第1章

Thefollowingsheetswere，asthenoteontheoppositepageexpresses，printedsolongagoastheyear1780。Thedesign，inpursuanceofwhichtheywerewritten，wasnotsoextensiveasthatannouncedbythepresenttitle。Theyhadatthattimenootherdestinationthanthatofservingasanintroductiontoaplanofapenalcodeinterminus，designedtofollowthem，inthesamevolume。 Thebodyoftheworkhadreceiveditscompletionaccordingtothethenpresentextentoftheauthor\'sviews，when，intheinvestigationofsomeflawshehaddiscovered，hefoundhimselfunexpectedlyentangledinanunsuspectedcornerofthemetaphysicalmaze。Asuspension，atfirstnotapprehendedtobemorethanatemporaryone，necessarilyensued:suspensionbroughtoncoolness，andcoolness，aidedbyotherconcurrentcauses，ripenedintodisgust。 Imperfectionspervadingthewholemasshadalreadybeenpointedoutbythesincerityofsevereanddiscerningfriends；andconsciencehadcertifiedthejustnessoftheircensure。Theinordinatelengthofsomeofthechapters，theapparentinutilityofothers，andthedryandmetaphysicalturnofthewhole，suggestedanapprehension，that，ifpublishedinitspresentform，theworkwouldcontendundergreatdisadvantagesforanychance，itmightonotheraccountspossess，ofbeingread，andconsequentlyofbeingofuse。 But，thoughinthismannertheideaofcompletingthepresentworkslidinsensiblyaside，thatwasnotbyanymeansthecasewiththeconsiderationswhichhadledhimtoengageinit。Everyopening，whichpromisedtoaffordthelightshestoodinneedof，wasstillpursued:asoccasionarosetheseveraldepartmentsconnectedwiththatinwhichhehadatfirstengaged，weresuccessivelyexplored；insomuchthat，inonebranchorotherofthepursuit，hisresearcheshavenearlyembracedthewholefieldoflegislation。 Severalcauseshaveconspiredatpresenttobringtolight，underthisnewtitle，aworkwhichunderitsoriginalonehadbeenimperceptibly，butasithadseemedirrevocably，doomedtooblivion。 Inthecourseofeightyears，materialsforvariousworks，correspondingtothedifferentbranchesofthesubjectoflegislation，hadbeenproduced，andsomenearlyreducedtoshape: and，ineveryoneofthoseworks，theprinciplesexhibitedinthepresentpublicationhadbeenfoundsonecessary，that，eithertotranscribethempiece-meal，ortoexhibitthemsomewherewheretheycouldbereferredtointhelump，wasfoundunavoidable。 Theformercoursewouldhaveoccasionedrepetitionstoobulkytobeemployedwithoutnecessityintheexecutionofaplanunavoidablysovoluminous:thelatterwasthereforeindisputablythepreferableone。 Topublishthematerialsintheforminwhichtheywerealreadyprinted，ortoworkthemupintoanewone，wasthereforetheonlyalternative:thelatterhadallalongbeenhiswish，and，hadtimeandtherequisitedegreeofalacritybeenatcommand，itwouldascertainlyhavebeenrealised。Cogentconsiderations，however，concur，withtheirksomenessofthetask，inplacingtheaccomplishmentofitatpresentatanunfathomabledistance。 Anotherconsiderationis，thatthesuppressionofthepresentwork，haditbeeneversodecidedlywished，isnolongeraltogetherinhispower。Inthecourseofsolonganinterval，variousincidentshaveintroducedcopiesintovarioushands，fromsomeofwhichtheyhavebeentransferredbydeathsandotheraccidents，intoothersthatareunknowntohim。Detached，butconsiderableextracts，haveevenbeenpublished，withoutanydishonourableviews(forthenameoftheauthorwasveryhonestlysubjoinedtothem)，butwithouthisprivity，andinpublicationsundertakenwithouthisknowledge。 Itmayperhapsbenecessarytoadd，tocompletehisexcuseforofferingtothepublicaworkpervadedbyblemishes，whichhavenotescapedeventheauthor\'spartialeye，thatthecensure，sojustlybestowedupontheform，didnotextenditselftothematter。 Insendingitthusabroadintotheworldwithallitsimperfectionsuponitshead，hethinksitmaybeofassistancetothefewreadershecanexpect，toreceiveashortintimationofthechiefparticulars，inrespectofwhichitfailsofcorrespondingwithhismaturerviews。Itwillthencebeobservedhowinsomerespectsitfailsofquadratingwiththedesignannouncedbyitsoriginaltitle，asinothersitdoeswiththatannouncedbytheoneitbearsatpresent。 Anintroductiontoaworkwhichtakesforitssubjectthetotalityofanyscience，oughttocontainallsuchmatters，andsuchmattersonly，asbelongincommontoeveryparticularbranchofthatscience，oratleasttomorebranchesofitthanone。 