoundnessoftheir system。Theinstanceofourowncountry，viewedwiththeassistanceoftheseprinciples，isconclusiveastothefact，thatthe causeerroneouslyassumedbyMr。Ricardotobethesolesourceofeveryriseofrents，cannotpossiblyhavebeeninaction duringthegreatelevationofrentswhichhasactuallytakenplacehere。Onthispoint，theexampleofEnglandisthemore important，becauseitistherealonewecanobserveonascalelargeenoughtobesatisfactory，theprogressoffarmers\'rents， andtheconnexionofthatprogresswiththefortunesoftheotherclassesofsociety。 TheIncreaseofRentsinEnglandhasproceededfromtheIncreaseofAgriculturalProduce。ThestatisticalhistoryofEnglandpresentstous，prominently，threefacts；First，therehasbeenaspreadoftillage accompaniedbyariseinthegeneralrentalofthecountry；Secondly，therehasbeenadiminutionoftheproportionofthe peopleemployedinagriculture；Thirdly，therehasbeenadecreaseinthelandlord\'sproportionoftheproduce。Nooneof thesecircumstancesrequiressurelyanyformalproof。Thattherehasbeenagreatspreadoftillageweknow。Thattherehas beenaconsiderableincreaseinthegeneralrentalofthecountry，isafactadmittedbypersonswhoholdthemostopposite opinionsastotherealcausesofthatincrease。Thattherehasbeenagreataugmentationoftherelativenumbersofthe non-agriculturalclasses，isafactalmostequallynotorious。:Thereturnstothetwolastpopulationacts，provethatthis processisstillgoingon。Thenon-agriculturistsinEngland，amountatpresenttodoubletheagriculturists，aproportionso widelydifferentfromthatwhichprevailsinotherpartsoftheworld，astoconstituteperhapsthemoststrikingamongmany peculiaritiesintheeconomicalpositionoftheEnglishpopulation。InFrance，beforetheRevolution，thecultivatorswereas4 to1，whencomparedwiththerestofthepeople。Theprogressoftheotherclasseshas，sincetheRevolution，beenextremely rapid；insteadofone-fifth，theynowconstituteone-thirdofthewholepopulation。Francehas，withtheexceptionofEngland， thelargestnon-agriculturalpopulationofanyconsiderablenationonthefaceoftheglobe。Thereisnoreasonwhateverto suppose，thatthecultivatorsofEngland300yearsago，werelessnumerous，whencomparedwiththerestoftheEnglish population，thanthoseofFrancearenow，comparedwiththerestoftheFrenchpeople。Thechangewhichhassocompletely reversedtheirrelativenumbers，andgivensogreatasuperioritytotheotherclasses，hasprobablybeenlonginprogress，and althoughweknowitlatelytohaveproceededwithconsiderablerapidity，thosemovementsofthedifferentbranchesofthe population，bywhichithasbeeneffected，wereprobably，atthecommencement，slow；butnothingveryexactcanbeascertainedonthispoint，whichisnotatallessentialtoourpresentpurpose。Thegradualdiminutionofthelandlord\'sproportionoftheproducehaslongbeennotorious。Thefollowingstatementisfrom AdamSmith。Afterasserting，thatinmoreancienttimes，nearlythewholeoftheproducebelongedtothelandlord，hegoes ontosay，\"InthepresentstateofEurope，theshareofthelandlordseldomexceedsathird，sometimesnotafourthpartof thewholeproduceoftheland。Therentofland，however，inalltheimprovedpartsofthecountry，hasbeentripledand quadrupledsincethoseancienttimes；andthisthirdorfourthpartoftheannualproduceis，itseems，threeorfourtimes greaterthanthewholehadbeenbefore。Intheprogressofimprovement，rent，thoughitincreasesinproportiontothe extent，diminishesinproportiontotheproduceoftheland。\"VariousreturnsmadetotheBoardofAgricultureshew，that thethirdorfourthpartmentionedbyAdamSmith，ashavingbecomeinhistimetheordinaryshareofthelandlordsinthe produce，isalargerproportionthantheynowobtain，(29)afacttobeexpected，ifhisdoctrine，containedinthesentencejustprintedinItalics，becorrect。InEnglandthen，rentshaverisen，theproportionofhandsemployedincultivationhasbecomemuchlessthanformerly，and theproportionofthegrossproduce，takenbythelandlordasrent，hasdiminished。Itfollowsfromtheprecedingprinciples andcalculations，thatthegeneralriseofrentswhichhastakenplace，hasnot\"proceededfromtheemploymentofan additionalquantityoflaborwithaproportionallylessreturn，\"butfromsomecauseorcausesessentiallydistinctfromthat，andattendedbyoppositeresults。Itappearsthen，asthelastresultofouranalysis，thattheincreasedrentsofthiscountryhaveproceededfrombetterfanningandgreaterproduce。(30)Therearepersons，nodoubt，andmoreperhapsamongtheranksofthepoliticaleconomistsofthepresentdaythan elsewhere，whowilldisdainconclusionssolikethoseoftheuninitiated。Thosewhohavebeentrainedinbetterschoolsof reasoning，mustsmileatsuchafeeling。Theenquirerintothesecretsofnatureexpectswithreasonthattheprogressofhis laborswillleadtothecontinualrevelationoffreshwondersbutinethicalandpoliticalinvestigations，ourgeneralviews must，forthemostpart，befoundedonfactsandfeelingscommontothehumanrace，andforcingthemselvesintovery generalobservation。Onthesesubjects，therefore，withoutshewinganyquartertostubbornprejudiceorbruteignorance，we maystillverysafelyconcludethattherearenosymptomsofafalseanddiseasedspiritofphilosophizingsocertain，asa feverishthirstforthestimulusofstartlingnovelty；acontemptforobvioustruthsmerelybecausetheyarealreadyfamiliar； andadispositiontothrustaside，unregardedandunnoticed，anyconclusionswhichresemblethosetowhicheveryday experienceandpromptspontaneousjudgementshaveconductedthebulkofmankind。 SECTIONVII。 TheInterestsoftheLandlordarenotinOppositiontothoseoftheotherClasses。Thereisgreatreasontobelieve，thatcasesveryrarelyoccur，inwhichtherentalsofdistrictscultivatedbyfarmers，increase， notbecausemoreproducehasbeenobtainedfromtheearth，butbecausetheshareoftheproducingclasseshasdiminished withtheincreasingdifficultiesofproduction。Wehavejustseen，thatinEngland，theonlyconsiderablecountryinwhich farmers\'rentsareextensivelyprevalent，thereisstrongevidencetoshewthatthiscircumstancehasnot，inanydegree， influencedtheprogressofrents。Stillithasbeenadmitted，thatinanextremecase，thiswouldbeapossiblecauseof increasedrents；andthebeliefnowwidelyspread，thatitisnotonlyapossiblebutanactuallyoperatingcause，makesitof someimportancetocorrectanerroneousimpression，foundedonthatbelief，thattheinterestsofthedifferentclassesof societymaybeinpermanentoppositiontoeachother。Mr。Ricardo，whocouldperceivenocausefromwhichanincreaseof therevenuesofthelandedproprietorscouldpossiblyproceed，except\"theemploymentofadditionallaborwithouta proportionalreturn，\"wasledbytheunluckynarrownessofhissystemonthispoint， todenouncetheinterestsofthe landlords，asalwaysopposedtothoseofeveryotherclassofthecommunity。(31)Whilewehavebeentakingamore comprehensiveviewofthesourcesoftheincreaseofrents，andhavebeenshewingthemannerinwhichthatincrease necessarilyfollowstheconcentrationandimprovementofcultivation，wehavegatheredma。terialswhichenableusto demonstratetheunsound。nessofthisrepulsivedoctrine。Itistruethattherearecasesinwhichthelandlordsmayderivea limitedadvantagefromcircumstanceswhicharediminishingthemeansofthebodyofthepeople；buttheirpermanent prosperity，andthatgradualelevationoftheirrevenuewhichsustainsthemintheirrelativepositioninthecommunity，mustemanatefrommorewholesomeandmoreabundantsources。Ifindeedthebeinginapositiontoderiveoccasionalgainfromthelossesofothers，weresufficienttocharacterizeanyclass ofsocietyashavinginterestsinpermanenthostilitywiththoseoftheircountrymen，Mr。Ricardo，tobeconsistentandjust， shouldhavemadehisdenunciationmoregeneral，andincludedinitboththecapitalistsandthelaborers；foritisnotdisputed thattheytoohave，eachofthem，occasionally，interestswhichareadversetothoseoftherestofthecommunity；andthat wagesmaybeincreasedbyadecreaseofprofits，andprofitsswelledbythedecreaseofwages，ascertainlyasrentsmaybe elevatedbyencroachmentsontherevenuesoftheproducingclasses。Butifwewereseriouslytoarguethence，thatthe interestsofallthedifferentclassesofthecommunityareinconstantandperpetualoppositiontoeachother，theconclusion wouldarousethesuspicionofthemostunwaryenquirer。Thefactis，thattheprosperitywhicheachclasscangraspbythe depressionofothers，is，bythelawsofnature，limitedandinsecure。Theadvantageswhicheachmaydrawfromsourcesof increasingwealth，commontoal1，oratleastinjurioustonone，aresafe，andcapableofbeingpushedtoanextentofwhich thelimitsliebeyondourexperience，ormeansofcalculation。Andinthisrespect，thereisnodifferenceinthesocialpositionofthelandlords，andthatoftheotherclasseswhichcomposethestate。Whentherevenuesofanyoneclassincrease，thatincreasemayineverycaseproceedfromtwocauses；first，froman invasionoftherevenuesofsomeotherclass，theaggregaterevenueofthestateremainingwhatitwas:orsecondly，from increasedproduction，leavingtherevenuesofalltheotherclassesuntouched，andpresentingaclearadditiontotheaggregaterevenueofthenation。Alittleconsiderationwillshewus，thatitisonlyinthelast，thatis，themostadvantageousmanner，thattherevenueofany classcanincreaseprogressivelyandsecurelyintheprogressofnations。Wewilltracethistruth，first，inthecaseofthelaborersandcapitalists，andtheninthatofthelandlords。Theproductivepowerofapeoplebeingstationary，wagesmayincrease，weknow，attheexpenceofprofits；orontheother hand，withtheadvanceoftheproductivepowersofthepopulation，wagesmayincreasewhileprofitsareundiminished。The powerofproductionbeingstationary，wehavealreadyhadoccasiontoshewhowsmallanincreaseintherateofwageswill produceaconsiderabledepressionofprofits:andwehaveseen，thatsupposingthecapitalemployedtoamounttofivetimes thewagespaid，anadditionofonesingleshillingtoevery10s。paidaswages，would lowerprofitsfrom12to10percent。In theordinarystateoftheworld，thefurtherprogressofariseofwages，attendedbysuchaneffect，wouldsoonceasetobe possible。Longbefore，inanyonenation，therateofprofitshad，inthecourseofsuchaprocess，beenreducedtoone-half theiractualamount，capitalwouldflowabroad，employmentbecomemorescarce，andtheriseofwagesbestayed。Butifthe increaseoftherateofwagesbeaccompaniedbyacorrespondingoragreaterincreaseofproductivepower，itmaygoon indefinitelywithoutanydeterioration，possiblywithanincrease，oftherateofprofits，andoftherevenuesofthecapitalists； andneedonlyceasewhentheproductivepowersofmankindhavereachedtheirultimatelimit。Itisthen，unquestionably，a momentaryadvantagetothelaborer，thathiswagesshouldincreaseattheexpenceoftheprofitsofthecapitalist。Buthis interests，andthoseofthecapitalists，arenot，therefore，inperpetualopposition；becausehisprosperity，ifitistobe permanentandprogressive，canonlyexistundercircumstancesinwhichitisperfectlycompatiblewiththeundiminishedmeansandrevenuesofhisemployers。Inlikemanner，theproductivepoweroflaborbeingstationary，therateofprofitsmayrisefromadiminutionofwages；and thecapitalistshave，therefore，amomentaryadvantageinthedepressionofthelaboringclasses。Butthearrangementsof Providencearesuch，thattheirgreatandpermanentinterestscansafelyrestonnosuchgloomyfoundation。