第12章

Ibid。p。84。Theirdietisveryscanty；theyhaverarelyanyanimalfood。Evenattheinns，intheinteriorofPoland，whichare notsituatedinaprettygoodtown，scarcelyanythingistobeprocured。Theirbestthingsaretheirmilkandpoorcheese， weretheyinsufficientabundance；buttheprincipalarticleoftheirdietistheircoarserye-breadabovementioned，andwhichIhavesometimesattemptedinvaintoswallow。Ibid。p。102。TillthereignofCasimirtheGreat，aboutthemiddleofthefourteenthcentury，thePolishnoblesexercisedover theirpeasantstheuncontrouledpoweroflifeanddeath。Nomagistrate，noteventheKinghimself，hadauthoritytopunishor restrainbarbaritieswhichoutragedhumanity。Ifanactofbrutalcrueltywerecommittedbyonegrandeeontheslaveof another，hewasthenliabletobecalledtoanaccountbythepossessor，astheviolatorofhisproperty，notastheperpetrator ofcrime。Thisbarbarouspowerinthenoblesovertheconditionandlivesoftheboors，evenCasimirwasforcedtorecognize intheyear1866。YetCasimirhadasoulwhichfeltfortheirhardlot，andheearnestlyendeavouredtomitigateitsseverity。 Thepeasants，findinghimtheirfriend，wouldoftengotohimwithcomplaintsoftheinjuriestheyreceived。\"What!(sayshewithindignationontheseoccasions)haveyouneitherstonesnorbludgeonswithwhichtodefendyourselves？\"Casimirwasthefirstwhoventuredtoprescribeafineforthemurderofapeasant。And，asithadbeenthecustom，onthe deathofapeasant，forthemastertoseizehistriflingeffects，healsoenacted，thatonhisdeceasehisnextheirshouldinherit； andthatifhismastershouldplunderhim，ordishonourhiswifeordaughter，heshouldbepermittedtoremove whithersoeverhepleased。Heevendecreed，thatapeasantshouldbeprivilegedtobeararmsasasoldier，andbeconsideredasafreeman。Thesehumaneregulations，however，wereillobservedinthesequel；forofwhatavailarelaws，ifauthoritybewantingto enforceobedience？ThereisanancientPolishmaxim，\"Thatnoslavecancarryonanyprocessagainsthismaster；\"andhence thelawregardingtheinheritanceofpropertywasrenderednugatory。Norcouldthefineformurderbeoftenlevied，by reasonoftheaccumulationofevidencerequiredfortheconvictionofanoble。Yettheseweretheonlyattemptstobetterthe conditionoftheboors，tilltheyear1768，whenadecreepassedbywhichthemurderofapeasantwasrenderedacapital crime。Buteventhisenactmentwasameremockeryofjustice:fortoprovethefactofmurder，aconcurrenceof circumstanceswasmadenecessary，whichcouldrarelyhavebeenfoundtoco-exist。Themurdererwas notonlytobetaken inthefact!butthatfactwasrequiredtobeprovedbythetestimonyoftwogentlemen，orfourpeasants!Theseinsignificant edicts，renderedinefficientbythepowerofcustom，werenottheonlyobstaclestotheelevationofthepeasantrytotherank ofmen。Thereexisted，inthePolishlaws，numerousandpositiveordinances，asthoughexpresslydesignedtoperpetuate slavery。Amongthese，themostoppressiveseemstohavebeenthatwhichempoweredthenoblestoerectsummary tribunals，subjecttonoappeals，bywhichtheyinflictedwhateverpenaltiestheythoughtproperondelinquents，orthose whomtheychosetoconsiderasdelinquents。Thepenaltiesforelopementfromtheirvillageswerepeculiarlysevere；whichprovesatoncethegrievousnessoftheiroppression，andtheexistenceoffrequentattemptstoescape。Ibid。p。110。WhoevercastshiseyebutforamomentonthemiserableboorsofPoland，willinstantlyfeel，thatagesmust elapsebeforetheycanberaisedtotherankofcivilizedbeings。Ifmetinthewinter\'ssnow，theyappearlikeherdsofsavage beastsratherthancompaniesofmen；butwiththemelancholydifferenceofbeingtotallydestituteofthatwildactivitywhich characterisessavagenature。Theircoarsemantles；theirshrunkandsqualidforms:theirdirty，mattedhair；theirdull，moping looks，andlifelessmovements；allcombinetoformanimagewhichuickenshumanity，andmakestheheartrecoilevenfromitsownhorridsympathy!Ibid。p。105。Someendeavourshavebeenlikewisemadebyindividualstoabolishtheslaveryoftheboors。Intheyear1760， theChancellorZamoyskienfranchisedsixvillagesinthepalatinateofMasovia。Thisexperimenthasbeenmuchvauntedby Mr。Coxeashavingbeenattendedwithallthegoodeffectsdesired；andheassertsthattheChancellorhad，inconsequence， enfranchisedthepeasantsonallhisestates。Bothoftheseassertionsatefalse。Ienquiredparticularlyoftheson，thepresent CountZamoyski，respectingthosesixvillages，andwasgrievedtolearn，thattheexperimenthadcompletelyfailed。The Countsaid，thatwithinafewyearshehadsoldtheestate，asitwassituatedinthePrussiandivision，withwhichhehadnow noconcern。Headded，Iwasalsogladtogetridofit，fromthetroublethepeasantsgaveme。Thesedegradedbeings，on receivingtheirfreedom，wereoverjoyed，itseems，attheyknewnotwhat。Havingnodistinctcomprehensionofwhat freedommeant，butmerelyarudenotionthattheymaynowdowhattheyliked，theyraninto everyspeciesofexcessand extravagancewhichtheircircumstancesadmitted。Drunkenness，insteadofbeingoccasional，becamealmostperpetual；riot anddisorderusurpedtheplaceofquietnessandindustry；thenecessarylaboursuspended，thelandswereworsecultivated thanbefore；andthesmallrentsrequiredofthemtheywereoftenunabletopay。Yetwhatdoesallthisprove？thatslaveryis betterthanfreedomforalargeportionofmankind？horribleinference!Butitprovesdecisively，whathasbeenoftenproved before，thatwemaybetooprecipitateinourplansofreform；andthatmisguidedbenevolencemayfrequentlydomischief，whileitseeksonlytodiffusegood。Inallinstancesoffailurerelativetotheproposedbenefitofhumanbeings，thegreatdangeris，lestweshouldrelaxinourefforts，andconcludethattobeimpossible，which，infact，ourdeficientwisdomonlyhadpreventedusfromeffecting。Ibid。p。109。ThepresentCountZamoyski，sonofthelateChancellor，innowisedisheartenedbyhisfather\'smiscarriage， continuestomeditateextensiveplansofimprovementrelativetohisownpeasantry。Butheisnowawarethathemust proceedwithcaution，andnotbyattemptingtoomuch，endindoingnothing。Hedesignstoemancipatethewholeofhis vassalsgradually；togivethemslightprivilegesatfirst，andtoencouragethemwiththehopeofmore，onconditionof properconduct。Inshort，hisprincipleistoretainthepowerofrewardandpunishmentcompletelyinhisownhands，thathe maybeabletostimulatetoindustrybythehopeofnewfavours，andtorestrainfrommisconductbythethreatenedforfeiture ofthosealreadyconceded；tilltheirstate，graduallyameliorated，shallrenderitsafetogivethementirefreedom，andtoleavetheirconducttoberegulatedbythegeneraloperationofthelaws。Ibid。p。121。ThecultivationofthesoilinPoland，inthemanneritisthereconducted，isattendedwithlittletroubleand expence；indeed，farlessthanitoughttobe。Wenowhereseemorethanaploughmanwithhisploughandasinglepairof smallbullocks，notbiggerthanEnglishsteers，toproduceafallow。Thereisscarcelysuchathingasmanuretobeseen，andtheproduceisproportionallysmall。Ibid。p。124。Theterritoryofanobleman，theextentofwhichIhadanopportunityofascertainingwithsomeexactness，is aboutfivethousandsquaremiles；whichproducesanincomeofabout100，000ducats，or？0，000。sterling:thisgivesonly？0。ayearforeverytwentysquaremiles。 V。StateofthePoorfromtheConquesttotheReformation，bySirF。M。Eden，Bart。Vol。I——Ofthedomesticcomfortsenjoyed bythegreatbodyofthepeople，intheperiodsimmediatelysubsequenttotheConquest，wemayformatolerableestimate， notwithstandingthegreatdeficiencyofevidencetomarkthemannersofprivatelife，fromconsideringtheinformation affordedusbyhistoriansconcerningtheirpoliticalsituation。Ifweexceptthebaronialproprietorsofland，andtheirvassals thefreetenantsandsocmen，therestofthenation，foralongtimeafterthisera，seemstohavebeeninvolvedinastateof servitude，which，thoughqualifiedastoitseffects，wasuniforminitsprinciple，thatnonewhohadunhappilybeenbornin，orhadfalleninto，bondage，couldacquireanabsoluterighttoanyspeciesofproperty。(1)Thecondition，however，ofthepeople，whowerethus。