Comparedwithitspresenttitle，thepresentworkfailsinbothwaysofbeingconformabletothatrule。 Asanintroductiontotheprinciplesofmorals，inadditiontotheanalysisitcontainsoftheextensiveideassignifiedbythetermspleasure，pain，motive，anddisposition，itoughttohavegivenasimilaranalysisofthenotlessextensive，thoughmuchlessdeterminate，ideasannexedtothetermsemotion，passion，appetite，virtue，vice，andsomeothers，includingthenamesoftheparticularvirtuesandvices。Butasthetrue，and，ifheconceivesright，theonlytrueground-workforthedevelopmentofthelattersetofterms，hasbeenlaidbytheexplanationoftheformer，thecompletionofsuchadictionary，sotostyleit，would，incomparisonofthecommencement，belittlemorethanamechanicaloperation。 Again，asanintroductiontotheprinciplesoflegislationingeneral，itoughtrathertohaveincludedmattersbelongingexclusivelytothecivilbranch，thanmattersmoreparticularlyapplicabletothepenal:thelatterbeingbutameansofcompassingtheendsproposedbytheformer。Inpreferencetherefore，oratleastinpriority，totheseveralchapterswhichwillbefoundrelativetopunishment，itoughttohaveexhibitedasetofpropositionswhichhavesincepresentedthemselvestohimasaffordingastandardfortheoperationsperformedbygovernment，inthecreationanddistributionofproprietaryandothercivilrights。Hemeanscertainaxiomsofwhatmaybetermedmentalpathology，expressiveoftheconnectionbetwixtthefeelingsofthepartiesconcerned，andtheseveralclassesofincidents，whicheithercallfor，orareproducedby，operationsofthenatureabovementioned。 Theconsiderationofthedivisionofoffences，andeverythingelsethatbelongstooffences，ought，besides，tohaveprecededtheconsiderationofpunishment:fortheideaofpunishmentpresupposestheideaofoffence:punishment，assuch，notbeinginflictedbutinconsiderationofoffence。 Lastly，theanalyticaldiscussionsrelativetotheclassificationofoffenceswould，accordingtohispresentviews，betransferredtoaseparatetreatise，inwhichthesystemoflegislationisconsideredsolelyinrespectofitsform:inotherwords，inrespectofitsmethodandterminology。 Intheserespectstheperformancefailsofcominguptotheauthor\'sownideasofwhatshouldhavebeenexhibitedinawork，bearingthetitlehehasnowgivenit。viz。thatofanIntroductiontothePrinciplesofMoralsandLegislation。Heknowshoweverofnootherthatwouldbelessunsuitable:norinparticularwouldsoadequateanintimationofitsactualcontentshavebeengiven，byatitlecorrespondingtothemorelimiteddesign，withwhichitwaswritten:viz。thatofservingasanintroductiontoapenalcode。 Yetmore。Dryandtediousasagreatpartofthediscussionsitcontainsmustunavoidablybefoundbythebulkofreaders，heknowsnothowtoregretthehavingwrittenthem，noreventhehavingmadethempublic。Undereveryhead，thepracticaluses，towhichthediscussionscontainedunderthatheadappearedapplicable，areindicated:noristhere，hebelieves，asinglepropositionthathehasnotfoundoccasiontobuilduponinthepenningofsomearticleorotherofthoseprovisionsofdetail，ofwhichabodyoflaw，authoritativeorunauthoritative，mustbecomposed。 Hewillventuretospecifyparticularly，inthisview，theseveralchaptersshortlycharacterizedbythewordsSensibility，Actions，Intentionality，Consciousness，Motives，Dispositions，Consequences。Evenintheenormouschapteronthedivisionofoffenses，which，notwithstandingtheforcedcompressiontheplanhasundergoneinseveralofitsparts，inmannertherementioned，occupiesnofewerthanonehundredandfourcloselyprintedquartopages，thetenconcludingonesareemployedinastatementofthepracticaladvantagesthatmaybereapedfromtheplanofclassificationwhichitexhibits。ThoseinwhosesighttheDefenceofUsuryhasbeenfortunateenoughtofindfavour，mayreckonasoneinstanceofthoseadvantagesthediscoveryoftheprinciplesdevelopedinthatlittletreatise。Intheprefacetoananonymoustractpublishedsolongagoasin1776，hehadhintedattheutilityofanaturalclassificationofoffenses，inthecharacterofatestfordistinguishinggenuinefromspuriousones。Thecaseofusuryisoneamonganumberofinstancesofthetruthofthatobservation。AnoteattheendofSect。xxxv。chap。xvi。