Asthepoverty anddegradationofthepopulationproceeds，theproductivepowersofthelaboringclasses，andafteracertainpoint，the securityofproperty，diminish。WehaveanexampleofthefirstoftheseeffectsintheserfsofEasternEurope，andofthelast inIreland。Theserfdoesbutone-thirdofthelaborofthewellpaidfreeman；andtheIrishpeasant，onhislowwages，works littlebetter，ifcomparedeitherwiththeEnglishpeasantorwithhimselfwhenlessdepressed。Butadifferenceoftwo-thirds inproductivepower，willalonemorethanbalanceanydifferenceintherespectiveratesofwages，ofthebest，andofthe worstpaidworkmeninEurope。TheEnglishcapitaliststhenwouldlosebytheestablishmentofaGermanorIrishrateof wages，iftheirworkmenweretobereplacedbyaraceaslistlessandinefficientasGermanboorsorasIrishcottiersintheir actualstateofdegradation。Theinefficiencyoftheexertionsofthelaboringclassesisnot，however，theonlycircumstance whichmakesalowanddecreasingrateofwagesunfavorabletothepermanentprosperityof thecapitalists。The accumulationoflargemassesofauxiliarycapitalcannotgoonundisturbedinthemidstofadegradedandturbulent population；anditisonthegreataccumulationofsuchcapital，relativelytothenumbersofthepopulation，thatthe comparativerevenuesofthecapitaliststhemselves，andtheirstationandinfluenceonthecommunity，depend。InEngland， profitsarelowandwagesarehigh，butinnopartoftheworlddothecapitalistsformsoprosperousandimportantabody。 Theirrevenueexceedsthatoftheproprietorsofthesoil，andequalsatleasthalfthewagesoflabor。IfEnglishwageswere rundown，tillthestateofthelaborersapproachedthatoftheIrish，theirdiscontentandturbulence，addedtohabitsof reluctantandinefficientlabor，wouldmakeitneitherprofitableorsafetoemployherethemassofcapitalatpresentusedin production；andthen，inspiteofariseintherateofprofits，themanofprofitsrealized，and therevenues，influence，and comparativeimportanceoftheownersofcapital，mustshrinktodimensionsmorenearlyresemblingthoseofother countries。Althoughthecapitalists，therefore，mayreapamomentaryadvantagefromthedepressionofthelaborers，yettheir permanentprosperitycannotrestonsuchabasis。Toproceedsecurelyinacareerofincreasingwealth，theymustbe surroundedbyworkmenwhompenuryanddegradationhavenotmadeeitheruselessinstrumentsofproduction，or dangerousneighbours。Theinterestsofthecapitalistsandthelaborers，althoughtheymaybeoccasionallyinapparent opposition，aresubstantiallyandpermanentlyinperfectharmony。Itistheinterestofeachclassthattheothershouldthrive； andthatadditionstoitsownrevenueshouldbederivedsolelyfromanincreaseintheproductivepowersoftheindustryofthecountry。Thepositionofthelandlords，inthisrespect，issimilartothatofthelaborersandcapitalists。Thereisamomentarygain， whichtheymaysnatchfromthedepressionoftherestofthecommunity；buttheyarenotexcludedfromtheoperationof thatjustandbenevolentlawofProvidence，whichknitstogethertheinterestsofsocietybymakingfleetingandlimitedall advancesintherevenuesofanyclass，whichrestonthedeprivationofothers；andwhichpermitsacareerofstableand indefiniteincrease，onlywhentheprosperityattainedbyonepartgoeshandinhandwiththatofallpartsofthenation。An advanceofrents，foundedsolelyonatransfertothelandlordsofaportionoftheproducebeforeenjoyedbytheproductive classes，mustdiminish，whatwithoutsuchatransferwouldhavebeen，thejointamountofwagesandprofits。Mr。Ricardo andhisschoolcontendthatinsuchacase，therevenueoftheproductiveclasseswouldbecomepositivelylessthanitwas before；thatthedecreaseintheamountofrawproducereturnedtogivenquantitiesofcapitalandlabor，couldbebalanced bynoincreaseintheeffectsofnon-agriculturalindustry；andtheycontendfurther，thatthisdecreasemustfallexclusivelyon theemployersoflabor，anddiminishtherateofprofit，whichaccordingtothem，mustvarywitheachchangeinthereturns tothecapitallastemployedupontheland；onwhichreturnstheystatetherateofprofitstobeexclusivelydependant。(32)Werewetoconcedethesoundnessofthisviewofthecase，itwouldatoncebecomeevident，howverylimitedthe advantagesmustbewhichthelandlordscouldderivefromsuchacause。When，indifferentcountries，whichhaveaneasy intercoursewitheachother，anordinaryrateofprofithasbeenestablished，anypeculiarcausewhichdiminishesthatratein anyonecountry，hasatendencytodrivecapitaltoothers。TherateofprofitinEnglandrestsatapointsomewhatbelowthat ofneighbouringcountries，butiftheratebedepressedbelowthisinferiorpoint，weknowfromexperiencethatcapitalbegins toescapeveryrapidly。Averyshortperiod，therefore，duringwhichonlyverylimitedeffectscouldbeproduced，mustputan entirestoptoariseofrentsfoundedonlyonacontinuousallofprofits。Andthelandlordsofanincreasingcountrywould soonbereducedinsignificance，werethistheonlysourceonwhichtheycouldrelyfortheadvanceoftheirincomes，asthenumbersandwealthofalltheotherclasseswereswellingroundthem。Tosee，however，moredistinctly，thattheactualsourcesoftheincreaseoftherevenueofthelandlordsareperfectly compatiblewiththeprosperityandundiminishedwealthofthepeople，wemustnotconfineourselvestosoimperfectaview ofthecausesoftheincreaseofrents。Adiminutionintheshareofproducingclassesintheproduceis，aswemustagain repeat，certainlyapossible，butascertainlyonlyalimitedandveryraresourceofanadvanceoftherevenuesofthe landlords；thatgradualincreaseoftheirmeans，whichkeepspacewiththerichesofotherbranchesofthecommunity，flowsfromhealthierandmorecopiousfountains。Wehaveseenthattheaccumulationandconcentrationofcapital，anditsgraduallyincreasingefficiencyasthepowerand skillofmanadvance，arecausesofincreaseinthemassofrentsofwhichtheconstantoperationisestablishedbythesame lawswhichregulatetheproductivepowersoftheearth，andtheprogressofcivilizednationsintheartofcultivatingit。But neithertheincreaseofcapital，northeincreaseofagriculturalscienceandpower，canberationallyexpectedamongapeople， theaugmentationofwhosenumbersisattendedateverystepbyaninvasion，onthepartofthelandlords，oftheinterestsof thecultivatingclasses。Ariseofrentsfoundedonsuchaninvasion，ifitisinjurioustothepeople，isnotlessunfavorableto theprogressoftherevenueoftheownersofthesoil:itpresentsthemwithamomentaryandlimitedprofit，whileitdestroys thehopesoflargeandenduringimprovement。Wesaw，whenexaminingthedifferentclassesofpeasantrents，thatwhile theylast，thedepressionofthecultivatorsstopstheprogressofthosechangesintheformsoftenurewhichtheeaseand interestsofthelandlordsdemandshouldbecompletedasfastassocietyisfitforthem；andwhenthecapitalistentersonthe sceneasadistinctcharacter，itisobviouslytheinterestoftheproprietorsthateveryspotofgroundshouldreceivethe benefitofalltheauxiliarycapitalwhichthewealthofthecountrycansupply，mademoreandmoreefficientbyalltheskill andpowerwhichintellect，andknowledge，andexperiencecancreate。Thesearesourcesofincreased rentswhichcontain withinthemselvesnocausesofstagnationanddecay，andwhichforanindefiniteperiodmaycontinuetobuoyupthe revenuesandinfluenceofthelandedbody，thoughthenumbersandwealthoftheotherclassesaremultiplyingrapidly aroundthem。Whilethesewholesomecausesofincreasingrentsarcinoperation，thepowerandwealthofthecountry，we haveseen，mustbeadvancing，theterritorymustbecomecapableofsupportingalargerpopulation，andthecapitaland revenueofthatlargerpopulationmustreceiveconsiderableaccessions。Thecircumstances，therefore，whicharethemost essentialtothecontinuousprosperityofthelandlords，arealsomostconducivetotheincreasingwealthandstrengthofthe nation。Themiserablegainswhichitispossibleforthemtowringfromthenecessitiesofanimpoverishedpeople，arenot lessdestructivetotheirownprospectsofmaintainingapermanentandprogressiveadvanceofincome， thanthesamegains areinjurioustotheproducingclasses。Liketheotherclassesofthecommunitythen，theyhaveaninterestindiminishingthe revenuesofthosewhosharewiththemtheproduceofthesoil。Asinthecaseofalltheotherclassestoo，theirgainsfrom suchadiminutionarelimited，scanty，andtemporary；whilethepermanenceandfulldevelopementoftheirprosperitycanonlybesecurewhenitgoeshandinhandwiththeprogressofthepeopleinwealth，andpower，andskill。Itwasanerror，therefore，tosuppose，thatthereisanythingpeculiartothelandlordsinthefact，thattheyhaveoccasionally alimitedinterestopposedtothatoftheotherbodieswhich，composethestate。Itwasamuchgravererrorwhichledmento teach，thattheircaseformsanexceptiontothatgeneralruleofProvidence；whichmakessterileandevanescentall advantageswhichanyoneclassofthecommunitycangainattheexpenceoftheothers:thattheyalonehavenosourceof prosperitycommontothemwiththewholepopulation，andconstituteaclassmarkedbythemiserablesingularityofhaving nointerests，duringtheprogres。siveadvanceofnationalindustryandwealth，butsuchasarehostiletothoseofalltherestofmankind。Wehaveseenthen，thatrentsmayrisefromadiminutioninthereturntotheproducingclassesofthecapitallastemployed uponthesoil，followedbyatransfertothelandlordsofaportionoftheproduceoftheoldsoils，sufficienttoequalizethe shareoftheproducingclassesonallthesoilscultivated:thattherentthusgeneratedformsnoadditiontotheaggregate nationalrevenue:thatitmakesthejointamountofwagesandprofitscomparativelyless，thatislessthanitwouldhavebeen hadnodiminutioninthereturntoagriculturalcapitaltakenplace:thatnopositivedecreaseofthejointamountofwages andprofitsnecessarilyfollows，becausetheincreasingproductivepowerofthenon-agriculturalportionofthecommunity maybalance，ormorethanbalancethedecreasingpowerofagriculturalindustry:thatthiscauseof theriseofrentsisnot likethetwocausesfirstexamined，constantlyinactionasnationsincreaseinwealthandnumbers:thatitspresenceand influenceintheelevationofrentsarenotprovedbythecircumstancesusuallyquoted，asthemostcertainindicationsofits operation:thatwheretherelativenumbersofthenon-agriculturalclasseshavebeenincreasing，orwheretheproportionof theproducetakenbythelandlordshasnotincreased，thereisastronganddecisivereasontobelieve，thatthiscausehas contributednothingtoanyincreasewhichthastakenplaceintherentalofacountry:finally，thatalthoughthegenerationof rentsfromthisparticularsourceisprejudicialtothenation，thegeneralinterestsofthelandlordsarenotonthisaccount hostiletotheprogressoftheindustryandwealthofthepeople，sincetheircontinuousprosperityrestsalwaysonotherfoundations。Weadducedfactsandreasonstoshew，that\"theemploymentofadditionallaborwithoutaproportionalreturn，\"hasintruth hadnoshareinelevatingtherentalofourowncountry；andhavepointedoutthatalthoughitis，strictlyspeaking，apossible sourceofincreasedrevenueofthelandedproprietors，yetitisnot，astheestablishmentofmoreefficientandcomplete cultivationis，aconstantandnecessarysourceofsuchanincrease，whereverthewealth，andskill，andindustryofabodyoffarmersareprogressive。