第3章

Thismaybeeithergeneralreferringtothesumofthecausesthatactuponhimduringagivenperiod:orparticular，referringtotheactionofanyoneparticularcause，orsortofcause。 III。Butinthesamemindsuchandsuchcausesofpainorpleasurewillproducemorepainorpleasurethansuchorsuchothercausesofpainorpleasure:andthisproportionwillindifferentmindsbedifferent。Thedispositionwhichanyonehastohavetheproportioninwhichheisaffectedbytwosuchcauses，differentfromthatinwhichanothermanisaffectedbythesametwocauses，maybetermedthequalityorbiasofhissensibility。Oneman，forinstance，maybemostaffectedbythepleasuresofthetaste；anotherbythoseoftheear。Soalso，iftherebeadifferenceinthenatureorproportionoftwopainsorpleasureswhichtheyrespectivelyexperiencefromthesamecause；acasenotsofrequentastheformer。Fromthesameinjury，forinstance，onemanmayfeelthesamequantityofgriefandresentmenttogetherasanotherman:butoneofthemshallfeelagreatershareofgriefthanofresentment:theother，agreatershareofresentmentthanofgrief。 IV。Anyincidentwhichservesasacause，eitherofpleasureorofpain，maybetermedanexcitingcause:ifofpleasure，apleasurablecause:ifofpain，apainful，afflictive，ordolorificcause。 V。Nowthequantityofpleasure，orofpain，whichamanisliabletoexperienceupontheapplicationofanexcitingcause，sincetheywillnotdependaltogetheruponthatcause，willdependinsomemeasureuponsomeothercircumstanceorcircumstances: thesecircumstances，whatsoevertheybe，maybetermedcircumstancesinfluencingsensibility。 VI。Thesecircumstanceswillapplydifferentlytodifferentexcitingcauses；insomuchthattoacertainexcitingcause，acertaincircumstanceshallnotapplyatall，whichshallapplywithgreatforcetoanotherexcitingcause。Butwithoutenteringforthepresentintothesedistinctions，itmaybeofusetosumupallthecircumstanceswhichcanbefoundtoinfluencetheeffectofanyexcitingcause。These，asonaformeroccasion，itmaybeaswellfirsttosumuptogetherintheconcisestmannerpossible，andafterwardstoallotafewwordstotheseparateexplanationofeacharticle。Theyseemtobeasfollows:1。Health。2。Strength。 3。Hardiness。4。Bodilyimperfection。5。Quantityandqualityofknowledge。 6。Strengthofintellectualpowers。7。Firmnessofmind。8。Steadinessofmind。9。Bentofinclination。10。Moralsensibility。 11。Moralbiases。12。Religioussensibility。13。 Religiousbiases。14。Sympatheticsensibility。15。Sympatheticbiases。 16。Antipatheticsensibility。17。Antipatheticbiases18。 Insanity。19。Habitualoccupations。20。Pecuniarycircumstances。21。 Connexionsinthewayofsympathy。22。Connexionsinthewayofantipathy。23。Radicalframeofbody。24。Radicalframeofmind。25。Sex。26。Age。27。Rank。28。Education。29。 Climate。30。Lineage。31。Government。32。Religiousprofession。 VII。1。Healthistheabsenceofdisease，andconsequentlyofallthosekindsofpainwhichareamongthesymptomsofdisease。Amanmaybesaidtobeinastateofhealthwhenheisnotconsciousofanyuneasysensations，theprimaryseatofwhichcanbeperceivedtobeanywhereinhisbody。Inpointofofgeneralsensibility，amanwhoisunderthepressureofanybodilyindisposition，or，asthephraseis，isinanillstateofhealth，islesssensibletotheinfluenceofanypleasurablecause，andmoresotothatofanyafflictiveone，thanifhewerewell。 VIII。2。Thecircumstanceofstrength，thoughinpointofcausalitycloselyconnectedwiththatofhealth，isperfectlydistinguishablefromit。Thesamemanwillindeedgenerallybestrongerinagoodstateofhealththaninabadone。Butoneman，eveninabadstateofhealth，maybestrongerthananothereveninagoodone。Weaknessisacommonconcomitantofdisease:butinconsequenceofhisradicalframeofbody，amanmaybeweakallhislifelong，withoutexperiencinganydisease。Health，aswehaveobserved，isprincipallyanegativecircumstance:strengthapositiveone。Thedegreeofaman\'sstrengthcanbemeasuredwithtolerableaccuracy。 IX。3。Hardinessisacircumstancewhich，thoughcloselyconnectedwiththatofstrength，isdistinguishablefromit。Hardinessistheabsenceofirritability。Irritabilityrespectseitherpain，resultingfromtheactionofmechanicalcauses；ordisease，resultingfromtheactionofcausespurelyphysiological。Irritability，intheformersense，isthedispositiontoundergoagreaterorlessdegreeofpainupontheapplicationofamechanicalcause；suchasaremostofthoseapplicationsbywhichsimpleafflictivepunishmentsareinflicted，aswhipping，beating，andthelike。