ofthepresentpublication，mayservetoshowhowtheopinions，developedinthattract，owedtheirorigintothedifficultyexperiencedintheattempttofindaplaceinhissystemforthatimaginaryoffense。Tosomereaders，asameansofhelpingthemtosupportthefatigueofwadingthroughananalysisofsuchenormouslength，hewouldalmostrecommendthebeginningwiththosetenconcludingpages。 Onegoodatleastmayresultfromthepresentpublication；viz。thatthemorehehastrespassedonthepatienceofthereaderonthisoccasion，thelessneedhewillhavesotodoonfutureones: sothatthismaydotothose，theofficewhichisdone，bybooksofpuremathematics，tobooksofmixedmathematicsandnaturalphilosophy。Thenarrowerthecircleofreadersis，withinwhichthepresentworkmaybecondemnedtoconfineitself，thelesslimitedmaybethenumberofthosetowhomthefruitsofhissucceedinglaboursmaybefoundaccessible。Hemaythereforeinthisrespectfindhimselfintheconditionofthosephilosophersofantiquity，whoarerepresentedashavingheldtwobodiesofdoctrine，apopularandanoccultone:but，withthisdifference，thatinhisinstancetheoccultandthepopularwill，hehopes，befoundasconsistentasinthosetheywerecontradictory；andthatinhisproductionwhateverthereisofoccultnesshasbeenthepureresultofsadnecessity，andinnorespectofchoice。 Having，inthecourseofthisadvertisement，hadsuchfrequentoccasiontoalludetodifferentarrangements，ashavingbeensuggestedbymoreextensiveandmaturerviews，itmayperhapscontributetothesatisfactionofthereader，toreceiveashortintimationoftheirnature:therather，as，withoutsuchexplanation，references，madehereandtheretounpublishedworks，mightbeproductiveofperplexityandmistake。Thefollowingthenarethetitlesoftheworksbythepublicationofwhichhispresentdesignswouldbecompleted。Theyareexhibitedintheorderwhichseemedtohimbestfittedforapprehension，andinwhichtheywouldstanddisposed，werethewholeassemblagereadytocomeoutatonce:buttheorder，inwhichtheywilleventuallyappear，mayprobablyenoughbeinfluencedinsomedegreebycollateralandtemporaryconsiderations。 Partthe1st。Principlesoflegislationinmattersofcivil，moredistinctivelytermedprivatedistributive，orforshortness，distributive，law。 Partthe2nd。Principlesoflegislationinmattersofpenallaw。 Partthe3rd。Principlesoflegislationinmattersofprocedure:unitinginoneviewthecriminalandcivilbranches，betweenwhichnolinecanbedrawn，butaveryindistinctone，andthatcontinuallyliabletovariation。 Partthe4th。Principlesoflegislationinmattersofreward。 Partthe5th。Principlesoflegislationinmattersofpublicdistributive，moreconciselyaswellasfamiliarlytermedconstitutional，law。 Partthe6th。Principlesoflegislationinmattersofpoliticaltactics: oroftheartofmaintainingorderintheproceedingsofpoliticalassemblies，soastodirectthemtotheendoftheirinstitution: viz。byasystemofrules，whicharetotheconstitutionalbranch，insomerespects，whatthelawofprocedureistothecivilandthepenal。 Partthe7th。Principlesoflegislationinmattersbetwixtnationandnation，or，touseanewthoughnotinexpressiveappellation，inmattersofinternationallaw。 Partthe8th。Principlesoflegislationinmattersoffinance。 Partthe9th。Principlesoflegislationinmattersofpoliticaleconomy。 Partthe10th。Planofabodyoflaw，completeinallitsbranches，consideredinrespectofitsform；inotherwords，inrespectofitsmethodandterminology；includingaviewoftheoriginationandconnexionoftheideasexpressedbytheshortlistofterms，theexpositionofwhichcontainsallthatcanbesaidwithproprietytobelongtotheheadofuniversaljurisprudence。 Theuseoftheprincipleslaiddownundertheaboveseveralheadsistopreparethewayforthebodyoflawitselfexhibitedinterminis；andwhichtobecomplete，withreferencetoanypoliticalstate，mustconsequentlybecalculatedforthemeridian，andadaptedtothecircumstances，ofsomeonesuchstateinparticular。 Hadheanunlimitedpowerofdrawingupontime，andeveryotherconditionnecessary，itwouldbehiswishtopostponethepublicationofeachparttothecompletionofthewhole。Inparticular，theuseofthetenparts，whichexhibitwhatappeartohimthedictatesofutilityineveryline，beingnootherthantofurnishreasonsfortheseveralcorrespondingprovisionscontainedinthebodyoflawitself，theexacttruthoftheformercanneverbepreciselyascertained，tilltheprovisions，towhichtheyaredestinedtoapply，arethemselvesascertained，andthatinterminis。 