Weareconsciousthatthispeculiarsourceofapossibleriseofrentshasbeendweltonatsomewhatgreaterlengththanits relativeimportancemayseemtowarrant。Thereasonsforthishavebeenalreadyintimated。Theinfluenceofadecreasing fertilityofthesoilslastcultivatedontheprogressofrents，andthemannerinwhichtheinterestsofthewholepopulationare affectedbytheprocess，havelatelyattractedmuchpeculiarandanxiousattention，andbecomethebasisofmuchfallacious reasoningandwildspeculation。SirEdwardWestandMr。Malthushadpointedout，thatthesoilsactuallycultivatedin agriculturalcountries，wereofveryunequalquality，andthattheactualpricesofrawproducewerebarely，sufficient，on somelands，torepaytheexpencesofcultivationwiththeordinaryrateofprofit；whileonothers，thesamepricesdidthis， andleftbesidesasurplusforrent。Thisfactonceseen，itbecameevidentthattherelativevalueofrawproducedependednot ontheavengecostofitsproduction，butonthecostofproducingaparticularportionofit:thattosecuretheactualsupply， theactualpricesmustbemaintained，andcouldnotbelessened，eventhoughtherentpaidforthebettersoilswere abandonedtothetenants，orceasedtoexist。Itbecameevidenttoo，thatanycircumstanceswhichmademoreexpensivethe cultivationoftheinferiorsoilsused，wouldnotdiminishrents，butwouldraiseprices，sincethecultivatorofthelandwhich producednorentmustgethisexpencesandprofit，orthesupplywouldfailandpricesrisefromthatcause。The developementofthesefactsthrewconsiderablelightonthecircumstanceswhichdeterminetheexchangeablevalueofraw produce，andontheeffectsandincidenceoftaxation；andopenedbesidesmanynewviewsofthosesubjects。Itisnot perhapssurprising，thatthetwowriterslastnamed，should，inthefirstardorofdiscovery，havebeentemptedtopushthe consequencesofthefactstowhichtheyweredrawingtheattentionofthepublic，somewhatfartherthansubsequentand morecomprehensiveenquirieswouldwarrant。And，accordingly，bothSirEdwardandMr。Malthus，afterpointingout，that ascultivationextendsitself，thecapitalemployeduponsoilsofdifferentqualitiesproducesveryunequalreturns，shewan occasionaldispositiontotakeitforgranted，thatintheprogressofagriculture，everyadditionalportionofcapitalappliedto thesoilsmustproducealessreturnthanthatwhichprecededit:adistinctandverydifferentproposition；entirelywithout foundation，whenviewedrelativelytocapitalemployedindevelopingthepowersoftheoldsoils；andwhich，whenconfined tothecaseofcapitallaidoutuponnewandinferiorsoils，allowsnothingfortheprogressofhumanpower。Theunsoundness ofthisassumptionhasalreadybeenpointedout。InthetreatisesofSirEdwardWestandMr。Malthus，however，these opinionsweremerelyexaggerationsoftheconsequencesofanimportanttruth，presentedtotheworldwithoutbeing sufficientlysifted。WhenadoptedbyMr。Ricardo，theybecameunluckilythesolefoundationofanextensivesystemof politicalphilosophy，embracingthewholesubjectofrents，wages，profitsandtaxes；andattemptingtoexplain，inaseriesof logicaldeductions，drawnfromthisnarrowfoundation，allthecauseswhichinprogressofnationsregulatetherevenuesof thedifferentclassesofsociety。(33)Itwasofcourseessentialtotheestablishmentofthissystem，thateveryotherapparent causeofincreasingrentsshouldbeprovedillusory。Hencetheattemptsmadetodenythatthegeneralincreaseofthe produceofthesoil，whichfollowstheaccumulationofcapitaluponit，canpossiblyraiserents，orbebeneficialtothe landlords，unlesssomeofthatcapitalbelaidoutwithoutadiminishedreturn，andtheshareoftheproducingclassesbe reduced。Hence，too，similarattemptstoprovethatagriculturalimprovementsofeverydescription，eventhosebywhichthe expenceofobtainingproducearemadeless，are，foratime，absolutelyprejudicialtotheinterestsoftheproprietors，and onlybegintobeusefultothemwhenthecostofgettingproduceonthesoilsgoverningpricehasbeenincreased。(34)Froma systemwhichsawnopossiblemodeofincreasingtherevenuesofthelandlordswhichwasnot foundedonacorresponding decreaseofthoseoftheproducingclasses，itfollowednecessarilythattheinterestsofthelandlords，andthoseoftheother classesofsocietywereinastateofperpetualhostility。Andthisgloomyconclusionassumedayetdarkercomplexionwhen blendedwithsomeothererrorsofthesameschool。Asallcompensationfromtheincreasingpowerofnon-agricultural industrywasoverlooked，thereductioninthereturnstoagriculturallaborandcapital，whichaccordingtothemfollowsa peopleineveryattempttoincreasethequantityofrawproduceobtainedfromitsterritory，occasionsapositivedecreasein therevenuesoftheproducingclasses。Theshareofthelaborers，theybelievedtobe，exceptofshortintervalsoftime， invariable:thedecreaseoftherevenuesoftheproducingclassesmustaffect，therefore，exclusivelytherateofprofits。Butas theyassumedthepeopletobefedinallcasesfromaccumulatedcapitalalone，andcapitaltobeaccumulatedfromprofits exclusively，andthepoweroftheownersofprofitstoaccumulate，tobedependantontherateofprofit，itfollowedthatat everyfallintherateofprofit，thenationalpowerofaccumulationwasdiminished，andadisastrouscheckgiventothesole meansofprovidingforanincreasingpopulation。Thereisnooneofthesevariouspositionswhichisnotpartiallyor altogetherfalse；buttopersonspossessedwithanopinionoftheirtruth，thegreatoriginalerrorofsupposingeveryincrease ofrenttoindicateacorrespondingdiminutioninthereturnsyieldedbyagriculturetotheproducingclasses，seemedtolead atoncetotheconclusion，thatateverystepintheelevationofrents，theelementsofnational prosperitywereweakened，and theotherclassesofthecommunityexposedtocorrespondingprivations。Theseviewsareembodiedinmanystriking passagesofMr。Ricardo\'swritings，whichformtheframeworkofasystemerectedbyhimandfinishedbyotherswhohave adoptedhisviews。Thosewhowilltakethetroubleofturningtohispublications，willfindhimdeclaringindifferent passages，someofwhichhavebeenalreadyquoted，thattheincreasingrentsproceedalways，notfromadditionalwealth createdonthesoil，butfromatransferofwealthwhichbeforeexistedintothehandsofthelandlords:thatrentinvariably proceedsfromtheapplicationofadditionalcapitaltoagriculturewithadiminishedreturn:thatnothingwhichdoesnotalter therelativefertilityofthelandscultivatedcanincreaserents:thatimprovementsinagriculturedonotincreaserents:(35)that suchimprovementslowerrentsatleastforatime，andlessenthemeansofthelandlords，theirabilitytopaytaxes，&；c。:that increasingrentsnoadditiontotheresourcesofacountry:thateveryriseinrentsisameretransferofvalue，advantageous onlytothelandlords，andproportionablyinjurioustotheconsumers:and，finally，thattheinterestsofthelandlordsare alwaysopposedtothoseofeveryotherclassinthecommunity。(36)Theerroneousviewsinwhichthesepositionsoriginated， proceedednodoubtfromimperfectobservationandhastyreasoning；thereisnoreasonwhatevertobelieve，thattheywere promptedbymalignity，orputincirculationtocreatemischief。But，howevercalmandfreefromthoughtofevilmaybethe philosophyfromwhichfalsepoliticaltheoriesareengendered，theyarenosoonerafloatand currentintheworld，thanthey necessarilycomeintocontactwithprejudicesandpassionswhichconvertthemintosourcesofveryseriousdelusions。 Mistakenviewsandexcitedfeelingsastothesourcesoftheprosperityofthelandedproprietors，likethosewhichhavelately prevailedinEngland，haveadoublebadeffect。Theyleadthepeopletolookwithjaundicedandangryeyesupon augmentationsintherevenueoftheproprietors，whichareintruthonlysomanyindicationsandeffectsofagreatandmost desirableincreaseintheresourcesofthecountry。Andwhendiscussionshavearisenastopracticalmeasures，thesame mistakenviewsandfeelingshaveevidentlyserved，firsttomakeonepartyquerulousandangry，andthentheother，asifinself-defence，suspiciousandreluctant。SECTIONVIII。SummaryofFarmer\'sRentsThefactthattheserentsprevailalmostexclusivelyinEngland，issufficienttofixuponthemearnestattention。Theydeserve itonanotheraccount。Thereareindications，faintinsomequarters，strongerinothers，butdiscernibleinmany，thatthe Europeannationswillall，soonerorlater，approachpartially，atleast，toasimilarsystem。Wehaveshewnreasonsfor believing，thattheirprogresstowardsitwillonthewholebeveryslow；butstillitisnotthelesstruethatthecomposition andcapabilitiesofcountriesinwhichfarmer\'srentsprevail，mustbedistinctlyunderstood，ifwewouldthoroughly comprehendeitherthepeculiareconomicalconditionofourowncountry，ortheprobabledirectionandcharacterofthe futurecareerofourneighbors。Itcertainlywillbewise，whiledevotingourselvestothistask，nottorepeatanerrorwhich hasblindedmanylatewriterstotruthsofayetmoregeneralapplication:whichhasledthem，whilespeculatingon circumstancespeculiartothemselves，sometimeswhollytoneglectthoseruderandmoreprevalentsystems，theresultsof whichdecidethefortunesandconditionofthelargestportionofthehumanrace:atothertimes，toconfoundandconfuse thingsandcircumstancesessentiallydifferent，underthecoverofimperfectanalogies，mademoreillusorybythecarelessuseofgeneralterms，andidleattemptstoreasondeductivelyfromthem。Weareall，asEnglishmen，occasionallymoreliablethancouldbewished，tosomeofthesemistakes；wearemuchtooprone toconsiderthestateofsocietyinwhichweexistasatypeofallothers，andthisnarrowandmistakenassumptionis necessarilytheparentofmuchignoranceandmanyerrors。Englandis，infact，attheextremeendandvergeofthe economicalcareerofnations，asfarasthatcareerisyetknown；atapointnotyetreachedbyanyotherconsiderable community；andonewhichhasplacedherinaposition，ifnotmoredesirable，yetverydifferentfromtheirs(37)Weseemen here，inagricultureaswellasinalltheotherbranchesofhumanindustry，aidingtheirnativepowersofproductionhytheuse ofanunusuallylargemassofaccumulatedstock，whichtheskillandinventionofsuccessivegenerationshasbeentaskedso oapply，astoaddgraduallybutconstantlytotheproductivepowersoftheexistingrace。Thiscapital，andthepowerithascreated，intheirseparateapplicationtotheartofagriculture，enablethesoiltosupportapopulation，ofwhichthewhole###第11章amountistriplethatofthecultivators。Theownersofanimposingmassofaccumulatedforce，themselvesmaintainand employthewholeoftheindustriouspopulation。(38)Theproprietorsofthesoilarenolongerexclusivelyeitherrulersin peace，orleadersinwar，andarenotthedirectsourcesofsubsistencetoanypartofthepopulation。Thenationisinfluenced byrevenues，asitisgovernedbyinstitutions，inestimatingwhich，thelandownersappearonlyasapart。Thenational territory，andtheestatesoftheproprietorsofland，preserveofcoursepreciselythesameextent，whilethewealthand numbersofclasseswhollyindependentofthesoil，areswellingandmultiplyingalmostindefinitely。Arethefortunesofthe landownersinthemeanwhilestationary？Dotheysinkgraduallyintoinsignificance？Dotheyceasetooccupyausefuland prominentstationinthecommunity？Noneofthesethingshappen。Bytheconsequencesofapartofthe physicalconstitution oftheearth，fromtheeffectsofwhichcommunitiesofmencouldnotescape，weretheyperverseenoughtowishit，the landedbodypreservesawholesomeandmodified，thoughnomoreanexclusiveinfluence；anditsmembersremainimportant elementsofasociety，inwhichtheyarenolongerdominant。