debarredfromtastingthefirstofsocialblessings，wasnot，inother respects，equallyabjectandmiserable:those，denominatedvilleinsingross，wereattheabsolutedisposaloftheirlord；and weretransferablebydeed，sale，orconveyance，fromoneownertoanother。Theywereprincipallyemployedinmenial servicesaboutthehouse，andweresonumerousastoformaconsiderablebranchofEnglishcommerce。Anauthor，who livedinthereignofHenrytheSecond，informsus，thatsuchanumberofthemwasexported toIreland，thatthemarket therewasabsolutelyglutted；andanotherdeclares，thatfromthereignofKingWilliamtheFirsttothatofKingJohn，there wasscarcelyacottageinScotlandthatdidnotpossessanEnglishslave。Thesewereprobablythecaptivestakeninthe predatoryinroadsontheborders:therecanbelittledoubtbutthattheEnglishretaliatedontheirneighbours，andmade slavesofsuchoftheirScotchprisonersascouldnotpayfortheirransom。Inthevariousaccountsofthemarauding expeditionsofthemoss-troopersofCumberland，menareoftenmentionedastheprincipalpartofthebootytheybroughtback。Villeinsregardantwerethosewhowereannexedtomanors，andboundtoperformthemostservileofficesofagricultural labour，whichwasoriginallyunlimited，bothwithregardtoitsqualityanditsduration。Theyhoweverweresometimes permittedtooccupysmallportionsoflandtosustainthemselvesandtheirfamilies，butwereremovableatthelord\'s pleasure，andwereliabletobesold，withthesoiltowhichtheybelonged；fromwhichtheymightalsoatanytimebesevered。 Ihavemadethisdistinctionbetweenvilleinsingross，andvilleinsregardant，asitislaiddownbyourlawyersandhistorians。 Itmay，however，Ithink，bedoubted，whetherthedifferenceintheirconditionwasmorethannominal。Thevilleinregardant seemstohavebeenoccasionallyemployedasadomestic，aswellasanagriculturalslave:andalthoughhewasgenerally indulgedbyhislordintheuseofafewacresofland，hewasliabletobecalledupontoperformeveryspeciesofwork， howeverpainfulordegrading。Otherranksofmen，equallyservileanddependent，arenoticedinancientrecords；particularly theBordarli，who，inconsiderationoftheirbeingpermittedtooccupyasmallcottage，wereboundtoprovidepoultry，eggs， andotherarticlesofdietforthelord\'stable:andtheCottarii，orCoterelli，whoappeartohavebeenmuchonthesame footingwithvilleinsregardant，being`employedinthetradesofsmith，carpenter，andotherhandicraftartsnecessaryinthe country；inwhichtheyhadbeeninstructedattheexpenceoftheirmasters，andforwhosebenefittheypursuedtheirseveraloccupations。AftertheConquest，variouscausesco-operatednotonlytopreventtheintroductionofanewstock，butalsotoextinguish theancientraceofvilleins。Asitwasthecustomofenslavingcaptivestakeninwar，thatwasprobablythefoundation，and certainlythesupport，formanyages，ofthisnotmoreiniquitousthanimpoliticsystem；soitseemsthatthedisuseofthe ancientpracticeofconvertingcaptivityintoslavery，ledthewaytoitsultimateabolition:and，althoughhistoryissilenton thesubject，Ishouldimagine，that，aftertheintroductionoftheNormanline，noEnglishmancouldbeaslave，unlessbybirth orconfession。Theseweretheonlysourcesofsupply；buttheycontinued，foralongtime，sufficientlycopioustoinvolvethelabouringclassesofthecommunityinabondage，thatwasmarkedbyeveryessentialingredientofslavery。Ibid。p。18。BetweentheConquestandthereignofEdwardtheThird，therearoseamiddleclassofmen，who，although theydidnotimmediatelyacquirethefullpowerofbarteringtheirlabourtothebestbidder，were，yetnotsubjectedtothe imperiouscapricesofamaster，andtheunconditionalservicesofpersonalbondage。Ofthisdescriptionweretheservile tenantsofmanors，who，althoughtheywerepermittedtooccupysmallportionsoflandfortheirownuse，wererequired，at statedperiodsoftheyear，toattendtothecultivationofthedemesnesoftheirlords。PrevioustothereignsofHenrythe Third，andEdwardtheFirst，theyarenotmuchnoticedinancientrecords；butintheperiodimmediatelysubsequent，on everyoccasion，whenitbecameimportantforthelordtoinquireintothestateofhismanorsandtheirappendages，thevalue ofhisarableandpastureland，thenumberofhisparks，hisfish-ponds，hismills，andhismansion-houses，werenotmore minutelyinvestigated，thanthenumberandconditionofhisserviletenants，andtheextentandnatureoftheservicesthey wereboundtoperform。Itwasextremelyessential forhimtoascertainwhetherthatpartofhisestate，whichheretainedin hisownhands，couldbecultivatedwithouttheinterventionoffreelabourers:andhencewemayseethenecessity，whya baron，onacquiringafee，eitherbypurchaseorinheritance，andtheking\'sescheators，onaforfeitureaccruingtothecrown， seldomfailedtoobtainfullinformationrelativetomanorialrights，bymeansofaninquisition，composed，inthelatterinstance，offreeholdersofthecounty，andintheformer，mostusually，oftheprincipaltenantsofthemanor。Itisfromtheinqueststhustaken，thatwecan，perhaps，obtainthebestpossibleevidencerelativetotheancientstateof agricultureinEngland。Theyoftendescribe，veryparticularly，thequantityofarable，ofpasture，andofmeadowinamanor； thetimesatwhichthevariousoperationsofhusbandrywerecarriedon；thedutyofagriculturalservants；theirdiet；the customsinharvest；andmanyotherparticularshighlyillustrativeoftheruraleconomyofancienttimes。Fromsuchrecords， itappears，that，beforethereignofEdwardtheFirst，theconditionofvilleinswasgreatlymeliorated；andthat，insteadof beingobligedtoperformeverymeanandservileoffice，thatthearbitrarywillofthelordrequired，theyhad，atlength， acquiredatenureinlands，onoondltionofrenderingservices，whichwereeithercertainintheirnatureastoreapthelord\'s corn，orcleansehisfish-pond；orlimitedintheirdurationastoharrowtwodaysintheyear，ortoemploythreedaysincartingthelord\'stimber。Atenantbyvillenage，thuscircumstanced，wasnolongeravillein。Hewasindeedboundtoperformcertainstipulatedwork forhislord，generallyatsowing-timeandharvest，theonlyseasonswhich，intherudestateofagriculture，weremuch attendedto:but，atothertimesoftheyear，hewasatlibertytoexercisehisindustryforhisownbenefit。Asearlyastheyear 1257，aserviletenant，ifemployedbeforeMidsummer，receivedwages:andinEdwardtheFirst\'sreign，hewaspermitted， insteadofworkinghimself，toprovidealabourerforthelord；fromwhichitisobvious，thathemusthavesometimes possessedthemeansofhiringone:and，asitisnotnaturaltosuppose，thatatenantbyvillenagehadanypowerofhiringthe purevillein，(who，wehaveseen，wasannexedeithertotheland，orthepersonofhislord，)labourers，whowerethushired byservilecultivators，itisprobable，wereeithertenantsbyvillenage，whocouldassisttheirneighboursonthesparedays，in whichtheywerenotboundtoworkfortheirlord；orfreelabourers，whoexisted(althoughperhapsnotingreatnumbers)longbeforetheparliamentarynoticetakenofthemintheStatuteofLabourers，passedin1350。TreatyseonSurveyinge(saidtohavebeen\"compyledsometyrnebyMasterFitzherbarde，\"\'p。49ofreprint)。SirAnthony FitzherbertlivedinthereignofHenrytheEighth。ThisTreatiseonSurveyingisassignedtohimonstrongevidence，and clearlyitwaspublishedin1523，abouthistime；itshewsthateventhen，barelymorethan300yearsago，therewerepredialslavesinEnglandinsufficientnumberstoformamarkedfeatureinthecompositionofthecommunity。Iteminquirendumestdecustomariisvidelicetquotsuntcustomariietquantumterrequilibetcustomariusteneat，quas operationes，etquasconsuetudinesfacit，etquantumvalentoperaetconsuetudinescuiuslibetcustomariiperseannum，et quantumredditumderedditu。assiseperannumpreteroperaetconsuetudines，etquipossunttalliariadvoluntatemdominietquinon。Itistobeinqueredofcustomarytenantes，thatistowytte，howemanytherebe，andhowmochlandeverytenauntholdeth， andwhatwerkesandcustomshodoth，andwhatthewerkesandcustomsbeworthofeverytenauntbyitself，andhow mocherentbytheyeare，abovehiswerkesandcustomeshedothpay，andwhichofthemmaytaxetheirlandesatthewyllof thelordeandwhichenat。