Butastheinfirmityofhumannaturerendersallplansprecariousintheexecution，inproportionastheyareextensiveinthedesign，andashehasalreadymadeconsiderableadvancesinseveralbranchesofthetheory，withouthavingmadecorrespondentadvancesinthepracticalapplications，hedeemsitmorethanprobable，thattheeventualorderofpublicationwillnotcorrespondexactlywiththatwhich，haditbeenequallypracticable，wouldhaveappearedmosteligible。Ofthisirregularitytheunavoidableresultwillbe，amultitudeofimperfections，which，iftheexecutionofthebodyoflawinterminishadkeptpacewiththedevelopmentoftheprinciples，sothateachparthadbeenadjustedandcorrectedbytheother，mighthavebeenavoided。Hisconducthoweverwillbethelessswayedbythisinconvenience，fromhissuspectingittobeofthenumberofthoseinwhichthepersonalvanityoftheauthorismuchmoreconcerned，thantheinstructionofthepublic:sincewhateveramendmentsmaybesuggestedinthedetailoftheprinciples，bytheliteralfixationoftheprovisionstowhichtheyarerelative，mayeasilybemadeinacorrectededitionoftheformer，succeedinguponthepublicationofthelatter。 Inthecourseoftheensuingpages，referenceswillbefound，asalreadyintimated，sometotheplanofapenalcodetowhichthisworkwasmeantasanintroduction，sometootherbranchesoftheabove-mentionedgeneralplan，undertitlessomewhatdifferentfromthose，bywhichtheyhavebeenmentionedhere。Thegivingthiswarningisallwhichitisintheauthor\'spowertodo，tosavethereaderfromtheperplexityoflookingoutforwhathasnotasyetanyexistence。Therecollectionofthechangeofplanwillinlikemanneraccountforseveralsimilarincongruitiesnotworthparticularizing。 Allusionwasmade，attheoutsetofthisadvertisement，tosomeunspecifieddifficulties，asthecausesoftheoriginalsuspension，andunfinishedcomplexion，ofthepresentwork。Ashamedofhisdefeat，andunabletodissembleit，heknowsnothowtorefacehimselfthebenefitofsuchanapologyasaslightsketchofthenatureofthosedifficultiesmayafford…… Thediscoveryofthemwasproducedbytheattempttosolvethequestionsthatwillbefoundattheconclusionofthevolume: Whereinconsistedtheidentityandcompletenessofalaw？Whatthedistinction，andwheretheseparation，betweenapenalandacivillaw？Whatthedistinction，andwheretheseparation，betweenthepenalandotherbranchesofthelaw？ Togiveacompleteandcorrectanswertothesequestions，itisbuttooevidentthattherelationsanddependenciesofeverypartofthelegislativesystem，withrespecttoeveryother，musthavebeencomprehendedandascertained。Butitisonlyuponaviewofthesepartsthemselves，thatsuchanoperationcouldhavebeenperformed。Totheaccuracyofsuchasurveyonenecessaryconditionwouldthereforebe，thecompleteexistenceofthefabrictobesurveyed。Totheperformanceofthisconditionnoexampleisasyettobemetwithanywhere。Commonlaw，asitstylesitselfinEngland，judiciarylawasitmightaptlybestyledeverywhere。thatfictitiouscompositionwhichhasnoknownpersonforitsauthor，noknownassemblageofwordsforitssubstance，formseverywherethemainbodyofthelegalfabric:likethatfanciedether，which，indefaultofsensiblematter，fillsupthemeasureoftheuniverse。Shredsandscrapsofreallaw，stuckonuponthatimaginaryground，composethefurnitureofeverynationalcode。Whatfollows？梩hathewho，forthepurposejustmentionedorforanyother，wantsanexampleofacompletebodyoflawtoreferto，mustbeginwithmakingone。 Thereis，orratherthereoughttobe。alogicofthewill。aswellasoftheunderstanding:theoperationsoftheformerfaculty，areneitherlesssusceptible，norlessworthy，thenthoseofthelatter，ofbeingdelineatedbyrules。Ofthesetwobranchesofthatreconditeart，Aristotlesawonlythelatter:succeedinglogicians，treadinginthestepsoftheirgreatfounder，haveconcurredinseeingwithnoothereyes。Yetsofarasadifferencecanbeassignedbetweenbranchessointimatelyconnected，whateverdifferencethereis，inpointofimportance，isinfavourofthelogicofthewill。Sinceitisonlybytheircapacityofdirectingtheoperationsofthisfaculty，thattheoperationsoftheunderstandingareofanyconsequence。 Ofthislogicofthewill，thescienceoflaw，consideredinrespectofitsform，isthemostconsiderablebranch，梩hemostimportantapplication。