Astheknowledgeandskillofthecultivatorsdiscoverthe meansofapplyingafairportionoftheincreasingcapitalofthecommunitytotheimportantpurposeofbringingintoplaythe latentpowersofthesoil，andofenlargingthemeansofsupportingagrowingnation，anewspeciesofrentexclusively prevails:thefreshpowerthusapplied，forcinggreaterresultsfromthebettersoils，producesafundwhichformsnopartof theordinaryremuneration，eitherofthelaborerswhotillthelands，orofthecapitalistswhomaintain，directandassistthem， andwhenonceidentifiedwiththisfund，ofwhichwehaveseenthattheprogressandamountarequiteindefinite，the incomesofthelandlordscontinueprogressivewiththeadvancingresourcesofthecountry。Itisthusthatthatinequalityin theproductivepowersofdifferentportionsoftheearth\'ssurface，whichatthecommencementoftheagriculturallaborsof mankind，exercisesnoperceptibleinfluenceontheoriginorontheformsofrent，andbutlittleonitsvariations，shewsatlast itspeculiarimportance；andduringthematuredandimprovedadvanceofnations，issufficientofitselftosecureforthelandedbody，asteadyandnecessary，thoughalimitedandinnoxiousadvanceoftheirincomes。Wehavealreadyseentheutterfallacyofthenotion，thatthisprogressmustbeattendedateverystepwithadecreaseinthe productivenessofthesoilswhichgovernprices，orwithaconsequentpressureonthemeansofanyclassofsociety。 ObservationsonsomecircumstancesintheactualpositionofEngland。Insurveyingthissubjectoffarmersrents，itisnoteasy，perhapsitisnotdesirable，toavoidquittingthecontemplationof theminageneralandabstractpointofview，forthepurposeofapplyingtheprincipleswhichariseoutofthatsurveytothe caseofEngland，andtothepeculiaritiesofitsactualcondition:andmeaningtosteerasclearaspossibleofeverythingcommonlycalledpolitics，thereareafewobservationsofthisdescriptionwhichIcannotturnasidefrommaking。Itis，wehaveseen，ontheincreasingwealthandprogressiveskilloftheagriculturalcapitalist，thefarmer，thatthesteady progressofthelandedbodyisindependent。Notastepcanbemadeinagriculture，notoneimprovement， notasingle portionofnewpowerintroducedintotheartofcultivation，whichdoesnot，ifgenerallyadopted，byitsunequaleffectsover thesurfaceofthecountry，raisethemassofrents。Thepropertyandtheenergyandmentalactivityofthefarmers，arethus themainstay，thesolepermanentrelianceofthelandlords。Everycircumstancewhichdiminishesthemeans，thesecurity，or thehopefulnessandenergyoftheseagentsofcultivation，mustbeproportionablydetrimentaltothebestinterestsofthe proprietors。Ithinkthereislittledoubt，thatifthechangesandfluctuationswhichhaveoccurredsincethepeace，hadnot crippledthemeansanddampedtheenterpriseofthefarmers，theywould，byspreadingimprovedmodesofcultivationto largedistricts，asyetimpervioustothem，andbyacontinuousprogressofpowerandskill，haveproducedaconsiderable massofproducerentswhichdonotnowexist。`Thenon-existenceoftheseisunquestionablya seriousandgratuitous misfortunetotheproprietors:perhapsthegreatesttheyhaveexperienced；forhaditnotoccurred，theirincomes，inspiteofthealteredcircumstancesofthecountry，mighthavebeenbuoyeduptosomethingliketheirformerlevel。Butproprietorsdonotsufferalone，whenthenationalprogressindevelopingthepowersofitssoilisstayedandthwartedby thefarmersbeingimpoverishedanddisheartened。Thenon-agriculturalclassessufferintheirturn，andthatinamanner，and toanextent，whichisnotthelessformidable，becauseitisnoteasyaccuratelytotrackthelossinitsprogressanddiffusion， ortomeasureitspreciseamount。Itisprobable，thatafterallowingfortheirownconsumption，thevalueoftheproduce barteredbytheagriculturistswiththenon-agriculturistsisnotlessthan100millions。Thisfactiswelladaptedtoshewthe mutualdependenceofthetwogreatclassesofthestate。Letussuppose，thatscaredbylossesandapprehensions，the farmerswithdrawonefourthoftheirannualexpenditurefromthetaskofcultivation。Thisisaprocess，whicheveryone acquaintedwithcountrybusinesswillknowmightbequietly，andalmostimperceptiblyeffected，byusinglesslabor，orby farminglesshighlyinavarietyofways。Ifaproportionatediminutioninproductionweretofollow，andconsequentonthat， asimilardiminutioninthehometraffickbetweentheagriculturistsandthenon-agriculturists，thedecreaseinthedemandfor theproduceoftheindustryoftheselastwouldbeconsiderablymorethanequivalenttothedecrease ofdemand，which wouldfollowthedestructionofonehalfthewholeforeigntradeofthecountry。Idonotsaythatsuchacaseeitherhas occurred，orislikelytooccur，althoughIhavebeardsomestrongopinionsonthatsubjectfrompersonswellentitledtobe listenedtowithattention；butaneffectmuchlessthanthis，wouldunquestionablybemorethanequaltothesuddenand completestoppageofthemostimportantbranchofourexporttrade；andaneffectevengreaterthanthis，wouldcertainly followanysuddenandviolentattackuponthemeansofthefarmers。Theresultsofanydecreaseinthedomesticdemand wouldbespreadoveralargersurface；andwouldthereforebelessintenselyfeltonanyonepoint，andcreateless concentratedclamor；thantheresultsofadecreasetoasimilarextent，whenfeltintheexportmarketalone；butitwouldbe anobviousdelusiontosuppose，thattheresourcesandprosperityofthewholebodyofnon-agriculturists。wouldnotbeaffectedtopreciselythesameextentintheonecaseasintheother。Itisdifficultnottobelievethatpartofthedistresswhichseemstohavelightedfromsomemysteriouscauseonmanyclasses ofthecommunity，istobetracedtotheimperceptiblecontractionofthispartofthehomedemand。Therearepersons doubtlesswhothink，thatanypossiblereductionofhome，maybecompensatedbytheextensionofforeign，demand。This，in practice，isonlytruetoacertainextent；butthisquestionwouldprovokediscussion，andwewillsupposeittruetoany extent。Stillitisclearthatforeigndemandisnotlikelytobesuddenlycreated，tocounteracttheeffectsofsudden contractionsofthedomestictraffic；andthatthereforeaperiodofconsiderabledistressandlanguor，perhapsruinandcalamity，mustfollowallsuchcontractions。Itistheevidentinterestofthenon-agriculturiststhen，thatwhateverchangestakeplaceinforeigndemand，thehomemarket shouldbeprosperous，becauseitistheirlargestmarket；andthatitshouldnotvary，becausesuchvariationsmustaffecttheir ownprosperity。Iftheuncheckedcareerofthefarmersisessentiallyconnectedwiththeprosperousfortunesbothofthe landedproprietors，andofthenon-agriculturalclasses，itmustobviouslybecloselyconnectedwiththeprosperousfortuneof thenation；andnoplanoflegislationcanbesoundandwise，whichdoesnotcautiouslyavoidanymeasureslikelytodestroy eitherthemeansorthespiritoftheagriculturalcapitalists。Nowconsideringhowmanyinterestsareboundupintheresults ofwiseandcautiouslegislation，whenevertheinterestsoftheagriculturalcapitalistsareconcerned，itissingularlyunlucky thatsuchaquestionasthatofthe\"CornLaws\"shouldexist，whichseemsfatednevertobeapproachedwithoutprovoking anangryandheadlongspiritinonegreatdivisionofthenation，Boandamostmischievoustemperoffearanddepressionin theotherdivision。Yetitisadmitted，thatinthepresentfinancialsituationofthecountry，cornlawsofsomedescription mustexist。Noristhereintruthanygreatdisputeaboutthemainprinciple:theestablishmentofa\"Protectionfrompeculiarburthens\"iswhatallprofesstobecontentwith。Butheretherealdifficultyofthequestionbegins；whatarethepeculiarburthenssustainedbytheagriculturists？anditis becauseIcanpointouttwoimportantmeasures，theeffectingwhichwouldgofartoremovethedifficultyofdecidingthisquestionsoratanyratewouldmakethatdifficultylessdecisiveandimportantthatIhaveventuredintothisdigression。Therearetwopaymentsmadebythefarmer，whichwhiletheyremainintheirpresentstate，willcontinuetoconfusethe subjectsomuch，thatneitherpartytothediscussionislikelytobesatisfied；andtheseareTithesandPoorRates。Thereal incidenceandtheeffectsofbothofthese，weshallexplainmoreatlargewhenspeakingoftaxation。 Theincidenceoftithes iscertainlyineveryparticularinstanceaquestionwhichinvolvessomestatisticaldifficulties，notbecausetheprinciples whichenableustodeterminethequestionareabstruseorobscure，butbecausethatincidenceisdifferent，incountries differentlycircumstancedastotheactualpositionandstateoftheiragriculturalpopulation。Intheparticularcaseof England，however，inthefirstplaceitcanbemadeabundantlyclear，thattithes，whenfirstcreated，musthavebeeninthe thencircumstancesoftheEnglishpopulation，meanttoactasarentcharge；andinthesecondplaceitseemsagreedonall hands，notonlythattithesshouldbeputuponsuchafootingastobenorealburthenonagriculture； tocausenoadditionto thegrowingpriceofproduce；butfurther，thattheyshouldbeplaceduponsuchafooting，thatitmaybepalpableandclear toallbranchesandclassesofthepopulationonandofftheland，thattheyarenotsuchaburthen，anddonotcausesuchan addition。Nowthiscanonlybeeffectedbyageneralcommutation。WhathaspassedinParliamentmaybetakenasaproof， thattheleadersoftheChurchareperfectlywillingtoco-operateintheadoptionofanyrationalplanofthiskind:shouldthe legislaturesetaboutthetask，withaseriousconvictionofitsusefulnessandimportance，andintrusttheexecutionofittothe handsofpersonsactingonsoundviews，andinafrankandhonestspiritofconciliation，itsveryfewdifficultieswould quicklydisappear。Ontheimmenseimportanceofsuchachangeinapoliticalandreligious，aswellasinaneconomicalpointofview，itcannotbenecessarytoenlarge。Thepoorlawspresentamuchmorepressingandalarmingmassofevil，astheydoalsomuchmoreseriousdifficulties。Inthe firstplace，theeffectsofthepoorlawsasamereeconomicalevil，asaffectingtheinterestsandcalculationsofthefarmer， andthegrowingpricesofcorn，areconsiderablyunderrated。Theselawsarefirst，aburthenthedirectandindirectpressure ofwhich，itisdifficultforthefarmerhimselftocalculate；andwhichitisprobabletherefore，thatinallcaseshe exaggerates；andinthenextplacetheyformamuchmore，averymuchmore，seriousadditiontothenecessarypriceof agriculturalproduceinEngland，thanamerearithmeticalcalculationwouldleadustoconcludethey did:andtheydothis， becausetheirpressureisunequallydistributed，andfallsbyfarthemostheavilyonthosepoorersoils，theexpenceof cultivatingwhichmustinthelongrun，(abstractingfromtheeffectsofforeignimportation)determinetheaveragepricesof rawproduce。Thiscircumstancealoneformsasufficientlyurgentreasonforattemptingsuchalterationsasmightgetridofthisunnatural，andcertainlynotdesirable，interferencewiththelevelofEnglishprices。Butallmerelyeconomicalconsiderationsreallysinkintoutterinsignificanceswhenweturntothefearfulmassofmoraland politicalmischiefwhichtheyhavebroughtintoaction。(39)Itisnottoomuchtosay，thattheyhavethoroughlydestroyedthe happinessoftheagriculturalpeasantry，andcorruptedtheirhabitsaslaborersandasmen。Theseeffectshaveshewn themselvesbuttoodistinctly。