Customaryetenauntesarethosethatholdtheyrlandesoftheirlordbycopyeofcourterole，after thecustomeofthemanour。Andtheremaybemanytenaunteswithinthesamemanor，thathavenocopies，andyetholdeby lykecustomeandseruyceatthewyllofthelorde。Andinmyneopinionitbegansooneaftertheconquest，whenWilliam conquerourhadconqueredtherealme，herewardedallthosethatcamewithhym，inhisviageroyall，accordingtotheir degree。Andtohonourablemenhegavelordshyppes，maners，landes，andtenementes，withalltheinhabytantes，menandwomendwellynginthesatne，todowiththemattheirpleasure。Andthosehonourablementhought，thattheymustneedeshaveservantesandtenantes，andtheyrlandesoccupyedwith tyllage。Whereforetheypardonedtheinhabytantesoftheirlyues，andcausedthemtodoalmanerofservyce，thatwastobe done，wereitneversowyle，andcausedthemtooccupietheirlandesandtenementesintyliage，andtokeofthemsuche rentescustomesandservices，asitpleasedthemtohave。Andalsotookalltheirgoodesandcattellatalltymisattheir plesure，andcalledthemtheirbondmen，andsythethattymemanynoblemenbothspirituallandtemporall，oftheirgodly dispositionhavemadetodiversofthesaidbondmenmanumissions，andgrantedthemfreedomandlibertie，andsettothem theirlandesandtenementestooccupyafterdyversmanerofrentes，customesandservyces，thewhicheisusedindyuers placesuntothisday。Howebeitinsomeplaces，theboundmencontynueasyet，thewhichmesemethisthegreatest Inconueniencethatnowissufferedbythelawe，thatistohaueanychristenmanboundentoanother，andtohauetheruleof hisbody，landesandgoodesthathiswife，children，andseruanteshauelabouredforalltheyrlyfetymetobesotaken，likeas anditwereextorcionorbribery。Andmanytymesbycoulourthereof，therebemanyfreementakenasbondmen，andtheir landes，andgoodestakenfromthem，sothattheyshallnotbeabletosueforremedy，toprouethemselfefreofblode。And thatismostecommonlywherethefreemenhavethesamenameasthebondemen，orthathisauncesters，ofwhomeheis comen，wasmanumysedbeforehisbyrthe。Insuchcasetherecannatbetogreatapunyshment。Forasmesemeth，there shuldebenomanbounde，buttoGod，andtohiskynge，andprinceouerhym:Quiadeusnonfacitexceptionempersonarum， forGodmakethnoexceptionofanyperson。Whereforeitwereacharitablededetoeuerynoblemanbothspirituall，and temporall，todoastheywoldebedoneby，andthatistomanumysethemthatbebond，andtomakethemfreofbodyand blode，reseruingtothemtheyrrentes，customes，andseruicesofoldetymedueandaccustomed，whereintheymaygettheprayersofthepartie，andremyssionoftheyroffences，asinthegospell。Eademmesura，quametiti，fueritis，metieturvobis。TheLatinwordswhichheadthisextract，arepartofastatuteofEdwardtheFirst；butFitzherbert，ortheauthor，behewho hemay，doesnotmentioninhiscommentthatanypartofitrelatestoobsoleteusagesorlaws。Donotthereforethewords etquipossunttalliariadvoluntaterndominietquinonindicatethatthisclassoftenaritryweretallagedortaxedbythosein whoseestatetheylived，tilltheirracebecameextinct？ VI。Mü；llertreat，thePeriaeciastributarycommunities，asasortofinferiorallies，anddeniesthattheirconditionever approachedthatofindividualpersonaldependence:theircondition，hesays，\"neverhadtheslightestresemblancetothatof bondage，\"(seeTuffnellandLewis，p。30)。Itstrikesme，asitseemstohavedoneGaettling，(seehisAristotle；p。465。)thatif thisismeanttoapplytotheGrecianPeriaecigenerally，itisgoingrathertoofar。ThePeriaeciappeartohavebeenevery wherenativesreducedbyforeigninvaderstoastateofsubjectionlessservileinsomedistrictsthaninothers，butverylike bondageinmany。Aristotlemusthaveseentheminsuchastatewhenheintimatesthattheymayverywelloccupytheplace ofthe，heprefersascultivators。Seenotetopage80oftext。SeetooGaettling\'sAristotle，p。473。\"Urbsquaovis autemCretensiumsuoshabebatPericecosindigenasquidemsedbellovictos，quiagrumceteriscolebant:nectamenanususutilicuitnecgymnasiis。IdexinstitutioneMinoissupererat，utauctorestAristoteles。\"Gaettlingontheotherhandisofopinionsthatthisclassofpeople，neitherslavesorfreemen，butinvestedwithsomethingof anintermediatecharacter，existedintheDorianstatesalone；andhesaysdistinctlythattheywerenottobefoundamongthe Ionians，seeArist。Pol。byGaettling，p。464。\"Fundataeratautemhaecdoricaconstitutioduabusmaximerebus:diverso moderataemultitudinisjureetmagistratuumdescriptadignitate。NamquumcivitatesIonicaeoriginisnomisiliberos novissentetservosquicivitatemconstituerent，apudDoriensesmediumquoddamgenusinterliberos(Spartanos)etservos (Helotes)reperiebatur，Pesiaecorumnomineinsignitum\"Surelythisisamistake，andonewhichwouldleadtoconsiderable misapprehensionastothemodeinwhichtheearlycommunitiesofGreece，TonianaswellasDorian，wereoriginally constituted。Whereveraconquesttookplace，thereaclasswasestablishedundersomenameorother，consistingofthe conquerednatives，andrankingneitherascitizensorslaves。SuchaclassexistedaswehaveseenamongtheIonian inhabitantsofAttica。Thefactseemstobe，thatalthoughthisorderinthestatemaybetracedalmosteverywhereinGreece， stillitwasintheDorianstatesalonethatitspresenceandfunctionswerenecessarytosupporttheverypeculiarinstitutions establishedbytheconquerors。Elsewhereitmightdisappearorbetransformed，asinAttica，withouttheevent\'saffectingthe constitutionofthestate。 VII。TravelsinFrance，byArthurYoung，Esq。Vol。II。p。151。ThepredominantfeatureinthefarmsofPiedmontismetayers， nearlyuponthesamesystemwhichIhavedescribedandcondemned，intreatingofthehusbandryofFrance。Thelandlord commonlypaysthetaxesandrepairsthebuildings，andthetenantprovidescattle，implements，andseed；theydividethe produce。Whereverthissystemprevails，itmaybetakenforgrantedthatauselessandmiserablepopulationisfound。The povertyofthefarmersistheoriginofit；theycannotstockthefarms，paytaxes，andrentinmoney，and，therefore，must dividetheproduceinordertodividetheburthen。Thereisreasontobelievethatthiswasentirelythesystemineverypartof Europe；itisgraduallygoingouteverywhere；andinPiedmontisgivingwaytogreatfarms，whoseoccupierspayamoney rent。IwasforsometimedeceivedingoingfromNicetoTurin，andbelievedthatmoreofthefarmswerelargerthanisreally thecase，whichresultedfrommanysmallonesbeingcollectedintoonehome-stead。ThatbelongingtothePrinceof Carignan，atBiliaBruna，hastheappearanceofbeingveryconsiderable；but，oninquiry，Ifounditinthehandsofseven familiesofmetayers。Inthemountains，fromNicetoRacconis，however，theyaresmall；butmanyproperties，asinthemountainsofFranceandSpain。TheCaval。deCapra，memberoftheAgrarianSociety，assuredme，thattheunionoffarmswastheruinofPiedmont，andthe effectofluxury；thatthemetayersweredismissedanddrivenaway，andthefieldseverywheredepopulated。Idemanded howthecountrycametohavetheappearanceofimmensecultivation，andlookedratherlikeagardenthanafarm，allthe wayfromConi？Hereplied，thatIshouldseethingsotherwiseinpassingtoMilan:thatthericeculturewassupportedby greatfarms，andthatlargetractsofcountrywerereducedtoadesert。Aretheythenuncultivated？No；theyareverywell cultivated；butthepeopleallgone，orbecomemiserable。Wehearthesamestoryineverycountrythatisimproving:while theproduceiseatenupbyasuperfluityofidlehands，thereispopulationonthespot；butitisuselesspopulation:the improvementbanishesthesedronestotowns， wheretheybecomeusefulintradeandmanufactures，andyieldamarketto thatland，towhichtheywerebeforeonlyaburthen。Nocountrycanbereallyflourishingunlessthistakeplace；norcanthere beanywhereaflourishingandwealthyraceoffarmers，abletogivemoneyrents，butbythedestructionofmetaying。Does anyoneimaginethatEngland`wouldbemorerichandmorepopulousifherfarmerswereturnedintometayers？Ridiculous。 TheintendantofBissattiaddedanotherargumentagainstgreatfarms；namely，thatoftheirbeinglaidtograssmorethan smallones；surelythisisaleadingcircumstanceintheirfavour；forgrassisthelastand。