Itis，totheartoflegislation，whatthescienceofanatomyistotheartofmedicine:withthisdifference，thatthesubjectofitiswhattheartisthastoworkwith，insteadofbeingwhathehastooperateupon。Noristhebodypoliticlessindangerfromawantofacquaintancewiththeonescience，thanthebodynaturalfromignoranceintheother。Oneexample，amongstathousandthatmightbeadducedinproofofthisassertion，maybeseeninthenotewhichterminatesthisvolume。 Suchthenwerethedifficulties:suchthepreliminaries:梐nunexampledworktoachieve，andthenanewsciencetocreate:anewbranchtoaddtooneofthemostabstruseofsciences。 Yetmore:abodyofproposedlaw，howcompletesoever，wouldbecomparativelyuselessanduninstructive，unlessexplainedandjustified，andthatineverytittle，byacontinuedaccompaniment，aperpetualcommentaryofreasons:whichreasons，thatthecomparativevalueofsuchaspointinoppositedirectionsmaybeestimated，andtheconjunctforce，ofsuchaspointinthesamedirectionmaybefelt。mustbemarshalled，andputundersubordinationtosuchextensiveandleadingonesasaretermedprinciples。Theremustbetherefore，notonesystemonly，buttwoparallelandconnectedsystems，runningontogether。theoneoflegislativeprovisions，theotherofpoliticalreasons，eachaffordingtotheothercorrectionandsupport。 Areenterprisesliketheseachievable？Heknowsnot。Thisonlyheknows，thattheyhavebeenundertaken，proceededin，andthatsomeprogresshasbeenmadeinallofthem。Hewillventuretoadd，ifatallachievable，neveratleastbyone，towhomthefatigueofattendingtodiscussions，asaridasthosewhichoccupytheensuingpages，wouldeitherappearuseless，orfeelintolerable。Hewillrepeatitboldly(forithasbeensaidbeforehim)，truthsthatformthebasisofpoliticalandmoralsciencearenottobediscoveredbutbyinvestigationsassevereasmathematicalones，andbeyondallcomparisonmoreintricateandextensive。Thefamiliarityofthetermsisapresumption，butisamostfallaciousone，ofthefacilityofthematter。Truthsingeneralhavebeencalledstubbornthings:thetruthsjustmentionedaresointheirownway。Theyarenottobeforcedintodetachedandgeneralpropositions，unincumberedwithexplanationsandexceptions。Theywillnotcompressthemselvesintoepigrams。Theyrecoilfromthetongueandthepenofthedeclaimer。 Theyflourishnotinthesamesoilwithsentiment。Theygrowamongthorns；andarenottobeplucked，likedaisies，byinfantsastheyrun。Labour，theinevitablelotofhumanity，isinnotrackmoreinevitablethanhere。InvainwouldanAlexanderbespeakapeculiarroadforroyalvanity，oraPtolemy，asmootherone，forroyalindolence。ThereisnoKing\'sRoad，noStadtholder\'sGate，tolegislative，anymorethantomathematicscience。 chapter01AnIntroductiontothePrinciplesofMoralsandLegislationChapterI OfThePrincipleOfUtility。 I。Naturehasplacedmankindunderthegovernanceoftwosovereignmasters，painandpleasure。Itisforthemalonetopointoutwhatweoughttodo，aswellastodeterminewhatweshalldo。 Ontheonehandthestandardofrightandwrong，ontheotherthechainofcausesandeffects，arefastenedtotheirthrone。 Theygovernusinallwedo，inallwesay，inallwethink: everyeffortwecanmaketothrowoffoursubjection，willservebuttodemonstrateandconfirmit。Inwordsamanmaypretendtoabjuretheirempire:butinrealityhewillremain。subjecttoitallthewhile。Theprincipleofutilityrecognizesthissubjection，andassumesitforthefoundationofthatsystem，theobjectofwhichistorearthefabricoffelicitybythehandsofreasonandoflaw。Systemswhichattempttoquestionit，dealinsoundsinsteadofsense，incapriceinsteadofreason，indarknessinsteadoflight。 Butenoughofmetaphoranddeclamation:itisnotbysuchmeansthatmoralscienceistobeimproved。 II。Theprincipleofutilityisthefoundationofthepresentwork: itwillbeproperthereforeattheoutsettogiveanexplicitanddeterminateaccountofwhatismeantbyit。Bytheprincipleofutilityismeantthatprinciplewhichapprovesordisapprovesofeveryactionwhatsoever。accordingtothetendencyitappearstohavetoaugmentordiminishthehappinessofthepartywhoseinterestisinquestion:or，whatisthesamethinginotherwordstopromoteortoopposethathappiness。Isayofeveryactionwhatsoever，andthereforenotonlyofeveryactionofaprivateindividual，butofeverymeasureofgovernment。 III。