Thelatedisturbancesamongthatpeasantryonlysheerignorancecouldattributetoany peculiaractualpressure。Thetemper，andfeelings，anddelusionsinwhichtheyoriginated，havebeenformingforsometime。 Theoutbreakmighthavebeenforeseenbyall(anditwasforeseenbysome)familiarwiththepracticalworkingandresults ofthesystem:andunlessthatsystembeannihilated，oratleastessentiallyandfundamentallyaltered，thosedisturbanceswill， itmayconfidentlybeexpectedfromthenatureofthecase，havebeenneitherthelast，northemostdangerous。Andstill，evil anddangerousastheyhavebeen，theywereonlyoneeffectandindicationofthemiserablydistortedandirritatedfeelingsof whichtheyweretheresult。Thelegislationofthecountryonthissubjecthasbeenbad，anddeservesunquestionablymuchof theblamewhichhasbeenshiftedtotheshouldersofthosewhohaveadministereditsregulations。Butneither，certainly，has theiradministrationbeenblameless，Badlawshavelaidthefoundation；andthen，sometimesbybadmanagementwithvery goodintentions，andsometimesbybadmanagementwithveryquestionableintentions，thepoorhave graduallybeenbrought intoaconditioninwhichtheyareledtoattributeunhesitatinglyeveryprivationandeverydisappointmenttothose neighbors，underwhosecontroltheyfindthemselves，andwhoaretothemthevisiblesourceofallthegoodandeviloftheir lot。Whenmenareinthisposition，theconsequencesarcmostfatal，thoughmostnatural。Canwewonderthattheirtempers hadbecomesoured，andtheirviewsofwhatisreasonableandunreasonable，ofwhatisrightandwrong，perverted？Thefact is，thattherehadbeenforsometimespreadingthroughthisclassofourpopulationanangryspiritofdisliketotheir immediatesuperiors，themostdangerousgermofpoliticaldisorder；andinthemeantimetheirownprinciplesandhabits haveassumedacharacter，overwhichitisimpossiblenottomourn；whichfar-seeingpersonsmayeasilytracebackto causesoverwhichthepoorthemselveshadnocontrol；butwhichisextremelyillcalculatedtoconciliatetheconfidence，orthegoodwill，orforbearance，ofthosewhohavetodealwithit；andtendsthereforebyitsconsequencestoperpetuateand increascdistrustandillwillbetweenthelaborers，andthosewhohavethemanagementofthemandoftheirfortunes。Wehavehadfromthesecausesapainfulinstanceoftheconnexionofeconomicalandmoralevil。Themoralhavochas indeedbeencomplete。Thehonestyofthelaborers，theirselfrespect，theirvaluefortheircharacterasworkmen，allhopeof betteringtheirconditioninlifebygoodconduct，industry，andprudence；theirsenseoftheirmutualdutiesandclaimsas parentsandchildren，allfeelingsandhabitsinshort，thatcontributetomakemengoodcitizens，andgoodmen，havebeenunderminedandimpaired，orutterlydestroyed。Noremedyfortheseevilsintheconditionofthepoordeservesthenameofawiseandstatesmanlikemeasure，whichisnot ofanaturesufficientlycomprehensive，tooffersomepromiseofbringinghealingandhealthtoallthesediseasedpoints。Ido notknowthatsucharemedyneedbedespairedof:theplanofusingallotmentsoflandforsuchapurpose，hasbeen sufficientlydiscussedandtried，toenableustojudgeofitscapabilities。Ifthecountrywasenabled，bythenecessary modificationsoftheexistinglaws，andbysomenewones，toadoptthatplanefficientlyintogeneralpractice，itmightenable theagriculturaldistricts，notmerelytopalliatetheactualpressure，thethreateningdanger，fromthepoorlaws；buttodo whatmustbeeffectuallydone，ifthemoralmischiefistobeeradicated；andthatis，to annihilatetheconnexionbetweenthe ablebodiedlaborersandthoselaws，altogether，andforever。(40)Inthemeantime，itwouldbeadangerousexperimentfor thegovernorsofastatesosituated，tofoldtheirhandsandwaitforwhatistohappennext。Theslow，andtoooften perplexedandthwartedprogressofindividualefforts，canleadtonogeneralresultsofsufficientpowertoarrestintimethe progressofthemoralpestilencewhichhaslongbeenpursuingourfootsteps，andisalreadybreathingonournecks。 Legislationmustberesortedto，andthat，comprehensiveanddecisive，astheoccasiondemands；butcarriedon(itneed hardlybesaid)inaspiritascalmandbenevolentasitisfirmanddecided:andguidedever，itmaybehoped，bythegreat aim，ofpromotingthecomfortsandhappinessofthelaboringclass，asthebestandsurestfoundationoftheprosperityandpeaceofthenationatlarge。Imustadd，whileonthissubject，thatnoplanforextinguishingtheclaimsofablebodiedlaborersontheirparishes，will appeartomeeitherjustorexpedient，whichisnotcalculatedtoplacethemnotonlyultimately，butateverystepofthe change，inaposition，notmerelyasgoodasthatinwhichtheyarenow，butbetter。Withoutforgettingorpalliatingtheir actualfaults，stillweshouldremember，thatthemiserablesystembywhichtheirbetterprinciples，andinsomemeasuretheir freedomofbodyandmind，havebeenbarteredasitwerepiece-mealfordolesfromthepoors\'-rate，wasneitherdevisednor desiredbythem:anditwillbeinvainandunjusttocalluponthemtomakeeffortstodisentanglethemselvesfromitseffects，excepttheycandistinctlyseethatitisnotriskorlossorsuffering，butgainandreward，whichareprofferedtothem。Itwillberecollected，thatthetitheandpoor-lawshaveonlybeenconsideredhereasbearingonthegeneralquestionofthe corn-lawsandthroughthatquestion，ontheharmonyoftheagriculturalandnon-agriculturalclasses，andonthe uninterruptedperceptionbybothofthem，oftheircommonandinseparableinterests。Toreturnthenmoredistinctlyand exclusivelytothispointofview。Ifwesupposethetithescommuted，andthepoor-ratesdoneawaywith，orreducedtoa verysmallsum，thenthefarmer，inestimatinghispeculiarburthens，wouldberelievedfromafeelingofindefinitepressure， andfrommanyvaguefearsofriskandloss，whicharekeptaliveandirritatedbytheexistenceofthosepaymentsintheir presentstate。Thiseffected，ascaleofdutiesmightprobablybedevised，whichshouldbebothfixedandmoderate。Tillthisis done，itisverymuchtobefearedthatnocorn-laws，whicharereallyequitable，willeverappeartothefarmertogivehim sufficientprotectionwhilethenon-agriculturalclasseswillbebuttooeasilypersuaded，thattheyaddexorbitantlyand unjustlytothepriceofprovisions。Theceaselesscollisionofsuchopinionswillnecessarilykeeponfoothostileandangry feelings，andbedestructiveofthatconfidenceandfrankco-operationbetweenthedifferentordersandclassesofthecommunity，withoutwhich，intimesofperil，andevenintimesofpeace，astateisshornofmorethanhalfitsstrength。Butafixedandmoderatedutypermanentlyesablished，(41)andangryfeelingsontheoneside，andexaggeratedfearsof changeontileother，finallyquelled，thefarmermightoncemorebegingraduallytoaccumulate，andgraduallytofindnew modesofemployingfreshquantitiesofcapital。Theconsequencesofadiffusedandskilfulemploymentofsuchfreshfarming capital，havealreadybeenpointedout。Englandoffersstillalargefieldforagriculturalenterprizeandimprovements。The bestmethodsofcultivationalreadyknown，extendtonogreatproportion。ofhersurface；andwhenthesehavebeen generallydiffused，thecareerofthecultivatorsmaystillbeforagesprogressive。SuperiorastheEnglishagricultureis，there aremanyindicationsthatitisstillonlyapproaching，thatitisfarfromhavingreached，thetermofitspower。The introductionofmechanicalorchemicalforceswhichwilldisplacemuchoftheanimalpowernowused；thediscoveryof freshandmoreprolificgrassesandvegetablestobecultivatedbytheploughorspade；thegradualbreakingupofmuchof thegroundoverwhichcattlenowroam；theraisingagreaterproportionofthemorevaluablecrops，whichcontribute directlyorindirectlytohumansubsistence；andageneraladvanceintheefficiencyofthemanyaidstohumanlaborusedby thehusbandman；theseareallimprovements，thegradualestablishmentofwhichitissofarfromextravaganttoexpect， thatitisperhapsmorelikeextravagancetodoubtthatmanyofthemarecloseathand。 Oneeffectofsuchnewpowergained byagriculture，willunquestionablybethereclaimingandgraduallyfertilizingaconsiderableportionofthelargepartofthe soilofthecountrywhichisnowunproductive:andwhilethegrapplingwiththewildland，andthemultiplicationofmeans andpowerontheold，aregoingon，wemay，judgingofthefuturefromthepast，rationallyhopethatthepowerof agriculturewillbeincreasing，andthatthepopulationofthecountrywillbemaintainedbytheexertionsofadiminished proportionofitslaborioushands。Ithasbeenalreadypointedout，itishopedwithsufficientclearness，thatduringsucha progress，themassofrentsmustbeconstantlyincreasing。Inacountrycultivatedbyfarmers，witheveryforwardmovement ofthepeopleinnumbers，wealth，knowledgeandskill，thelandedbody，borneupbytheswellingwave，willbeliftedtoa stationinwhichtheirmeansandinfluencewillbeadaptedtothefreshpositionofthepopulation。Thecausesofthis advancementaredeeplyseatedinthephysicalconstitutionoftheearth。Thefundswhichsupportitareinjurioustonoclass: theycannotbedestroyedorlessened:theirexistenceandincreasearesecuredbythesameunfailinglawswhichregulate thoseunequalreturns，whichthevariedsurfaceoftheearthmustevermaketo thelaborsbestoweduponit。Theenduring interestsofthelandedproprietorsarethusindissolublyboundupandconnectedwiththemeans，theenterprize，andthe successoftheagriculturalcapitalists。Temporary:advantagesintheirbargainswiththeirtenantry，orintheirarrangements withthestate，aretothemobjectsnecessarilyofinferior，sometimesofonlyillusorybenefit。Thefortunes，thestation，the comparativeinfluenceandmeansoftheirorder，arealwaysthereforebestguardedandpreservedbythem，when，keeping alooffromallthatmayembroilorhinderthegeneralprogressofthenationinwealthandskill，theyusetheirindividual influence，andtheirpoliticalfunctions，topromotesuchsystemsonlyofnationalpolicyandfinanceasarejustandmoderate； likely，therefore，tobesteadyanddurable，andtoleaveafreecoursetothosewholesomecauseswhichpromotetheirown peculiarinterests，onlyasidentifiedwiththoseofthenation。 Conclusion。 Thetaskofobservingtherevenuesannuallyderivedfromthesoilbyitsowners，isfinished。Wehavemarkedthelawswhichdeterminetheamountofrentsunderalltheirmanyformsandcharacters。Wehavetraced themtotheirorigin，intheearlyappropriationofthesoil；initspowertoyieldmoretotherudesteffortsofmanthanthe baresustenanceofitscultivators；andinthenecessitywhich，intheinfancyofagriculturalcommunities，bindsthepeasantto thetaskoftillingtheearth，becauseitisthusonlythathecanearnthefoodonwhichheistoexist。Wehavefollowedthem afterwardstothosemorelimitedspots，inwhichanadvanceinthestateofsociety，andtheintroductionofabodyof agriculturalcapitalists，(notnecessarilydependentonthesoilforsubsistence，)havelimitedrentstothosesurplusprofits， whichcanberealizedonparticularspotsofground。Perhapsthisistheplacetonoticeanattempt，whichithasbeen suggestedtomemaystillbemade，toreduceallrentstorentsofthislastdescription。Those，ithasbeensaid，whomaintain thatrentsalwaysconsistinunequalreturnstoequalportionsofcapital，andinsuchunequalreturnsalone，maystillrefuseto admit，thatthehistorywhichhasbeengivenofthenatureandoriginofpeasants\'rents，isanyrefutationoftheirnarrowsystem。Ishouldnothaveanticipatedsuchanattempt:butIcanconceiveitpossible。