greatestimprovementofPiedmont； andthatarrangementofthesoilwhichoccasionsmosttobeingrass，isthemostbeneficial。Theirmeadowsareamongstthe finestandmostproductiveintheworld。Whatistheirarable？Ityieldscropsoffiveorsixtimestheseedonly。Tochange suchambletosuchgrass，is，doubtless，thehighestdegreeofimprovement。ViewFranceandhermetayersViewEnglandandherfarmers；andthendrawyourconclusions。Whereverthecountry(thatIsaw)ispoorandunwatered，intheMilanese，itisinthehandsofmetayers。AtMozzatathe CountdeCastiglionishewedmetherentbookhisintendant(steward)keeps，anditisacuriousexplanationofthesystem whichprevails。InsomehundredpagesIsawveryfewnameswithoutalargebalanceofdebtduetohim，andbroughtfrom thebookoftheprecedingyear:theypaybysomanymoggiiofallthedifferentgrains，atthepriceoftheyear:somany headsofpoultry；somuchlabour；somuchhay；andsomuchstraw，&；c。Butthereis，inmostoftheiraccounts，onthe debtor\'sside，avarietyofarticles，besidethoseofregularrent:somuchcorn，ofallsorts，borrowedofthelandlord，forseed orfood，whenthepoormanhasnone:thesamethingiscommoninFrance，wherevermetayingtakesplace。Allthisproves theextremepoverty，andevenmisery，oftheselittlefarmers；andshews，thattheirconditionismorewretchedthanthatofa daylabourer。Theyaremuchtoonumerous；threebeingcalculatedtoliveononehundredpertichi，andallfullyemployedby labouring，andcroppingthelandincessantlywiththespade，foraproduceunequaltothepaymentofanythingtothelandlord，afterfeedingthemselvesandtheircattleastheyoughttobefed；hencetheuniversaldistressofthecountry。Ibid。p。155。EstatesinBolognaareverygenerallylettomiddlemen，whore-letthemtothefarmersathalfproduce，by whichmeanstheproprietorreceiveslittlemorethanonehalfofwhathemightdoonabettersystem，withapeasantryina bettersituation。Thewholecountryisathalfproduce；thefarmersuppliesimplements，cattle，andsheep，andhalftheseed；theproprietorrepairs。Ibid。pp。155-56——Lettinglands，atmoneyrent，isbutnewinTuscany；anditisstrangetosay，thatSig。Paoletti，avery practicalwriter，declaresagainstit。AfarminTuscanyiscalledapodere:andsuchanumberofthemasareplacedunderthe managementofafactor，iscalledfattoria。Hisbusinessistoseethatthelandsaremanagedaccordingtothelease，andthat thelandlordhashisfairhalf。Thesefarmsarenotoftenlargerthanforapairofoxen，andeighttotwelvepeopleinone house；some100pertichi(thismeasureistotheacre，asabout25to38)，andtwopairofoxen，withtwentypeople。Iwas assuredthatthesemetayersare(especiallynearFlorence)muchattheirease；thatonholydaystheyaredressedremarkably well，andnotwithoutobjectsofluxury，assilver，gold，andsilk；andlivewell，onplentyofbread，wine，andlegumes。In someinstancesthismaypossiblybethecase，butthegeneralfactiscontrary。Itisabsurdtothinkthatmetayers，uponsucha farmasiscultivatedbyapairofoxen，canbeattheirease；andaclearproofoftheirpovertyisthis，thatthelandlord，who provideshalfthelivestock，isoftenobligedtolendthepeasantmoneytoenablehimtoprocurehishalf；buttheyhirefarms withverylittlemoney，whichistheoldstoryofFrance，&；c。；andindeedpovertyandmiserableagriculturearethesure attendantsuponthiswayoflettingland。Themetayers，notinthevicinityofthecity，aresopoor，thatlandlordsevenlend themcorntoeat:theirfoodisblackbread，madeofamixturewithvetches；andtheirdrinkisverylittlewine，mixedwithwater，andcalledaquarolle；meatonSundaysonly；theirdressveryordinary。Ibid。p。157。InthemountainsofModenatherearemanypeasantproprietors，butnotintheplain。Agreatevilhere，asin otherpartsofLombardy，isthepracticeofthegreatlords，andthepossessorsoflandsinmortmainlettingtomiddlemen，whore-lettometayers；underwhichtenureareallthelandsofthedutchy。Ibid。p。158——AppearancesfromReggiotoParmaaremuchinferiortothosefromModenatoReggio；thefencesnotso neat；northehousessowellbuilt，white，orclean。Allheremetayers；theproprietorsuppliesthecattle，halftheseed，and paysthetaxes；thepeasantprovidestheutensils。InthewholedutchiesofParmaandPiacenza，andindeedalmostevery whereelse，thefarmsmustbeverysmall；thepracticesIhaveelsewherenoted，ofthediggingthe，landforbeans，and workingitupwithasuperfluityoflabour，evidentlyshewit:theswarmsofpeopleinallthemarketsannouncethesamefact； atPiacenza，Isawmen，whoseonlybusinesswastobringasmallbagofapples，aboutapeck；onemanbroughtaturkey，andnotafineone。Whatawasteoftimeandlabour，forastoutfellowtobethusemployed。TravelsinSwitzerland，byW。Coxe，Vol。III。p。Anothercauseoftheirwretchednessproceedsfromthepresentstateof property。Fewofthepeasantsarelandholders；asfromthecontinualoppressionunderwhichthepeoplehavegroanedfor abovethesetwolastcenturies，thefreeholdshavegraduallyfallenintothehandsofthenoblesandGrisons，thelatterof whomaresupposedtopossesshalftheestatesintheValteline。Thetenantswhotakefarmsdonotpaytheirrentinmoney， butinkind；astrongproofofgeneralpoverty。Thepeasantisatallthecostsofcultivation，anddeliversnearhalftheproduce tothelandholder。Theremainingportionwouldillcompensatehislabourandexpence，ifhewasnotinsomemeasure befriendedbythefertilityofthesoil。Thegroundseldomliesfallow，andtherichestpartsofthevalleyproducetwocrops。 Thefirstcropiswheat，rye，orspelt，halfofwhichisdeliveredtotheproprietor；thesecondcropisgenerallymillet， buck-wheat，maize，orTurkeycorn，whichistheprincipalnourishmentofthecommonpeople:thechiefpartofthiscrop belongstothepeasant，andenableshiminaplentifulyeartosupporthisfamilywithsomedegreeofcomfort。Thepeasants whoinhabitthedistrictswhichyieldwinearethemostwretched:forthetroubleandchargeofrearingthevines，of gatheringandpressingthegrapes，isveryconsiderable；andtheyaresoveryapttoconsumetheshareofliquorallottedto theminintoxication，that，wereitnotforthegrainintermixedwiththevines，theyandtheirfamilieswouldbeleftalmostentirelydestituteofsubsistence。Besidesthebusinessofagriculture，someofthepeasantsattendtothecultivationofsilk。Forthispurposetheyreceivethe eggsfromthelandholder，rearthesilkworm；andareentitledtohalfthesilk。Thisemploymentisnotunprofitable；for althoughtherearingofthesilkwormsisattendedwithmuchtrouble，andrequiresgreatcaution，yetastheoccupationisgenerallyentrustedtothewomen，itdoesnottakethemenfromtheirwork。Withalltheadvantages，however，derivedfromthefertilityofthesoil，andthevarietyofitsproductions，thepeasants cannot，withouttheutmostdifficulty，andaconstantexertion，maintaintheirfamilies；andtheyarealwaysreducedtothegreatestdistress，whenevertheseasonisunfavourabletoagriculture。Tothecausesofpenuryamongthelowerclassesaboveenumerated，maybeaddedthenaturalindolenceofthepeople，and theirtendencytosuperstitionwhichtakesthemfromtheirlabour。Uponthewhole，Ihavenot，inthecourseofmytravels， seenanypeasantry，exceptinPoland，socomfortlessastheinferiorinhabitantsofthisvalley。Theyenjoyindeedonegreat advantageoverthePoles，innotbeingtheabsolutepropertyofthelandholder，andtransferable，likecattle。Theyare thereforeatlibertytolivewheretheychuse，toquittheircountry，andseekabetterconditioninotherregions；arelieftowhichdistressoftencompelsthemtohaverecourse。Ibid。p。143——Thecottagesofthepeasants，whicharebuiltofstone，arelarge，butgloomy，generallywithoutglasswindows: Ienteredseveral，andwaseverywheredisgustedwithanuniformappearanceofdirtandpoverty。Thepeasantsaremostly coveredwithrags，andthechildrenhaveusuallyanunhealthylook，whicharisesfromtheirwretchedmannerofliving。Such ascarcityofprovisionshasbeenoccasionedbylastyear\'sdrought，thatthepoorinhabitantshavebeenreducedtothemost extremenecessity。Thepriceofbreadwasunavoidablyraisedsohigh，thatinmanypartsthepeasantscouldnotpurchaseit； andtheironlyfoodwasforsometimeakindofpaste，madebypoundingthehullsandstonesofthegrapeswhichhadbeen pressedforwine，andmixingitwithalittlemeal。