Byutilityismeantthatpropertyinanyobject，wherebyittendstoproducebenefit，advantage，pleasure，good，orhappiness，(allthisinthepresentcasecomestothesamething)or(whatcomesagaintothesamething)topreventthehappeningofmischief，pain，evil，orunhappinesstothepartywhoseinterestisconsidered:ifthatpartybethecommunityingeneral，thenthehappinessofthecommunity:ifaparticularindividual，thenthehappinessofthatindividual。 IV。Theinterestofthecommunityisoneofthemostgeneralexpressionsthatcanoccurinthephraseologyofmorals:nowonderthatthemeaningofitisoftenlost。Whenithasameaning，itisthis。Thecommunityisafictitiousbody，composedoftheindividualpersonswhoareconsideredasconstitutingasitwereitsmembers。Theinterestofthecommunitythenis，whatisit？梩hesumoftheinterestsoftheseveralmemberswhocomposeit。 V。Itisinvaintotalkoftheinterestofthecommunity，withoutunderstandingwhatistheinterestoftheindividual。Athingissaidtopromotetheinterest，ortobefortheinterest，ofanindividual，whenittendstoaddtothesumtotalofhispleasures:or，whatcomestothesamething，todiminishthesumtotalofhispains。 VI。Anactionthenmaybesaidtobeconformabletothenprincipleofutility，or，forshortnesssake，toutility，(meaningwithrespecttothecommunityatlarge)whenthetendencyithastoaugmentthehappinessofthecommunityisgreaterthananyithastodiminishit。 VII。Ameasureofgovernment(whichisbutaparticularkindofaction，performedbyaparticularpersonorpersons)maybesaidtobeconformabletoordictatedbytheprincipleofutility，wheninlikemannerthetendencywhichithastoaugmentthehappinessofthecommunityisgreaterthananywhichithastodiminishit。 VIII。Whenanaction，orinparticularameasureofgovernment，issupposedbyamantobeconformabletotheprincipleofutility，itmaybeconvenient，forthepurposesofdiscourse，toimagineakindoflawordictate，calledalawordictateofutility: andtospeakoftheactioninquestion，asbeingconformabletosuchlawordictate。 IX。Amanmaybesaidtobeapartizanoftheprincipleofutility，whentheapprobationordisapprobationheannexestoanyaction，ortoanymeasure，isdeterminedbyandproportionedtothetendencywhichheconceivesittohavetoaugmentortodiminishthehappinessofthecommunity:orinotherwords，toitsconformityorunconformitytothelawsordictatesofutility。 X。Ofanactionthatisconformabletotheprincipleofutilityonemayalwayssayeitherthatitisonethatoughttobedone，oratleastthatitisnotonethatoughtnottobedone。Onemaysayalso，thatitisrightitshouldbedone；atleastthatitisnotwrongitshouldbedone:thatitisarightaction；atleastthatitisnotawrongaction。Whenthusinterpreted，thewordsought，andrightandwrongandothersofthatstamp，haveameaning:whenotherwise，theyhavenone。 XI。Hastherectitudeofthisprinciplebeeneverformallycontested？ Itshouldseemthatithad，bythosewhohavenotknownwhattheyhavebeenmeaning。Isitsusceptibleofanydirectproof？ itshouldseemnot:forthatwhichisusedtoproveeverythingelse，cannotitselfbeproved:achainofproofsmusthavetheircommencementsomewhere。Togivesuchproofisasimpossibleasitisneedless。 XII。Notthatthereisoreverhasbeenthathumancreatureatbreathing，howeverstupidorperverse，whohasnotonmany，perhapsonmostoccasionsofhislife，deferredtoit。Bythenaturalconstitutionofthehumanframe，onmostoccasionsoftheirlivesmeningeneralembracethisprinciple，withoutthinkingofit: ifnotfortheorderingoftheirownactions，yetforthetryingoftheirownactions，aswellasofthoseofothermen。Therehavebeen，atthesametime，notmanyperhaps，evenofthemostintelligent，whohavebeendisposedtoembraceitpurelyandwithoutreserve。Thereareevenfewwhohavenottakensomeoccasionorothertoquarrelwithit，eitheronaccountoftheirnotunderstandingalwayshowtoapplyit，oronaccountofsomeprejudiceorotherwhichtheywereafraidtoexamineinto，orcouldnotbeartopartwith。Forsuchisthestuffthatmanismadeof:inprincipleandinpractice，inarighttrackandinawrongone，therarestofallhumanqualitiesisconsistency。 XIII。Whenamanattemptstocombattheprincipleofutility，itiswithreasonsdrawn，withouthisbeingawareofit，fromthatveryprincipleitself。Hisarguments，iftheyproveanything，provenotthattheprincipleiswrong，butthat，accordingtotheapplicationshesupposestobemadeofit，itismisapplied。Isitpossibleforamantomovetheearth？Yes；buthemustfirstfindoutanotherearthtostandupon。 XIV。