Thereoftenexistsunquestionablyamongthelabororproducerentspaidbyeveryclassofpeasanttenantry，aportionofthe payment，whichmaybetracedtothesuperiorqualityofsomepartsofthesoil。Thelandlordofaserfpeasantrygetsmore laborfromthesamespacewhenthelandisgood，thanhedoeswhenitisbad。Thelandlordofryots，metayers，orcottiers， findshisproduceormoneyrentsgreateronthegoodsoils，thanontheinferior。Wehavealreadyseen，however，thatsucha differencehasnothingtodowiththeorigin，orwiththeformofsuchrents，andexistsasaquantityunknownorunobserved bythosewhopay，orthosewhoreceivethem，amidsttheactionofthecauseswhichhavebeenpointedoutaspractically determiningtheirvariations。Thereisoneverylimitedandpeculiarformofsociety，inwhichthisdifferencedoesafforda correctmeasureoftherentspaidbytheagriculturalcapitalists，whoconstitutethebodyofthetenantry。But，outofthe peculiarrentspaidintheselimiteddistricts，firsttoformanarrowdefinitionofthewordrent，andthentoattemptforciblyto includeunderthisword，thepaymentsmadebythetillersoftheearthoverthewholeofitssurface，istoattempttomakethe realitiesofthingsbendandcircumscribethemselveswithinthemoremanageablebutarbitrarycompasstowhichwemay wishtoconfineourreasonings:itistoabandonthetaskofobservationbywhichourknowledgeshouldbeearnt，thatwe maycreateanunrealfoundationforsystems，which，asfarastheyprofesstobegeneral，mustnecessarilybevisionaryand false；whichcanbeserviceableonlyintheworkofamusingourselvesanddeludingothers；andmustendinleavingus ignorantoftheorigin，progress，andeffects，oftherelationsbetweenlandlordandtenant，overninety-ninepartsinahundred ofthecultivatedglobe。Ineednot，Ihope，pressthispointfarther。Thewholeofthesepagespresenttheproperanswerto suchanattempt。Theyhaveeffectedlittle，iftheyhavenotshewn，thatitisbynosuchpuerileeffortstomakereasoning supplytheplaceofknowledge，thatwecangatherpracticalwisdomfromenquiriesintotheeconomicalconditionofthegreatfamilyofmankind。Theexistenceoftherevenuewhichisderivedfromlandsforms，intheverydawnofciviliza-tion，themostimportant elementofitsprogress。Itisthefundfromwhichcommunitiesderivetheirornamentsandtheirstrength。Itsuppliesstates withleadersinwar，andrulersinpeace；givesbirthtotheusefulandtheelegantarts；andyields，directlyorindirectly，thosemeansandopportunitiesofleisure，whicharetheparentsofliterature，andofallaccumulatedandtransmittedknowledge。Iftheexistenceandgeneralprogressofrentsisidenticalwiththeextentandgrowthofthesourcesofcivilization，their peculiarformsexerciseanolessdominantinfluenceonallthemostimportantdistinguishingcharacteristicsofnations，and ofclassesofnations。Noristhisthecaseonlyintheinfancyofcommunities；wehavealreadyseen，thatwiththeexception ofourcountry，andofoneortwoothers，all，eventheleadingpeopleoftheearth，arestillagricultural；thatis，byfarthe largestportionoftheirindustriouspopulationisemployedinagriculture；andwehavetoo，goodreasontobelieve，thattheir conditioninthisrespectwillchangeslowly，whereitchangesatall。Butamongnationssosituated，(formingthemajorityof theinhabitantsoftheworld)soitis，andevermustbe，thattheproductivepowersoftheirpopulation，theirjointwealthand strength，theelementsofmostoftheirpoliticalinstitutions，andofmanyoftheirmoralcharacteristics，canonlybe understoodandweighed，afterathoroughinvestigationintothehabits，theties，therelations，therevenues，towhichthe occupationofthelandtheyexistonhasgivenbirth，andwhichitcontinuestomaintain。Itisfromsuchaninvestigationalone therefore，thatwemustacquirethepowerofestimatingtheactualcondition，orofjudgingofthefutureprospects，ofthemajorityofourfellowmen。Ofthegreatleadingdivisions，whichseparatetheagriculturalnationsoftheearthintodistinctmasses，Ihaveattemptedto drawadistinctoutline。Thereare，however，probably，withinthelimitsofeachdivision，instancesofexceptionsand modifications，whichmayhaveescapedmynotice，andwhichexercisesomeinfluenceoverthecircumstancesand institutionsofindividualcommunities。IfIshouldsucceedindirectingtheattentionofotherstothepointswhichIhave pointedoutasimportantinthetenuresandhabitsofagriculturalnations，someaccountofthosemodificationswillprobably behereaftersupplied。Inthemeantime，asIamconsciousthatthewideoutlineIhavedrawn，andsuchdetailsasIhave introduced，arefaithfulandimpartial，1cannotanddonotdoubt，thattheprogressivesupplyofdetailedinformation，will confirmtheprincipleswhichIhavepointedout，whileitmayprobablymodifyandcorrect，tosomeextent，theirlocalapplication。Therentspaidbythesmallest，buttousthemostinterestingclassoftenantry，agriculturalcapitalists，orfarmers，Ihave treatedwithMr。Malthusandothers，simplyassurplusprofits。Theview，however，takenhereofthedifferentmodesby whichthesesurplusprofitsmayincreaseandaccumulateonthesoil，is，Ibelieve，new。Certainlyitischeering，andstrips awayatonceallthatwasharshandrepulsive，inthefalseaspectlatelysolaboriouslygiventothecausesandsourcesofincreaseinthisclassofrents。Duringtheprogressofthewholesubject，abstractingfromalldifferenceintheformsofrents，andinthecharacterandthe relationsbetweenthecultivatorsandproprietors，onegreattruthhasbeenplaced，itishoped，onthesecurefoundationofa patientandcopiousinduction。Ihavehadpleasureinintroducingtheevidenceofitwhereverithasoccurred，andIshall concludewithit。Innoonepositionofsociety，duringnooneperiodoftheprogressofcivilization，dotherealinterest。qf theproprietorsofthesoilceasetobeidenticalwiththoseofthecultivators，andofthecommunitytowhichtheyboth belong。Buteventhistruthitself，iftheviewswhichIhave，withsomelabor，arrivedat，donotdeceiveme，will，inthefuture progressofoursubject，appeartobeincludedinoneyetmorecheering，becausemorecomprehensive；namely，thatall systemsareessentiallyfalseanddelusive，whichsupposethatthepermanentgainandadvantageofanyoneclassofthe community，canbefoundedonthelossofanotherclass:becausethesameprovidencewhichhasknittogethertheaffections andsympathiesofmankind，bysomanycommonprinciplesofaction，andsourcesofhappiness，has，inperfectconsistency withitsownpurposes，soarrangedtheeconomicallawswhichdeterminethesocialconditionofthevariousclassesof communitiesofmen，astomakethepermanentandprogressiveprosperityofeach，essentiallydependentonthecommonadvanceofall。Note。Ithasbeensuggestedtome，thatIhavehardlydweltenoughonthepossibilityofconfoundingthecharacterofthe Ryotsastenants，andtheirclaimsashereditaryoccupiersofthesoil。Ihaveaddednote，VIII。intheAppendix，inwhichthis pointisconsidered，withaparticularreferencetoCol。Tod\'slateworkonRajast\'han。11。Thepracticeofploughinglightlandswithtwohorsesandoneman，andthealternateandconvertiblehusbandry，the greatimprovementsofmoderntimes，havebeenfullyknownformorethanhalfacentury。Iftheyspreadthemselvesnofasterthantheyhavedoneyet，anotherhalfcenturywillelapsebeforetheyareadoptedonallthelandsfittedforthem。12。Ricardo，2ndEdit。pp。499，500，501。\"Oneoftheseerrors(heisspeakingofsomesupposederrorsofMr。Malthus，)lies insupposingrenttobeadeargainandanew\"creationofriches。\"\"Rentthenisacreationofvalue，but\"notacreationof wealth；itaddsnothingtotheresourcesofacountry:itdoesnotenableittomaintainfleetsandarmies，\'&；c。&；c。Thereader willhaveobservedalready，howutterlyfallaciousandinapplicablethesereasoningeandopinionsare，ifweturntopeasant rents，thatis，tothelargebodyoftherentsactuallypaid。Itrusttheywill，inthetext，bemadetoappearequallyfallacious，whentakenasexclusivelyapplicabletothesurplusprofitsrealisedontheland，thatis，tofarmers\'rents。13。Ricardo，3rdEdit。p。4。85。Weshouldhave，hesays，preciselythesamequantity，andnomore，ofcommodities，andthe samemillionsofquartersofcornasbefore(thatis，beforetheriseofrents。) 14。Meaninglabornotproductiveofwealth，aswehavedefinedwealth，thatis，materialwealth。 15。Macculloch，p。282。16。Itwouldcomplicatethecalculation，ifweweretotakeinhereanyelementsofexchangeablevaluebesidesthemerelaboremployed:andtodemonstratethetruthwearetravellingto，thatcomplicatedcalculationisnotnecessary。17。Itwillbeshewnhereafter，thatinacountryrepletewithcapital。anEnglandis，itisalwayshighlyprobablethattherate ofwageswillbesufficientlyaheadofthatrateinpoorercountries，toproduceaslightinferiorityintherateofprofitsintherichercountry；thoughitsproductivepowerbethegreatestandinastateofrapidincrease。18。\"Wehaveseen，intreatingonwages，thattheyinvariablyrisewiththeriseinthepriceofrawproduce。Itmaybetaken forgranted，that。underordinarycircumstances，nopermanentrisetakesplaceinthepriceofnecessarieswithout occasioningorhavingbeenprecededbyariseinwages。Thusweagainarriveatthesameconclusion，whichwehavebefore attemptedtoestablish，thatinallcountriesandalltimes，profitsdependonthequantityoflaborrequisitetoprovide necessariesforthelaborersonthatland，orwiththatcapitalwhichyieldsnorent。\"Ricardo，pp。118，128。 19。PrinciplesofPoliticalEconomy，p。193。 20。Page198。 21。Ricardo，2ndedit。p。163。 22。Ibid。p。159。 23。Ricardo，2ndedit。p。157。 24。SeearticleCredit，SupplementtoEncyclopediaBritannica。 25。Malthus，PrinciplesofPoliticalEconomy，p。193。26。Thecomparativepotentialfertilityofsoils，thatis，thefertilityeachwouldbefoundtopossessafterhavingbeenfor sometimecultivated，withthemostandbestindustry，skill，andmeans，issomethingverydifferentfromtheircomparative actualfertility；acircumstancewhichshouldalwaysberemembered，whenthepolicyofcultivatingapparentlybarrenwastesisunderconsideration。27。\"Rentinvariablyproceedsfromtheemploymentofanadditionalquantityoflaborwithaproportionallylessreturn。\"Ricardo，1stedit。p。60。28。Mr。Ricardohimselfwasperfectlyaware，(indeedhecouldnotbeotherwise，)thatthiswasanecessaryconclusionfrom hisdoctrineastotheonesolecauseofaugmentedrents。\"Thesamecause，\"hesays，\"thedifficultyofproduction，raisesthe exchangeablevalueofrawproduce，andraisesalsotheproportionofrawproducepaidtothelandlordasrent。\"RicardoonPoliticalEconomy，2ndedit。p。71。29。SomeofthesereturnsmaybeseeninMr。Lowe\'sbook，2ndedit。p。155。Itwillbeobserved，thattheexpensesonlyare therecomparedwiththerent；addingprofitsonthelowestpossiblescale，itwillbeseenthattherentmusthaveordinarilybeenaboutone-fifthofthegrossproduce。Eventhisexceedstheusualcalculationsofsomeexperiencedland-valuers。30。Toestimatethatgreaterproducefairly，itisalwaystoberecollected，thatwemustnotconfineourviewstothe increasedcornproduceofsmallspots，althoughthatisremarkable，butmusttakeinthevariedproduceofconsiderabletracts；oratleast，ofwholefarms。31。Ricardo，EssayontheInfluenceofalowprice，&；c。p。20。\"Itfollowsthen，thattheinterestofthelandlordisalways opposedtotheinterestsofeveryotherclassinthecommunity。\" 32。Ricardo，pp。118，128。33。\"Intreatingonthesubjectoftheprofitsofcapital，itisnecessarytoconsidertheprincipleswhichregulatetheriseand fallofrent；asrentandprofits，itwillbeseen，haveaveryintimateconnectionwitheachother。