Famine，addedtotheiroppressedsituation，reducedtheinhabitantstothelowestconditionofhumanmisery，andnumbersperishedfromabsolutewant。Gilly\'sNarrativeandResearchesamongtheVaudois，&；c。p。129。Theothercottagesweenteredwereofaveryinferior order，andhadbutfewofthoselittlecomforts，withwhichinEnglandwedesiretoseethepoorestsupplied，anditwasquite astonishingtocomparetheveryrudeandinsufficientaccommodationsofthesepeople，withtheircivilityandinformation。In theirmodeofliving，orImightalmostsay，herdingtogether，underaroof，whichisbarelyweatherproof，theyarefarbehind ourownpeasantry，butinmentaladvancementtheyarejustasfarbeyondthem。Mostofthemhaveafewroodsofland， whichtheycancalltheirownproperty，varyinginextent，fromaboutaquarterofanacreandupwards，andtheyhavethemeansofprovidingthemselveswithfuel，fromtheabundanceofwooduponthemountains。Thetenure，uponwhichlandishired，requiresthattheoccupiershouldpaytotheproprietorhalftheproduceofcornand wineinkind，andhalfthevalueofthehay。Theindifferentcorn-landyieldsaboutfivefold，andthebesttwelvefold。They seldomsufferthegroundtoliefallow，andthemostgeneralcourseis，wheatfortwoyears。andmaizethethird。Thelandis wellmanuredfromtimetotime，andthecornisusuallysowninAugustorSeptember，andcutinJune。InthevaleofSanGiovanni，andinafewotherproductivespots，hayiscutthreetimesintheyear。Ibid。p。128。Onacratesuspendedfromtheceiling，wecountedfourteenlargeblacicloaves，Breadisanunusualluxury amongthem，buttheownerofthiscottagewasofaconditionsomethingabovethegenerality。 VIII。NoteonRyotRents。Cal。Tod\'sservicesinRajast\'hanweremostdistinguished。Hiselaborateworkisavaluablecontributiontotheliteratureof hiscountry。HadIfoundthatthefactscollectedbysuchapersonreallycontradictedtheopinionsIhavearrivedat(in common，however，withthemajorityofthosewhohaveconsideredthesubject)，Ishouldhavebeenmostreadytohave re-examinedthoseopinions，andperhapstohaveabandonedthem。ButtheconclusionswhichCol。Todhasdrawnfromhis facts，seemtometorequireconsiderablemodificationbeforetheycanbereconciledwiththepastandpresentconditionof therestofIndia，orindeedofRajast\'hanitselfashedepictsit。TheColonelthinks，thattherelationsbetweentheprincesof Rajast\'hanandtheirnoblesaresimilartothosewhichexisted，betweenthefeudalnobilityofEuropeandtheirsovereigns； andthattheryotshaveaninterestinthesoil，whichhecallsafreeholdinterest:andthishemagnifiesanddwellson，withallthepartialityofaman，whofeelsagoodnaturedpleasureinexaltingtheinstitutionsofhisfavoriteRajpoots。Thequestiontobediscussedis，whetherthereisanythinginthefactsproducedbyCol。Todorothers，tocontradictthe notionadoptedinthetext，thatthesoilofIndiabelongstothesovereignandtothesovereignalone，andthattheoccupiers havenever，practically，anyothercharacterthanthatofhistenantry，exceptinsonicsmalldistricts，whichform acknowledgedexceptionstoageneralrule。Themereexistenceofafeudalnobility，sofarfrombeinginconsistentwiththe proprietaryrightofthesovereign，stronglyconfirmsit。Itistheoneessentialcharacteristicofafeudalsystem，thattheland shouldbegrantedbythesovereign，andoncertainconditions。InEuropetherightofresumptionslidoutofthehandsofthe monarchsbyimperceptibledegrees。InRajast\'hanithasneverescapedthematall。Onlyacenturyandahalf\'ago，so miserablyunstablewastheclaimofsubjectnobleseventothetemporarypossessionofanyparticularspot，thattheywerein thehabitofchangingtheirlandseverythreeyears。\"SolateasthereignofManaSingram(10generationsago，)thefiefsof Mewarwereactuallymoveable，andlittlemorethanacenturyandahalfhaspassedsincethispracticeceased。Thus，a Rahtorewouldshiftwithfamily，chattelsandretainers， fromthenorthintothewildsofChuppun，whiletheSuktawut， relieved，wouldoccupytheplainsatthefootoftheAravulli，oraChondawutwouldexchangehisabodeonthebanksofthe ChumbulwithaPramaraorChohanfromtheTableMountain，theeasternboundaryofMewar。\"Suchchanges\"(Mr。Tod saysinanote，)\"weretriennial，andasIhaveheardthePrincehimselfsay，sointerwovenwiththeircustomswasthisrule， thatitcausednodissatisfaction:butofthiswemaybeallowedatleasttodoubt。Itwasaperfectchecktotheimbibingof localattachment；andtheprohibitionagainsterectingfortsforrefugeordefiance，preventeditsgrowthifacquired。Itproducedtheobjectintended，obediencetothePrince，andunityagainsttherestlessMogul\"。Tod\'sRajast\'han，p。164。Evennowtheirrightsremainmuchonthesamefooting。InEurope，thenecessityofadmissionbythesovereign，thefine paidbytheheir，andtherenewalofhomageandfealty，keptalivetherecollectionatleast，ofthepastrightsofthesovereign。 InRajast\'han，anactualresumptiontakesplacebytheRajahonthedeathofeverychief:andisconductedinsuchamanner， asveryimpressivelytoexhibittheexistingclaimsofthemonarch，andtheentire(legal)dependenceofallderivativeinterests onhiswill。\"Onthedemiseofachief，theprinceimmediatelysendsaparty，termedthezubti(sequestrator)，consistingofa civilofficerandafewsoldiers，whotakepossessionofthestate(quere，estate)intheprince\'sname。Theheirsendshis prayertocourttobeinstalledintheproperty，offeringtheproperrelief。Thispaid，thechiefisinvitedtorepairtothe presence，whenheperformshomage，andmakesprotestationsofserviceandfealty；hereceivesafreshgrant，andthe inaugurationterminatesbytheprincegirdinghimwithasword，intheoldformsofchivalry。Itisanimposingceremony， performedinafullassemblyofthecourt，andoneofthefewwhichhasneverbeenrelinquished。Thefinepaid，andthebrand buckledtohisside，asteed，turban，plume，anddressofhonourgiventothechief，theinvestitureiscomplete；the sequestratorreturnstocourt，andthechieftohisestate，toreceivethevowsandcongratulationsofhisvassals。\"Tod\'sRajast\'han，p。158。Aftertheseextracts，itcanhardlybenecessarytostate，thatthedoctrineastotheproprietaryrightsof thesovereignisnotweakenedbythe`conditionofthenobleRajpoots。Itwouldbeacurioussubject，werethistheplacefor it，totracethepeculiarcauseswhichhaveledthesovereignsofRajast\'han，todelegate，inagreatmeasure，themilitary defenceoftheirfrontierstochieftainssonearlyresemblingourfeudalbarons。Thosecausesmaybepartiallydiscernedinthe tiesofbloodwhichconnectthesovereignandchiefswiththeirtribesinthemountainouscharacteroftheirfortressesintheir beingconstantlyliabletohostileincursionsandintheiralmostperpetualstateofdefensivewar。Weshould，Ithink，after fairlyexaminingthecausesandresultsoftheRajpootsystem，findmuchmorereasontowonder，thattherightsofthe sovereigntothesoilhavenotoftenergeneratedsuchasystem，thantoconcludefromitsexistenceinRajast\'hanthattherearenosuchproprietaryrights。Icannotquitthefeudalpartofthequestion，withoutwarmlyrecommendingCol。Tod\'sbooktothegeneralreader，andto thestudentofhistory，andofman。Thesystemofmodifieddependenceonthechiefformilitaryservices，asestablishedin thispartofIndia，hasproducedaresemblancetothestateofEuropeatacertainperiodoftheprogressoffeuds，whichis moststriking，interestingand，instructive。ThatresemblancemaybetracedinthetenuresandlawsoftheRajpootsinthe mixedpoliticalresultsofthesebothgoodandevilandinthemoral，andwemayalmostsaypoeticalcharacteristicsofthe populationinthedeepandenthusiasticfeelingwhichaccompanytheirnotionsoffealtyintheemulouscourage，the desperatefidelityofthenoblesandinmanyloftyandromantictraitsofmannersworthytohavesprungoutofthevery bosomofchivalry，andextendingtheirinfluencetothedark beautiesoftheZenana，aswellastotheirwarriorkindred。High borndamesindistress，stillthere，astheyoncedidinEurope，sendtheirtokenstoselectedchampions，whowhether investedwithsovereignpower，oroccupyingalessdistinguishedstation，areequallyboundtospeedtotheiraid，underthe penaltyofbeingstigmatizedforeverascravensanddishonored。