Todisprovetheproprietyofitbyargumentsisimpossible；but，fromthecausesthathavebeenmentioned，orfromsomeconfusedorpartialviewofit，amanmayhappentobedisposednottorelishit。Wherethisisthecase，ifhethinksthesettlingofhisopinionsonsuchasubjectworththetrouble，lethimtakethefollowingsteps，andatlength，perhaps，hemaycometoreconcilehimselftoit。 1。Lethimsettlewithhimself，whetherhewouldwishtodiscardthisprinciplealtogether；ifso，lethimconsiderwhatitisthatallhisreasonings(inmattersofpoliticsespecially)canamountto？ 2。Ifhewould，lethimsettlewithhimself，whetherhewouldjudgeandactwithoutanyprinciple，orwhetherthereisanyotherhewouldjudgeanactby？ 3。Iftherebe，lethimexamineandsatisfyhimselfwhethertheprinciplehethinkshehasfoundisreallyanyseparateintelligibleprinciple；orwhetheritbenotamereprincipleinwords，akindofphrase，whichatbottomexpressesneithermorenorlessthanthemereavermentofhisownunfoundedsentiments；thatis，whatinanotherpersonhemightbeapttocallcaprice？ 4。Ifheisinclinedtothinkthathisownapprobationordisapprobation，annexedtotheideaofanact，withoutanyregardtoitsconsequences，isasufficientfoundationforhimtojudgeandactupon，lethimaskhimselfwhetherhissentimentistobeastandardofrightandwrong，withrespecttoeveryotherman，orwhethereveryman\'ssentimenthasthesameprivilegeofbeingastandardtoitself？ 5。Inthefirstcase，lethimaskhimselfwhetherhisprincipleisnotdespotical，andhostiletoalltherestofhumanrace？ 6。Inthesecondcase，whetheritisnotanarchial，andwhetheratthisratetherearenotasmanydifferentstandardsofrightandwrongastherearemen？andwhethereventothesameman，thesamething，whichisrightto-day，maynot(withouttheleastchangeinitsnature)bewrongto-morrow？andwhetherthesamethingisnotrightandwronginthesameplaceatthesametime？andineithercase，whetherallargumentisnotatanend？andwhether，whentwomenhavesaid，揑likethis？and揑 don\'tlikeit？theycan(uponsuchaprinciple)haveanythingmoretosay？ 7。Ifheshouldhavesaidtohimself，No:forthatthesentimentwhichheproposesasastandardmustbegroundedonreflection，lethimsayonwhatparticularsthereflectionistoturn？ifonparticularshavingrelationtotheutilityoftheact，thenlethimsaywhetherthisisnotdesertinghisownprinciple，andborrowingassistancefromthatveryoneinoppositiontowhichhesetsitup: orifnotonthoseparticulars，onwhatotherparticulars？ 8。Ifheshouldbeforcompoundingthematter，andadoptinghisownprincipleinpart，andtheprincipleofutilityinpart，lethimsayhowfarhewilladoptit？ 9。Whenhehassettledwithhimselfwherehewillstop，thenlethimaskhimselfhowhejustifiestohimselftheadoptingitsofar？ andwhyhewillnotadoptitanyfarther？ 10。Admittinganyotherprinciplethantheprincipleofutilitytobearightprinciple，aprinciplethatitisrightforamantopursue； admitting(whatisnottrue)thatthewordrightcanhaveameaningwithoutreferencetoutility，lethimsaywhetherthereisanysuchthingasamotivethatamancanhavetopursuethedictatesofit:ifthereis，lethimsaywhatthatmotiveis，andhowitistobedistinguishedfromthosewhichenforcethedictatesofutility: ifnot，thenlastlylethimsaywhatitisthisotherprinciplecanbegoodfor？ chapter02AnIntroductiontothePrinciplesofMoralsandLegislationChapterII OfPrinciplesAdversetothatofUtilityI。Iftheprincipleofutilitybearightprincipletobegovernedby，andthatinallcases，itfollowsfromwhathasbeenjustobserved，thatwhateverprinciplediffersfromitinanycasemustnecessarilybeawrongone。Toproveanyotherprinciple，therefore，tobeawrongone，thereneedsnomorethanjusttoshowittobewhatitis，aprincipleofwhichthedictatesareinsomepointorotherdifferentfromthoseoftheprincipleofutility: tostateitistoconfuteit。 II。Aprinciplemaybedifferentfromthatofutilityintwoways:I。 Bybeingconstantlyopposedtoit:thisisthecasewithaprinciplewhichmaybetermedtheprincipleofasceticism。2。Bybeingsometimesopposedtoit，andsometimesnot，asitmayhappen:thisisthecasewithanother，whichmaybetermedtheprincipleofsympathyandantipathy。 III。BytheprincipleofasceticismImeanthatprinciple，which，liketheprincipleofutility，approvesordisapprovesofanyaction，accordingtothetendencywhichitappearstohavetoaugmentordiminishthehappinessofthepartywhoseinterestisinquestion；butinaninversemanner:approvingofactionsinasfarastheytendtodiminishhishappiness；disapprovingoftheminasfarastheytendtoaugmentit。 