\"Ricardo，Essayonthe InfluenceoflowPriceofCornontheProfitsofStock，Introduction，p。1。\"Thegeneralprofitsofstockdependwhollyon theprofitsofthelastportionofcapitalemployedontheland。\"Ricardo，Ibid。p。20。\"ButIthinkitmaybemostsatisfactorily proved，thatineverysocietyadvancinginwealthandpopulation，independentlyoftheelectproducedbyliberalorscanty wages，generalprofitsmustfallunlesstherebeimprovementsinagriculture，orcorncanbeimportedatacheaperprice。It seemsthenecessaryresultoftheprincipleswhichhavebeenslatedtoregulatetheprogressofrent。\"Ricardo，Ibid。p。22。 ButthosewhoareatallacquaintedwithMr。Ricardo\'swritings，willwantnoextractstoprovetothemthemannerinwhichhisnotions，astotheonepeculiarsourceofrents，servedasabasisforallhisspeculationsonthedistributionofwealth。34。\"If，bytheintroductionoftheturniphusbandry，orbytheuseofamoreinvigoratingmanure， Icanobtainthesame producewithlesscapital，Ishalllowerrent。\"RicardoonPoliticalEconomy，2ndedit。p。68。Thereferencetothisstrange passagewasmislaid，oritwouldhavebeenquotedbefore。Mr。R。proceedstoargue，thatinthecaseheissupposing，land wouldbenecessarilythrownoutofcultivation，\"andadifferentandmoreproductiveportionwillbethatwhich\"willform thestandardfromwhicheveryotherwillbereckoned。\"Thereaderhasseen(p。240。)inwhatmannertheintroductionofthe turniphusbandry，anditsgradualspread，asthenumbersofthepeoplewereincreasing，actuallyraisedtherentalofagreat partofEngland，and，pushedtillagetoavarietyofsoilsbeforeuncultivated；manyofwhichalsopaidarent。 35。SeetooonthispointMacculloch。36。\"Itfollows，then，thattheinterestofthelandlordisalwaysopposedtotheinterestofeveryotherclassofthecommunity。\"Ricardo，EssayontheInfluenceofalowPriceofCornontheProfitsofStock，p。2037。Iought，perhaps，toexcepttheLowCountries；butIshallhaveoccasiontoshewhereafter，thatalthoughfarmersrents prevailextensivelyinthosecountries，theireconomicalpositionisstillverydifferentfromthatofEngland。 38。Exclusiveofmenialservants，ofcourse。39。ItisfromnotheoreticalviewsthatIspeak，butfromanintimateandassuredlyamostpainfulexperience，whenIsay this。Iought，however，perhapstomention，thatmypersonalexperiencehasbeenconfinedtotheagriculturallaborers，andtothecountiesofKentandSussex。40。Individualimpressionsuponasubjectofsuchmightynationalimportance，Iamawaredoandoughttocountforbut little；butssIhavebeenledtothesubject，itmaynotperhapsbepresumptuoustostate，thatmyownobservationshaveled toastrongbelief，thatsuchaplanmightbedevisedandcarriedwithcheerfulnessandpopularityintogeneralexecution；and this，withverydesirableeconomical，aswellasmostimportantmoralandpoliticaleffects。Andthat，ifregulatedand executedundertheguidanceofsoundviews，andwithreasonableprecautions，itneednotbefearedthatthemanygood effectsofsuchaplanwouldbemarredbytheresultsoftheprincipleofpopulation，orbeneutralizedbyanytrainofaccompanyingevils。41。Itwillagainberemembered，thatIconsiderthecommutationoftithes，andchangeofpoor-laws，essentialpreliminaries tothismeasure。Noallowanceintherateofdutyforthosepayments，astheyareatpresentassessed，will，Ifear，ever produceanythingbutdissatisfaction，inanyclass。 APPENDIX。HERSCHELontheStudyofNaturalPhilosophy。Lardner\'sCabinetCyclopaedia，No。14，p。67。Wehavethuspointedout tous，asthegreat，andindeedonlyultimatesourceofourknowledgeofnatureanditslaws，EXPERIENCE；bywhichwe mean，nottheexperienceofonemanonly，orofonegeneration，buttheaccumulatedexperienceofallmankindinallages， registeredinbooksorrecordedbytradition。Butexperiencemaybeacquiredintwoways:either，first，bynoticingfactsas theyoccur，withoutanyattempttoinfluencethefrequencyoftheiroccurrence，ortovarythecircumstancesunderwhich theyoccur；thisisOBSERVATION:or，secondly，byputtinginactioncausesandagentsoverwhichwehavecontrol，and purposelyvaryingtheircombinations，andnoticingwhateffectstakeplace；thisisEXPERIMENT。Tothesetwosourceswe mustlookasthefountainsofallnaturalscience。Itisnotintended，however，bythusdistinguishingobservationfrom experiment，toplacetheminanykindofcontrast。Essentiallytheyaremuchalike，anddifferratherindegreethaninkind；so that，perhaps，thetermspassiveandactiveobservationmightbetterexpresstheirdistinction；butitis，nevertheless，highly importanttomarkthedifferentstatesofmindininquiriescarriedonbytheirrespectiveaids，aswellastheirdifferenteffects inpromotingtheprogressofscience。Intheformer，wesitstillandlistentoatale，toldus，perhapsobscurely，piecemeal，and atlongintervalsoftime，withourattentionmoreorlessawake。Itisonlybyafter-ruminationthatwegatheritsfullimport； andoften，whentheopportunityisgoneby，wehavetoregretthatourattentionwasnotmoreparticularlydirectedtosome pointwhich，atthetime，appearedoflittlemoment，butofwhichweatlengthappreciatetheimportance。Inthelitter，onthe otherhand，wecross-examineourwitness，andbycomparingonepartofhisevidencewiththeother，whileheisyetbefore us，andreasoninguponitinhispresence，areenabledtoputpointedandsearchingquestions，theanswertowhichmayat onceenableustomakeupourminds。Accordinglyithasbeenfoundinvariably，thatinthosedepartmentsofphysicswhere thephenomenaarebeyondourcontrol，orintowhichexperimentalenquiry，fromothercauses，hasnotbeencarried，the progressofknowledgehasbeenslow，uncertain，andirregular；whileinsuchasadmitofexperiment，andinwhichmankind haveagreedtoitsadoption，ithasbeenrapid，sure，andsteady。 I。NarrativeofavisittoBrazil，Chili，PeruandtheSandwichIsland，duringtheYears1821and1822，byCharlesFarquhar Mathison，Esq。p。449。TheKingthenisacompleteautocratallpower，allproperty，allpersonsareathisdisposal:the chiefsreceivegrantsoflandfromhim，whichtheydivideandletoutagaininlotstotheirdependants，whocultivateitforthe useofthechief，reservingaportionfortheirownsubsistence。Thecultivatorsarenotpaidfortheirlabour，nor，ontheother hand，dotheypayaregularrentfortheland。Theyareexpectedtosendpresentsofpigs，poultry，tarrow，andother provisions，tothechief，fromtimetotime，togetherwithanylittlesumsofmoneywhichtheymayhaveacquiredintrade，or anyotherpropertywhichitmaysuitthefancyortheconvenienceofthegreatmantotake。Thisarbitrarysystemisasad hindrancetotheprosperityofthetenant；forifheisdisposedtobeindustrious，andbringhislandintogoodcultivation，or raiseagoodbreedoflivestock，andbecomesrichinpossessions，thechiefissooninformedofit，andthepropertyisseized forhisuse，whilstthefarmerlosesthefruitofallhislabours。Thisstateofthings，asbetweentheKingandhischiefs，islittle morethantheoretical；butasbetweenthechiefsandtheirdependants，itexistsmischievouslyinpractice:hencethegreat stimulustoindustrybeingremoved，thepeopleliveandvegetate，withoutmakinganyexertionsbeyondwhatthecommand ofthechiefandthecareoftheirownsubsistenceforceuponthem。Onedayinaweek，orafortnight，asoccasionmay require，thetenantsarerequiredtoworkupontheprivateestateofthechief。Ihaveseenhundreds——men，women，and children，atonceemployedinthiswayonthetarrowplantations:allhandsturnout，fortheyassisteachotherinabody，and thusgetthroughtheworkwithgreaterexpeditionandease。Whenakanaka，ortenant，refusestoobeytheorderofhischief， themostsevereandsummarypunishmentisinflictedonhim，namely，confiscationofhisproperty。 Aninstanceinpoint happenedtooccurwhileIwasstayingatWhy-aronah。Coxehadgivenorderstosomehundredsofhispeopletorepairto thewoodsbyanappointeddaytocutsandal-wood。Thewholeobeyedexceptonemanwhohadthefollyandhardihoodto refuse。Uponthis，hishousewassetfireto，andburnttothegroundontheveryday:stillherefusedtogo。Thenextprocess wastoseizehispossessions，andturnhiswifeandfamilyofftheestate；whichwouldinevitablyhavebeendone，ifhehad notalloweddiscretiontotaketheplaceofvalour，andmadeatimelysubmission，topreventthisextremity。Ithasbeen beforesaid，thatnocompensationismadetothelabourersfortheirwork，exceptasmallgrantofland。This，however，does notpreventthechief，ifkindlydisposed，fromdistributingsuppliesofmaros，tappers，cloth，&；c。gratuitouslyamongthem。I haveheardthatKrimakoooncedistributednolessthanthreethousandblanketsamonghispeople。TheKingexercises absolutedominionovertheseaaswellasovertheland；andinthesamewayletsouttherightoffisheryalongthecoasttohischiefs。Ibid。p。382。Atsixo\'clockwereachedasmallvillageaboutamilefromthesea-shore，andeasilyobtainedatolerablehutto passthenightin:itbelongedtoanEnglishsailor，whohadestablishedhimselfhere。Hereceiveduswithgreatcivility，andkilledapigforoursupper，which，whenbaked，togetherwithtarrow-root，furnishedaveryexcellentrepast。Ibid。p。383。TheEnglishsailorinformedmethatallthelandinhisneighbourhoodbelongedtoKrimakoo，theKing\'s Minister，familiarlycalledBillyPitt，whohadgivenhimsixtyacres。Onpartof。thishemadeatarrow-plantation，which affordedthemeansofliving；buttherest，hesaid，wasuseless。Heseemedwretchedlypoor；woreanoldshirtandtrowsers，moreraggedanddirtythancanbewellconceived，andwassodisfiguredbyathickblackbeardofseveralweeksgrowth， thathewasreallyfarmoresavagelookingthananyoftheislanders。Withoutplacingmuchdependenceuponthestatementofthispoorfellow，Iwasstillinterestedbywhathetoldme，and pitiedtheabjectconditionofdependenceuponsavages，towhichhewasnowreduced。Amongothercausesof。complaint， heinveighedbitterlyandwithtruthagainstthetyrannyofthechiefs，whoclaimarighttopossessallprivatepropertywhich isacquiredupontheirestates，andseizeeverythingbelongingtothepoorerclassesforwhichtheyfeelaninclination。He saidthatwheneveranindustriouspersonbroughtmorelandintocultivationthanwasnecessaryforhissubsistence，orreared agoodbreedofpigsandpoultry，thechief，onhearingofit，hadnohesitationinmakingthepropertyhisown。Thistakes place，independentofthecustomarypresentsandtribute；eveneverydollarobtainedbytrafficwithstrangersmustbegiven up，onpainofthechief\'sdispleasure。Europeansaresubjecttothesameoppression。andfromthisgeneralinsecurityof privateproperty，arisesinagreatdegreetheabsenceofmuchindustryorimprovement，bothamongthemandthenativepeasantry。Ibid。p。412。Ontheeveningofthesameday，IbadeadieutoGovernorCoxe，ashewasstyled，andwenttovisitan Americansailor，whohadbeenestablishedupwardsoffiveyearsinthisisland，andcultivatedasmallfarmbelongingtothat chief。Hispropertyconsistedofafewacresoftarrow-plantations，inthemidstofafineorchardofbread-fruitandother trees，withpasturageforalargeherdofgoats；andthese，inadditiontosomepigsandpoultry，renderedhimrichintheeyes ofallhisneighbours。Hiscottagewaswellbuilt，andbeingfurnishedwithmatting，wepassedthenightverycomfortablyin it。Helikedhissituationaltogether，andthoughtitverypreferabletoaseaman\'slife；butcomplained，nevertheless，ofthe insecuretenurebywhichpropertyisheldinthiscountry。