Col。Tod，himself，canboastanhonor(welldeservedby zealousdevotionanddisinterestedservices，)whichmanyapreuxchevalierwouldhavejoyfullydaredathousanddeathsto obtain，thatofbeingthechosenfriendandchampionofmorethanoneprincess，whoseregal，andindeedcelestial，descentsmakethelongestgenealogiesofEuropelookmean。ThenextquestionarisingoutofCol。Tod\'sbookisthis。AretheryotsinRajast\'hanpractically，asheconceivesthemtobe， freeholdersinanysenseinwhichanEnglishproprietoriscalledthefreeholderofthelandheowns？Ibeganinthetextby remarking，thattheryothasverygenerallyarecognizedrighttothehereditaryoccupationofhisplotofground，whilehe paystherentdemandedofhim:andthequestionis，whetherthatrightinRajast\'hanpracticallyamountstoaproprietary rightornot。Nowadistinctionbeforesuggestedinthetext，seemstoaffordtheonlyrealcriterionwhichcanenableusto determinethisquestionfairly。Istheryotatrack-rent？hashe，orhashenot，abeneficialinterestinthesoil？canheobtain moneyforthatinterestbysale？canhemakealandlord\'srentofit？Togiveacultivatoranhereditaryinterestatavariable rack-rent，andthentocallhisrighttotill，afreeholdright，wouldclearlybelittlebetterthanmockery。Tosubjectsucha persontothepaymentofmorethanarack-rent，toleavehimnoadequateremunerationforhispersonaltoil，andstilltocall himafreeholdproprietor，wouldbesomethingmorebitterthanmeremockery。Toestablishbylaw，andenforcecruellyin practice，finesandpunishmentstoavengehisrunningawayfromhisfreehold，andrefusingtocultivateitforthebenefitof hishardtaskmaster，wouldbetoconverthimintoapredialslave:andthis，althoughaverynaturalconsequenceofthemodeofestablishingsuchfreeholdrightswouldmakethenamesofproprietorandowneralmostridiculous。Theuseofthecriterionherepointedout，ismadeverypalpablebySirT。Munroina\"MinuteontheStateoftheCountry andontheConditionofthePeople，\"datedthe31stofDecember，1824。\"Hadthepublicassessment，aspretended，ever been，asinthebooksoftheirsages，onlyasixthorafifth，orevenonlyafourthofthegrossproduce，thepaymentofafixed shareinkind，andalltheexpensivemachineryrequisiteforitssupervision，nevercouldhavebeenwanted。Thesimpleplanof amoneyassessmentmighthavebeenatonceresortedto，inthefullconfidencethattherevenuewouldeveryyear，ingood orbadseasons，beeasilyandpunctuallypaid。NopersonwhoknowsanythingofIndiarevenuecanbelievethattheRayet，if hisfixedassessmentwereonlyafifthorafourthofthegrossproduce，wouldnoteveryyear，whethertheseasonweregood orbad，payitwithoutdifficulty；andnotonlydothis，butprosperunderitbeyondwhathehaseverdoneatanyformer period。Hadsuchamoderateassessmenteverbeenestablished，itwouldundoubtedlyhavebeenpaidinmoney，because therewouldhavebeeunoreasonforcontinuingtheexpensiveprocessofmakingcollectionsinkind。Itwasbecausethe assessmentwasnotmoderate，thatassessmentsinkindwereintroducedorcontinued:foramoneyrentequivalenttothe amountcouldnothavebeenrealizedoneyearwithanother。TheHindooGovernmentsseemtohaveoftenwishedthatland shouldbebothanhereditaryandasaleableproperty；buttheycouldnotbringthemselvestoadopttheonlypracticablemodeofejectingit，alowassessment。LifeofMunro，Vol。III。p。881。Ibid。p。886。\"Rayetssometimeshavealandlord\'srent；foritisevidentthatwhenevertheysofarimprovetheirlandasto derivefromitmorethantheordinaryprofitofstock，theexcessislandlord\'srent；buttheyareneversureoflongenjoying thisadvantage，astheyareconstantlyliabletobedeprivedofitbyinjudiciousoverassessment。Whilethisstateofinsecurity exists，nobodyofsubstantiallandholderscaneverarise；norcanthecountryimprove，ortherevenuerestonanysolid foundation。Inordertomakethelandgenerallysaleable，toencouragetheRayetstoimproveit，andtoregarditasa permanenthereditaryproperty，theassessmentmustbefixed，andmoremoderateingeneralthanitnowis；andaboveall，soclearlydefinedasnottobeliabletoincreasefromignoranceorcaprice。\"Ibid。p。839。\"ThelandoftheBaramahlwillprobablyintimeallbecomesaleable，evenunderitspresentassessment；but privatelandedpropertyisofslowgrowthincountrieswhereithasnotpreviouslyexisted，andwheretheGovernment revenueisnearlyhalftheproduce；andwemustnotexpectthatitcanbehastenedbyregulationsorformsofsettlement，or byanyotherwaythanbyadheringsteadilytoalimitedassessment，andloweringitwherever，afterfullexperience，itmay stillinparticularplacesbefoundtoohigh。Bypursuingthiscourse，or，inotherwords，byfollowingwhatisnowcalledthe Rayetwarsystem，weshallseenosuddenchangeorimprovement。Theprogressoflandedpropertywillbeslow，butwemaylookwithconfidencetoitsultimateandgeneralestablishment。Ibid。p。344。\"IfwewishtomakethelandsoftheRayetsyieldthemalandlord\'srent，wehaveonlytolowerandfixthe assessment，allthenintimehavethegreatbodyoftheRayetspossessinglandedproperties，yieldingalandlord\'srent，butsmallinextent。\"Ibid。p。352。\"ItmaybesaidthatGovernmenthavingsetalimituponitsdemandupontheZemindar，hewillalsosetalimit tohisdemandupontheRayet，andleavehimthefullproduceofeveryimprovement，andthusenablehimtorenderhisland avaluableproperty。Butwehavenoreasontosupposethatthiswillbethecase，eitherfromthepracticeofthenew Zemindarsduringthetwentyyearstheyhaveexisted，orfromthatoftheoldZemindarsduringasuccessionofgenerations。 InoldZemindarries，whetherheldbytheRajahaoftheCircars，orthePoligarsofthemoresouthernprovinces，whichhave fromadistantperiodbeenheldatalowandfixedpeshcush，noindulgencehasbeenshowntotheRayets，noboundhasbeen settothedemanduponthem。Thedemandhasrisenwithimprovement，accordingtothecustomofthecountry，andtheland oftheRayethasnosaleablevalue；weoughtnot，therefore，tobesurprisedthatinthenewZemindarries，whoseassessment issomuchhigher，theresulthasbeenequallyunfavourabletotheRayets。ThenewZemindarrieswill，bydivisionamong heirsandfailuresintheirpayments，breakupintoportionsofoneortwovillages；butthiswillnotbettertheconditionofthe Rayet。Itwillnotfixtherentoftheland，norrenderitavaluableproperty；itwillmerelyconvertonelargeZemindarryinto severalsmallZemindarriesorMootahs，andMootabsofakindofmuchmoreinjuriousthanthoseoftheBaramahltothe Rayets；because，intheBaramahl，theassessmentoftheRayets\'landhadpreviouslybeenfixedbysurvey，whileinthenew ZemindarriesoftheCircarsithadbeenleftundefined。ThelittlewillintimesharethefateofthegreatZemindarries；they willbedivided，andfail，andfinallyreverttoGovernment；andtheRayets，afterthislongandcircuitouscourse，willagain becomewhattheyoriginallywere，theimmediatetenantsofGovernment；andGovernmentwillthenhaveitinitspowerto surveytheirlands，tolowerandfixtheassessmentuponthem，andtolaythefoundationoflandedpropertyinthelandeoftheRayets，wherealone，inordertobesuccessful，itmustbelaid。\"Yetwithalltheseviewsofthedifficultyofestablishingprivatepropertyinland，SirThomasMunrodeclarestheryottobe thetrueproprietor，possessingallthatisnotclaimedbythesovereignasrevenue。This，hesays，whilerejectingthe proprietaryclaimsoftheZemindars；whichhethinksundulymagnified——\"ButtheRayetistherealproprietor，forwhatever landdoesnotbelongtothesovereignbelongstohim。Thedemandforpublicrevenue，accordingasitishighorlowin differentplaces，andatdifferenttimes，affectshisshare；butwhetheritleaveshimonlythebareprofitofhisstock，orasmall surplusbeyonditaslandlord\'srent，heisstillthetrueproprietor，andpossessesallthatisnotclaimedbythesovereignas revenue。\"Vol。III，p。840。ImustreferthereadertotheMinuteitselfforSirT。Munro\'saccountofthebeneficial proprietaryrightsactuallysubsistinginCanara，andofcertainsimilarbutsubordinateandimperfectrightsexisting elsewhere。