IV。Itisevidentthatanyonewhoreprobatesanytheleastparticleofpleasure，assuch，fromwhateversourcederived，isprotantoapartizanoftheprincipleofasceticism。Itisonlyuponthatprinciplesandnotfromtheprincipleofutility，thatthemostabominablepleasurewhichthevilestofmalefactorseverreapedfromhiscrimewouldbetobereprobated，ifitstoodalone。 Thecaseis，thatitneverdoesstandalone；butisnecessarilyfollowedbysuchaquantityofpain(or，whatcomestothesamething，suchachanceforacertainquantityofpain)that，thepleasureincomparisonofit，isasnothing:andthisisthetrueandsole，butperfectlysufficient，reasonformakingitagroundforpunishment。 V。Therearetwoclassesofmenofverydifferentcomplexions，bywhomtheprincipleofasceticismappearstohavebeenembraced；theoneasetofmoralists，theotherasetofreligionists。 Differentaccordinglyhavebeenthemotiveswhichappearstohaverecommendedittothenoticeofthesedifferentparties。Hope，thatistheprospectofpleasure，seemstohaveanimatedtheformer:hope，thealimentofphilosophicpride:thehopeofhonourandreputationatthehandsofmen。Fear，thatistheprospectofpain，thelatter:fear，theoffspringofsuperstitiousfancy:thefearoffuturepunishmentatthehandsofaspleneticandrevengefulDeity。Isayinthiscasefear:foroftheinvisiblefuture，fearismorepowerfulthanhope。Thesecircumstancescharacterizethetwodifferentpartiesamongthepartisansoftheprincipleofasceticism；thepartiesandtheirmotivesdifferent，theprinciplethesame。 VI。Thereligiousparty，however，appeartohavecarrieditfartherthanthephilosophical:theyhaveactedmoreconsistentlyandlesswisely。Thephilosophicalpartyhavescarcelygonefartherthantoreprobatepleasure:thereligiouspartyhavefrequentlygonesofarastomakeitamatterofmeritandofdutytocourtpain。 Thephilosophicalpartyhavehardlygonefartherthanthemakingpainamatterofindifference。Itisnoevil，theyhavesaid: theyhavenotsaid，itisagood。Theyhavenotsomuchasreprobatedallpleasureinthelump。Theyhavediscardedonlywhattheyhavecalledthegross；thatis，suchasareorganical，orofwhichtheoriginiseasilytraceduptosuchasareorganical:theyhaveevencherishedandmagnifiedtherefined。Yetthis，however，notunderthenameofpleasure:tocleanseitselffromthesordesofitsimpureoriginal，itwasnecessaryitshouldchangeitsname:thehonourable，theglorious，thereputable，thebecoming，thehonestum，thedecorumitwastobecalled:inshort，anythingbutpleasure。 VII。Fromthesetwosourceshaveflowedthedoctrinesfromitwhichthesentimentsofthebulkofmankindhaveallalongreceivedatinctureofthisprinciple；somefromthephilosophical，somefromthereligious，somefromboth。Menofeducationmorefrequentlyfromthephilosophical，asmoresuitedtotheelevationoftheirsentiments:thevulgarmorefrequentlyfromthesuperstitious，asmoresuitedtothenarrownessoftheirintellect，undilatedbyknowledgeandtotheabjectnessoftheircondition，continuallyopentotheattacksoffear。Thetinctures，however，derivedfromthetwosources，wouldnaturallyintermingle，insomuchthatamanwouldnotalwaysknowbywhichofthemhewasmostinfluenced:andtheywouldoftenservetocorroborateandenlivenoneanother。Itwasthisconformitythatmadeakindofalliancebetweenpartiesofacomplexionotherwisesodissimilar:anddisposedthemtouniteuponvariousoccasionsagainstthecommonenemy，thepartizanoftheprincipleofutility，whomtheyjoinedinbrandingwiththeodiousnameofEpicurean。 VIII。Theprincipleofasceticism，however，withwhateverwarmthitmayhavebeenembracedbyitspartizansasaruleofPrivateconduct，seemsnottohavebeencarriedtoanyconsiderablelength，whenappliedtothebusinessofgovernment。Inafewinstancesithasbeencarriedalittlewaybythephilosophicalparty:witnesstheSpartanregimen。Thoughthen，perhaps，itmaybeconsideredashavingbeenameasureofsecurity:andanapplication，thoughaprecipitateandperverseapplication，oftheprincipleofutility。Scarcelyinanyinstances，toanyconsiderablelength，bythereligious:forthevariousmonasticorders，andthesocietiesoftheQuakers，Dumplers，Moravians，andotherreligionists，havebeenfreesocieties，whoseregimennomanhasbeenastrictedtowithouttheinterventionofhisownconsent。