Hetoldme，asothershaddone，thathewasafraidofmakingany improvements，andputtingmorelandintocultivation，lesthisprosperityshouldexcitethecupidityofthechief，whowould nothesitate，ifhechoseit，toappropriatethewholetohimself。Asitwas，hehadtobeareverysortofpettyexaction， accordingtothecapricesofthechief，ontheinstigationsofhisadvisers，andonlyretainedpossessionofhispropertybyaccedingtoeverydemand，andpropitiatingwithcontinualpresents，thefavourofthegreatman。Ibid。p。427。Meniniwassupposedtobeworththirtyorfortythousanddollars，amassedduringaresidenceofthirtyyearsin thecountry:butheheldhispropertybyratherafeebletenure，namely，theKing\'sgoodwillandpleasure；andmightatany momentbedeprivedofit，withoutthepossibilityofobtainingredress。 II。EmigrationReportofJune1827，p。397。AreyouawareofthetermsuponwhichlandisnowgrantedtosettlersinthecolonyofNewSouthWales？Iunderstandtherehasbeenanalterationlately；thatalterationIamnotawareof。Thepresentsystemis，thatapriceisplaceduponthelandaswildland；forexample，200，000acreswouldbevaluedat18d。 anacre，thatwouldmakethetotalgrantofthevalueof？5，000。；then，uponthat？5，000。，fivepercent。wouldbecharged attheendofsevenyears，redeemableatanytimeat。acertainnumberofyears\'purchase；consequently，forsuchagrantas youcontemplate，arentof？50。ayearwouldbedemanded，whichrentwouldberedeemableatanytimebypaymentofthe capitalof？5，000。；atthesametime，itisnotthecustomtomakegrantslargerthan10，000acres。 III。TravelsfromViennathroughLowerHungary，byRichardBright，M。D。p。114。But，ifthelandlordhavereasontobelittle satisfied，stilllesscanthepeasantbesupposedtorejoiceinhissituation。Itcanneverbewell，tomakethegreatandactually necessarypartofsociety，thelabouringclass，dependantonthechancesofagoodorbadharvestforitsexistence。Amanof capitalcanbear，forayearortwoyears，thefailureofhiscrops；but，letacoldeastwindblowforonenight，——letahail stormdescend，orletariveroverflowitsbanks，andthepeasant，whohasnothingbuthisfield，starvesorbecomesa burthentohisLord。OfthisIhaveseenactualproof，notonlyinthewinedistrictsofHungary，inwhichtheuncertaintyof thecropisextreme，butinsomeofitsrichestplains，whereIhaveknownthepeasantry，fullthreemonthsbeforegathering in，humblysupplicatingthelandlordstoadvancethemcornonthefaithofthecomingharvest。 Theseareevilsalwaysliable tooccur，supposingthepeasantwereallowedtocultivatehislandswithoutinterruption。Butisthisthecase？TheLordcan legallyclaimonlyonehundredandfourdays\'labourfromeachintheyear；yetwhocanrestrainhimifhedemandmore？ Thereareamultiplicityofpretextsunderwhichhecanmakesuchdemands，andbesupportedinthem。Theadministrationof justiceis，inagreatdegree，vestedinhisownhands。Therearemanylittlefaultsforwhichapeasantbecomesliabletobe punishedwithblowsandfines，butwhichheisoftenpermittedtocommuteforlabour。Infact，thesethingshappenso frequently，andotherextorteddaysoflabourwhichthepeasantfearstorefuse，occursooften，thatIremember，whenin conversationwithaveryintelligentDirector，Iwasestimatingthelabourofeachpeasantat104days，heimmediately correctedme，andsaidImightdoubleit。If，however，theLord，orhisheadservants，havetoomuchfeelingofproprietyto transgressagainstthestrictnessofthelaw，theycanatanytimecalluponthepeasantstoservethemforpay；andthat，notat theusualwagesofaservant，butaboutone-thirdasmuch，accordingtoanassessedrateoflabour。Addtoallthis，the servicesduetothegovernment，remember，too，thatcasesoccurinwhichapeasantisobligedtobesixweeksfromhis home，withhishorsesandcart，carryingimperialstorestothefrontier，andthenjudgewhetherheispermittedtocultivate， withoutinterruption，thelandwhichhereceives，astheonlyreturnforhislabour。 IV。Burnet\'sViewofthePresentStateofPoland，p。85。Whenayoungpeasantmarries，hislordassignshimacertainquantity ofland，sufficientforthemaintenanceofhimselfandfamilyinthepoormannerinwhichtheyareaccustomedtolive。Should thefamilybenumerous，somelittleadditionismadetothegrant。Atthesametime，theyoungcoupleobtainalsoafew cattle，asacowortwo，withsteerstoplowtheirland。Thesearefedinthestubble，orintheopenplacesofthewoods，as theseasonadmits。Themasteralsoprovidesthemwithacottage，withimplementsofhusbandry，inshort，withalltheirlittle moveableproperty。Inconsiderationofthesegrants，thepeasantisobligedtomakeareturntothelandholderofonehalfof hislabour；thatis，heworksthreedaysintheweekforhislord，andthreeforhimself。Ifanyofhiscattledie，theyare replacedbythemaster；acircumstancewhichrendershimnegligentofhislittleherd，asthedeathorlossofsomeofthemis afrequentoccurrence。Whenafarmerrentsafarm，thevillagessituatedonit，withtheirinhabitants，areconsideredas includedinthecontract；andthefarmerderivesarighttothesameproportionofthelabourofthepeasantsforthe cultivationofthatfarm，asbytheconditionoftheirtenuretheyareboundtoyieldthelord。Ifanestatebesold，thepeasants arelikewisetransferred，ofcourse，withthesoil，toanewmaster，subjecttothesameconditionsasbefore。ThePolish boors，therefore，arestillslaves；andrelativelytotheirpoliticalexistence，absolutelysubjecttothewilloftheirlords，asinall thebarbarismofthefeudaltimes。Theyarenotprivilegedtoquitthesoil，exceptinafewinstancesofcomplete enfranchisement；andiftheywere，theprivilege，forthemostpart，wouldbemerelynominal:forwhithershouldtheygo？ Theymayretire，indeed，intotherecessesoftheforest，whereitispossibletheymaynotbetraced；anditisprobable，thatin timespastmanyresortedtothisexpedienttoescapefromthecrueltiesofatyrannicalmaster。Toflyfromamildmaster wouldbeobviouslyagainsttheirinterest。Toquittheterritoryofonegrandeeforthatofanother，mustcommonly，ifnot always，havebeenimpracticable:forwhatlandholderwouldchoosetoadmitafugitivepeasant，andthusencourageaspirit ofrevolt？Again，itisnotintheirpower，fromthecircumstancesoftheircondition，toselltheirlabourindifferentlytothisor thatmaster；andifsuchobstaclesdidnotoppose，theveryextentofthePolishfarms，andtheconsequentwantofasecondcontiguousemployer，wouldsufficeinmostcasestoprecludeachangeofmasters。Itissaidthatafewofthepeasantsimprovethelittlestockwhichiscommittedtotheirmanagement，accumulatingsome smallproperty；buttheirconductisfarmorefrequentlymarkedbycarelessnessandawantofforecast。Instances，however， ofthisaccumulation，begintomultiply:foroneeffectofthepartitionhasbeen，thatthepeasantsarelessliabletobe plundered。Generallyspeaking，itdoesnotappearthatthisallowanceoflandandcattleeitheris，ordesignedtobe，more thanenoughfortheirscantymaintenance。Iwasonceonashortjourneywithanobleman，whenwestoppedtobaitatthe farm-houseofavillage，whichIhavebeforementionedasacommoncustominPoland。Thepeasantsgotintelligenceofthe presenceoftheirlord，andassembledinabodyoftwentyorthirty，topreferapetitiontohim。Iwasnevermorestruckwith theappearanceofthesepoorwretches，andthecontrastoftheirconditionwiththatoftheirmaster。Istoodatadistance， andperceivedthathedidnotyieldtotheirsupplication。Whenhehaddismissedthem，Ihadthecuriositytoenquirethe objectoftheirpetition；andhereplied，thattheyhadbeggedforanincreasedallowanceofland，onthepleathatwhatthey hadwasinsufficientfortheirsupport。Headded，\"Ididnotgrantitthem，becausetheirpresentallotmentistheusual quantity；andasithassufficedhitherto，soitwillforthetimetocome。Besides，(saidhe，)ifIgivethemmore，Iwellknowthatitwillnot，inreality，bettertheircircumstances。\"Polanddoesnotfurnishamanofmorehumanitythattheonewhorejectedthisapparentlyreasonablepetition；butitmustbe allowedthathehadgoodreasonsforwhathedid。Thosedegradedandwretchedbeings，insteadofhoardingthesmall surplusoftheirabsolutenecessities，arealmostuniversallyaccustomedtoexpenditinthatabominablespirit，whichtheycall achnaps。Itisincrediblewhatquantitiesofthisperniciousliquoraredrunk，bothbythepeasantmenandwomen。Ihavebeen told，thatawomanwillfrequentlydrinkapint，andevenmore，atasitting，andthattooinnogreatlengthoftime。Ihave myselfoftenseenoneofthesepoorwomenledhomebetweentwomen，sointoxicatedastobeunabletostand。Therecan benoquestion，thattheexcessiveuseofthiswhiskey(wereitnottolibelwhiskeythustostyleit)oughttobeenumerated amongthechiefproximatecausesofthedeficientpopulationofPoland。ItisindeedsoconsideredbythePoles；andthe CountZamoyskihaslatelyestablishedaporterbreweryinGalitzia，inthehopeofcheckingeventuallysohurtfulahabit，bythesubstitutionofthatwholesomebeverage。ThefirsttimeIsawanyofthesewitheredcreatures，wasatDantzic。Iwasprepared，byprintedaccounts，toexpectasight ofsingularwretchedness；butIshrunkinvoluntarilyfromthecontemplationofthereality；andmyfeelingscouldnotbe consoledbytheinstantaneousandinevitablereflection，thatIwastheninaregionwhichcontainsmillionsofmiserable beingsofthedescriptionofthosebeforeme。Someinvoluntaryexclamationofsurprizemixedwithcompassionescapedme。 Athoughtlessandafeelinglessperson(whichareaboutthesamethings)wasstandingby。\"Ohsir!(sayshe)youwillfind plentyofsuchpeopleastheseinPoland；andyoumaystrikethemandkickthem，ordowhatyoupleasewiththem，andthey willneverresistyou；theydarenot。\"Thus，thisgentleman，bythemannerinwhichhespoke，seemedtothinkitasortof privilege，thattheyhadamongthemasetofbeingsonwhomtheymayventwithimpunitytheexuberanceoftheirspite，and gratifyeveryfitfulburstofcapriciouspassion。Farbeitfromme，toascribethefeelingsofthismantothemorecultivated andhumanizedPoles；butsuchincidentalandthoughtlessexpressionsbetraybuttoosensiblythegeneralstateoffeelingwhichexistsinregardtotheseoppressedmen。Somefewoftheboorsarefoundabouteverylargemansion。Theyareemployedbythedomesticsinthemostdirtymenial offices。Thesehaveneveranybeds(howevermean)providedthem；sothatinthesummer-nights，theysleeplikedogs，inany holeorcornertheycanfind，alwayswithoutundressing。Butthewinter\'scolddrivesthemintothehall，wherethey commonlycrouchclosetothestoveswhicharestationedthere。Here，too，severalofthedomesticsspreadtheirpallets，and takeuptheirnight\'sabode。Frequently，asIhaveretiredtomyroomaftersupper，Ihavestumbledoveraboorsleepingat thefootofthestairsacuriousandamelancholyspectacle!toseethesepoorcreatures，inalltheirunmitigatedwretchedness，lodginginthehallsofpalaces!Ingivingordersordirectionsofanysorttothesetorpidbeings，thoughthesentimentofthespeakerbenotdisgracedbythe slightestadmixtureofunkindfeeling，itiscustomarytoaddresstheminacertainsmartandstrikingmanner；asifto stimulatetheirstupidsensesintosufficientactiontoprompttheperformanceofthemostordinaryoffices。Thereisno circumstancemoredeplorableinslaverythanthatdead-palsyofthefaculties，whichbereavesitspossessorevenofthe comfortofhope；orcapacitateshimonlytohopethathemaylivewithouttorment，andmopeouthisexistenceinjoyless apathy!Iftoacontiguouspersonyougiveutterancetoanycompassionatingremark，youarecommonlyansweredwiththe mostindifferentairimaginable，\"Itisverytrue；buttheyareusedtoit；\"somethinginthesameway，Ihavethought，aseels areusedtoskinningalive。