TocomprehendtherealconditionofsouthernIndia，itwouldbenecessarytounderstandthesewell。Theplanofsuchaworkasthiswillnotallowmetodilateonthem。Taking，then，thefacthereestablishedbySirT。Munro，thatinspiteofthehereditaryclaimsoftheryot，itisextremely difficulttodiscern，orevenestablisharealbeneficiallandlord\'sinterestamongthecultivators，whiletheassessmentishigh andvariable，letusapplythistoRajast\'han，andtothestatementsofCol。TodastotheRyotfreeholdersofMewar。Letus examine，first，therelationbetweenthesubordinatechiefsandtheirimmediatevassals。Thechiefs，itwillberemembered， representthesovereignontheirestates。ThevassalsofDeogurhsenttotheBritishresidentalongcomplaintoftheirchief， towhichCol。Todoftenrefers。Thefollowingaresomearticles。\"ToeachRajpoot\'shouseachurras，orhideoflandwas attached，thishehas\"resumed。\"\"TenortwelvevillagesestablishedbyhisPuttaetshehasresumed，andlefttheirfamiliesto starve。\"Whilecomplainingofbeingdrivenfromtheirland，itwillbeobservedthattheproceedingiscalledbythemselvesa resumption。\"WhenDeogurhwasestablished，atthesametimewereourallotments:ashispatrimony，soourpatrimony:ourrightsandprivilegesinhisfamilyarethesameashisinthefamilyofthepresence(thesovereign)。\"Tod，p。199。Nowiftheselastpassagesexpress，asIsuspecttheydo，theextentandgroundoftheirclaims；weknowhowtointerpret them。Iftheirinterestinthesoilwassimilartothatofthechiefinhisestate，itwasagrantfromthesovereignoncertainconditions；resumableatpleasure，althoughpracticallyrarelyresumed。Letusnextexaminethemoredirectrelationbetweenthesovereignandthecultivatorsonhisdomain。Thefollowingdecree isheadedPrivilegesandImmunitiesgrantedtothePrintersofCalicoandInhabitantsoftheTownofgreatAkolain Mewar。\"MaharanaBheemSingcommanding。Whereasthevillagehasbeenabandoned，fromtheassignmentsleviedbythe garrisonofMandelgurh，anditbeingdemandedofitspopulationshowitcouldagainberenderedprosperous；they unanimouslyreplied，`nottoexactbeyondtheduesandcontributions`establishedofyore；toerectthepillarpromisingnevertoexactabovehalftheproduceofthecrops，ortomolestthepersonsofthosewhothuspaidtheirdues。\'\"Tod，p。206。Ileavethereadertodetermineifthisisthelanguageofarulerdealingwithabodyofacknowledgedfreeholders，orofanIndianownerofryotland，promisingtomoderatehisdemandsforthefuture。ButthemostcuriousspecimenoftheactualconditionoftheryotsofRajast\'han，istobefoundintheaccountofthe managementofZalimSingh，theRegentofKotah。ThischiefwastherealsovereignofKotah；thoughadministeringits affairsinthenameofarajahfainean。Hisadministrationwasconsideredsingularlyprudentandvigorous；heiscalledbyCol。 Ted，theNestorofIndia，andisspokenofbySirJohnMalcolmmuchinthesamespirit。ThefollowingisanextractfromSir John\'s\"CentralIndia。\"\"OneoftheprincipaloftheRajpootrulersofcentralIndia，ZalimSingh，hasarevenue\"system， which，likethatofhisgovernment，isentirelysuitedtohispersonalcharacter。Hemanagesakingdomlikeafarm，heisthe bankerwhomakestheadvancestothecultivators，aswellastherulertowhomtheypayrevenue:andhistermsofinterest areashigh，asthoseofthemostsordidmoneybrokers。Thisplacesthecultivatorsmuchinhispower，andtoincreasethis dependencehehasbelongingtohimselfseveralthousandplough，withhiredlaborers，whoarenotonlyemployedin recoveringwastelands，butsentontheinstanttotillthosefieldswhichthepeasantryobjecttocultivate，fromdeemingtherenttoohigh。\"Malcolm\'sCent。India，Vol。II。p。62。Trulyafterreadingtheseextracts，itisdifficulttobelieve，thatthecultivatorsofRajast\'hanareinamuchmoreelevated condition，thanthoseofsouthernIndia；amongwhomSirThomasMunroperceived，thatitwouldbeaveryslowand difficultprocesstoestablishlandedpropertyandbeneficialinterests；althoughherecognizedinthemtheproprietorsofallnotclaimedbythesovereignasrevenue。ButthereisapositionofCol。Tod\'swhichyetremainstobenoticed。HecitestheinstitutesofMenu，toprovethatlands throughoutIndia，belongstohimwhofirstclearsthewoodandtillsit；andthisquotationderivesrathermoreimportance thanwouldotherwisebelongtoit，fromthefactthatthepassagerelatingtothesovereign\'srighttothesoil，whichisquoted inthetextfromColebrooke\'stranslationofthedigestofHindoolaw，hasbeensuspectedofhavingbeenforgedbythe nativesemployedtocompilethatdigest，inordertoflattersomesupposedprepossessionsofthosewhoemployedthem。I， however，stillbelieve，thatthelawastranslatedbyMr。Colebrooke，whether。genuineornot，veryaccuratelyrepresentsthepracticalmanagementofthesoilofIndiaformanyages。He，(saysCol。Tod，speakingoftheryot，)hasnatureandMenuinsupportofhisclaim，andcanquotethetext，alike compulsoryonprinceandpeasant。\"Cultivatedlandisthepropertyofhimwhocutawaythewood，orwhoclearedandtilled it。\"ThefollowingisthetextasitstandsinHaughton\'seditionofMenu: OnJudicatureandLaw，PrivateandCriminal，andontheCommercialandservileClasses。Haughton，p。298。44。Sageswhoknowformertimes，considerthisearth(Prit\'hivi)asthewifeofKingPrithu；andthustheypronounce cultivatedlandtobethepropertyofhim，whocutawaythewood，orwhoclearedandtilledit；andtheantelope，ofthefirsthunterwhomortallywoundedit。Nowhadthispassagebeenfoundinapartofthecederelatingtolandedproperty，itwouldatleasthavecarriedwithitthe authorityofMenu。InthatcaseIshouldhavehadtorecalltothereader\'srecollectionthesmallvaluewhichSirT。Munro\'s experienceledhimtoattachtothesayingsoftheancientIndiansages，whenquestionsariseastotheactuallaworpast practiceofIndia[seeback，p。(37。)]But，intruth，thepassageisfoundinaverydifferentpartofthecode；aslightfurther examinationwillconvincethereader，thatthismythologicalsagewasspeakingoffarothermatters:andthatCol。Todhasfallenintoamistake，atwhichwemustheallowedtosmile。Menuisinfactdecidingtowhomthechildrenshallbelong，bornofanadulterousintercoursebetweenamarriedwomanand herparamour。\"Learnnowthatexcellentlawuniversallysalutary，whichwasdeclared，concerningissue，bygreatandgood sagesformerlyborn，\"andillustratingthisinhisownallegoricalfashion，hecomparestheearthtothelady；anddeclares，that hewhoreceivedhervirgincharmsshouldbetheownerofalltheprogenyshemightproduce，underanycircumstances， howeverstrong，ofdetectedorpermittedfaithlessness；andthatascultivatedgroundbelongedtohimwhofirsttilledit，and theantelopetothefirsthunterwhomortallywoundedit，so\"menwhohavenomaritalpropertyinwomen，butsowinthefieldsownedbyothers，mayraiseupfruittothehusband，buttheprocreatorcanhavenoadvantagefromit。\"ThissubjectMenupursuesfrom81p。291to55p。295。ofHaughton，andfollowsuphisillustrationbyputtingavarietyof caseswhichIcertainlyshallnotquote，butwhichonceread，willeffectually(Ishouldthink)preventanyperson\'sagainreferringtothispassage，asagraveauthorityforthelawsrelatingtolandedpropertyinIndia。Whendeliberatelyspeakingoftherightsofthesovereign，thecodeusesalanguageincompleteunisonwiththeactual usagesofthecountry。\"Iflandbeinjuredbythefaultofthefarmerhimself，asifhefailstosowitinduetime，heshallbe finedtentimesasmuchastheking\'sshareofthecropthatmightotherwisehavebeenraised:butonlyfivetimesasmuchifitwasthefaultofhisservantswithouthisknowledge。\"OnJudicatureandLaw，248，p。259ofHaughton\'sTranslation。Thesameimperfectright，however，tohereditaryoccupation，whilethedemandsofthesovereignaresatisfied，whichis everywhereconcededtotheryots，isalsostillconcededinsomepartsofIndia(notinall)tothefirstreclaimerofwasteordesertedground。ExtractsfromafirmaunoftheEmperorAurenzebe，A。D。1608，publishedbyMr。PattoninhisPrinciplesofAsiaticMonarchies。Thefirmaunconsistsofinstructionstothegovernmentcollectors。p。343。\"Inaplacewhereneitherashernorkheraj(mowezzeff)areyetsettleduponagriculture，theyshallactasdirectedin thelaw。Incaseofkheraj(mowezzeff)，theyshallsettleforsucharate，thattheryotsmaynotberuinedbythelands；and theyshallnot，onanyaccount，exactbeyond(thevalueof)halfoftheproduce，notwithstandingany(particular)abilityto paymore。Inaplacewhere(oneortheother)isfixed，theyshalltakewhathasbeenagreedfor，providedthatinkheraj (mowezzeff)itdoesnotexceedthehalf(oftheproduceinmoney)，thattheryotsmaynotberuined:butif(whatissettled appeartobetoomuch)theyshallreducetheformerkherajtowhatshallbefoundproportionabletotheirability；however，ifthecapacityexceedsthesettlement，theyshallnottakemore。\"p。340。\"Theymustshewtheryotseverykindoffavourandindulgence；inquireintotheircircumstances；andendeavour，by wholesomeregulationsandwiseadministration，toengagethem，withheartygoodwill，tolabourtowardstheincreaseofagriculture；sothatnolandsmaybeneglectedthatarecapableofcultivation。Fromthecommencementoftheyeartheyshall，asfarastheyareable，acquireinformationofthecircumstancesofevery husbandman，whethertheyareemployedincultivation，orhaveneglectedit:then，thosewhohavetheability，theyshall exciteandencouragetocultivatetheirlands；andiftheyrequireindulgenceinanyparticularinstances，letitbegrantedthem； butif，uponexamination，itshallbefound，thatsomewhohavetheability，andareassistedwithwater，neverthelesshaveneglectedtocultivatetheirlands，theyshalladmonish，andthreaten，anduseforceandstripes。\"Yetinthisandinanotherfirmaun，alsopublishedbyMr。Patton，Aurenzebespeaksverytenderlyoftherightsofthe cultivatorsasproprietors，andisclearlyanxioustosubstituteamildermodeofmanagementfortheoneactuallyinuse。 ThecasewasmuchworsewiththeryotswhentheMogulgovernmentwasbrokenup。IndianRecreationsbytheRev。W。Tennant，Vol。III。pp。18890。\"Thisaspectofthenativegovernmentsmeritsthegreater notice，becauseitformsnotanaccidentalortemporaryfeatureintheircharacter，butapermanentstateofsociety。Itisa maximamongthenativepoliticians，toregardtheir\"Stateascontinuallyatwar。\"Hencetheirmilitarychiefsarenot permittedforamomenttoindulgethehabitsofcivillife；nordotheyexperiencetheshelterofahouseformanyyears successively。Theircampsarenotbrokenup；nor，exceptduringamarch，aretheirtentseverstruck。Theintervalsofforeign hostilityareoccupiedinthecollectionofrevenue；ameasure，whichinIndiaisgenerallyexecutedbyamilitaryforce，andis morefertileinextensivebloodshedandbarbarity，aswellasinthevariedscenesofdistress，thananactualcampaignagainstanavowedenemy。TherefractoryZemindars，(astheyaredenominated)uponwhomthetroopsareletloose，betakethemselves，ontheir approach，toaneighbouringmudfort；oneofwhichiserectedforprotection，inthevicinityofalmosteveryvillage。There theinhabitantsendeavourtosecurethemselves，theircattle，andeffects，tilltheyarecompelledbyforceorfaminetosubmit。 Thegarrisonisthenrazedtothefoundation，andthevillageburnt，toexpiateadelinquency，toofrequentlyoccasionedsolelybytheiniquitousexactionsofgovernmentitself。Inthesemilitaryexecutions，someofthepeasantryaredestroyed；somefallvictimstofaminethusartificiallycreated，and notafewaresold，withtheirwivesandchildren，todefraytheirarrearstothetreasury，ortodischargetheaggravated burdensimposedbytheland-holders。Suchassurvive，betakethemselvestothewoods，tillthedepartureoftheiroppressors encouragesthemtorevisittheirsmokinghabitations，andtorepairtheirruins。Thusharrassedbytheinjusticeandbarbarity oftheirrulers，thepeasantryloseallsenseofrightandwrong；fromwant，theyareforcedtobecomerobbersintheirturn，andtoprovoke，bytheirfraudorviolence，arepetitionofthesameenormitiesagainstthenextannualvisitationofthearmy。\"Thefixingthepoorryottothehereditarytaskofcultivation，wasevidently，undereventhebestofsuchgovernments，agreatgaintothesovereign，andamiserableprivilegetohim。Buchanan\'sEdit。Smith\'sWealthofNations，Vol。IApp。p。86。\"Mr。Place，towhomthemanagementofthejaghire，that surroundsthepresidencyofMadras，wascommitted，whendescribingacertainspeciesoftenant，observes，thatbygranting themthelandstothemandtheirheirsforever，aslongastheycontinuedinobediencetotheCircar，andpaidalljustdues，hewasenabledtoconvertthemoststubbornsoilandthickest\"jingleintofertilevillages。\"ThesamesentimentswereexpressedbyColonelMunro，whohadthechargeofseveraldistricts。Hesawclearly，thatthe highassessmentonthelandcheckedagricultureandpopulation；andonthisaccount，hestronglyrecommendedto governmentaremissionofthetribute。Hisviewswereadmittedtobejust；butthepublicnecessitieswerepleadedasan apologyforatax，theeffectofwhichitappearsistokeepbackthecultivationofthecountry。\"Itisthehighassessmenton theland，\"themembersoftheboardofrevenueobserve，\"whichColonelMunrojustlyconsidersthechiefcheckto population。Wereitnotforthepressureofthisheavyrent，population，hethinks，oughttoincreaseevenfasterthanin America；becausetheclimateismorefavourable，andtherearebuttractsofgoodlandunoccupied，whichmaybeploughed atonce，withoutthelabourorexpenceofclearingawayforests，asthereisabovethreemillionsofacresofthiskindinthe cededdistricts。Heisofopinionthatagreatincreaseofpopulation，andconsequentlyoflandrevenue，mightbeexpectedin thecourseoftwenty-fiveyears，fromtheoperationoftheremission。Butaremissiontoafewzemindars，heapprehends，wouldnotremedytheevil，norremovetheweightwhichatpresentdepressespopulation。\"Underthesystemproposed，ColonelMunroconceives，thatcultivationandpopulationwouldincreasesomuch，that，inthecourseoftwenty-fiveyears，landsformerlycultivated，amountingtostarpagodas5，55，962，wouldberelievedandoccupied，togetherwithaconsiderableportionofwaste，neverbeforecultivated。Theextensionofcultivation，however，wouldnot makethefarmslarger，andtherebyfacilitatecollection。Theenlargementoffarmsorestatesisatpresentpreventedbythewantofproperty；hereafteritwouldbepreventedbyitsdivision。\"ThisistheoutlineofColonelMunro\'splan，whichisnotlessapplicabletoallthedistrictsasyetunsettled，thantotheceded districts；and，iftheexigenciesofgovernmentallowedofsuchasacrificeasaremissionofthepresentstandardrents，tothe extentof25percent，orevenof15percent，weshouldconsiderthemeasurehighlyadvisable，andcalculatedtoproduce greatulterioradvantages。Indeed，itwouldbeabsurdtodispute，thatthelesswetakefromthecultivatoroftheproduceofhislabour，themoreflourishingwillbehiscondition。\"\"But，iftheexigenciesofgovernmentdonotpermitthemtomakesogreatasacrifice；iftheycannotatonceconfertheboon ofprivateproperty，theymustbecontenttoestablishaprivateinterestinthesoil，aseffectuallyastheycanunderthe farmingsystem。Iftheycannotaffordtogiveupashareofthelandlord\'srent，theymustbeindulgentlandlords。\"SeeReportofSelectCommittee，Appendix。Forexamplesoftherateatwhichpopulationandproducehaveincreasedundermildgovernment，Imustreferthereaderto accountsofCol。Read\'sadministrationoftheMysore，SirThomasMunro\'softhecededdistricts，andtoSirJohnMalcolm\'s pictureoftherapidrevivalofcentralIndia，afterthedestructionoftheMahrattasway。Ifindthatextractswouldswellthis Appendixtoomuch。 ERRATA。 PageLine13。forlabororreadlaboron。 93。Note。forDixamereadDaxme。22。forSarmacanreadSarmacand。10。forsupportsrendsupport……1deleboth。22。forbywhicharereadbywhichtheyare。 174。Note。for66。read86。12。forpurposesreadpurpose。21121。forasunlimitedreadalimited。9。insertasemi-colonaftercloth，andomititaftercorn1。Litt。？77。ThiswasalsothecaseinScotland:\"Nabondmanmaybuyorpurcheshislibertiewithhisawinproperguile。or geirbecauseallthecattellandgudesofallbond-menareunderstandtobeinthepoweranddominionofthemaister:swa thatwithoutconsentofhismaister，hemaynotredemehimselfoutofbondsgewithhisawin\"properdeniresormoney。\'See theRegiamMajestatem；ortheAuldLewesofScotland，BukeII。Chap。12。