Inthelattersense，itisthedispositiontocontractdiseasewithgreaterorlessfacility，upontheapplicationofanyinstrumentactingonthebodybyitsphysiologicalproperties；asinthecaseoffevers，orofcolds，orotherinflammatorydiseases，producedbytheapplicationofdampair:ortoexperienceimmediateuneasiness，asinthecaseofrelaxationorchillinessproducedbyanoverorunderproportionofthematterofheat。 Hardiness，eveninthesenseinwhichitisopposedtotheactionofmechanicalcauses，isdistinguishablefromstrength。Theexternalindicationsofstrengtharetheabundanceandfirmnessofnothemuscularfibres:thoseofhardiness，inthissense，arethefirmnessofthemuscularfibres，andthecallosityoftheskin。 Strengthismorepeculiarlythegiftofnature:hardiness，ofeducation。Oftwopersonswhohavehad，theonetheeducationofagentleman，theother，thatofacommonsailor，thefirstmaybethestronger，atthesametimethattheotheristhehardier。 X。4。Bybodilyimperfectionmaybeunderstoodthatconditionwhichapersonisin，whoeitherstandsdistinguishedbyanyremarkabledeformity，orwantsanyofthosepartsorfaculties，whichtheordinaryrunofpersonsofthesamesexandagearefurnishedwith:who，forinstance，hasahare-lip，isdeaf，orhaslostahand。Thiscircumstance，likethatofill-health，tendsingeneraltodiminishmoreorlesstheeffectofanypleasurablecircumstance，andtoincreasethatofanyafflictiveone。Theeffectofthiscircumstance，however，admitsofgreatvariety:inasmuchasthereareagreatvarietyofwaysinwhichamanmaysufferinhispersonalappearance，andinhisbodilyorgansandfaculties: allwhichdifferenceswillbetakennoticeofintheirproperplaces。 XI。5。Somuchforcircumstancesbelongingtotheconditionofthebody: wecomenowtothosewhichconcerntheconditionofthemind:theuseofmentioningthesewillbeseenhereafter。Inthefirstplacemaybereckonedthequantityandqualityoftheknowledgethepersoninquestionhappenstopossess:thatis，oftheideaswhichhehasactuallyinstoresreadyuponoccasiontocalltomind:meaningsuchideasasareinsomewayorotherofaninterestingnature:thatis，ofanatureinsomewayorothertoinfluencehishappiness，orthatofothermen。Whentheseideasaremany，andofimportance，amanissaidtobeamanofknowledge；whenfew，ornotofimportance，ignorant。 XII。6。Bystrengthofintellectualpowersmaybeunderstoodthedegreeoffacilitywhichamanexperiencesinhisendeavourstocalltomindaswellsuchideasashavebeenalreadyaggregatedtohisstockofknowledge，asanyothers，which，uponanyoccasionthatmayhappen，hemayconceiveadesiretoplacethere。 Itseemstobeonsomesuchoccasionasthisthatthewordspartsandtalentsarecommonlyemployed。Tothisheadmaybereferredtheseveralqualitiesofreadinessofapprehension，accuracyandtenacityofmemory，strengthofattention，clearnessofdiscernment，amplitudeofcomprehension，vividityandrapidityofimagination。Strengthofintellectualpowers，ingeneral，seemstocorrespondprettyexactlytogeneralstrengthofbody:asanyofthesequalitiesinparticulardoestoparticularstrength。 XIII。7。Firmnessofmindontheonehand，andirritabilityontheother，regardtheproportionbetweenthedegreesofefficacywithwhichamanisacteduponbyanexcitingcause，ofwhichthevaluelieschieflyinmagnitude，andoneofwhichthevaluelieschieflyinpropinquity。Amanmaybesaidtobeofafirmmind，whensmallpleasuresorpains，whicharepresentornear，donotaffecthim，inagreaterproportiontotheirvalue，thangreaterpleasuresorpains，whichareuncertainorremote；Ofanirritablemind，whenthecontraryisthecase。 XIV。8。Steadinessregardsthetimeduringwhichagivenexcitingcauseofagivenvaluecontinuestoaffectamaninnearlythesamemanneranddegreeasatfirst，noassignableexternaleventorchangeofcircumstancesinterveningtomakeanalterationinitsforce。 XV。9。Bythebentofaman\'sinclinationsmaybeunderstoodthepropensityhehastoexpectpleasureorpainfromcertainobjects，ratherthanfromothers。Aman\'sinclinationsmaybesaidtohavesuchorsuchabent，when，amongsttheseveralsortsofobjectswhichaffordpleasureinsomedegreetoallmen，heisapttoexpectmorepleasurefromoneparticularsort，thanfromanotherparticularsort，ormorefromanygivenparticularsort，thananothermanwouldexpectfromthatsort；orwhen，amongsttheseveralsortsofobjects，whichtoonemanaffordpleasure，whilsttoanothertheyaffordnone，heisapttoexpect，ornottoexpect，pleasurefromanobjectofsuchorsuchasort:soalsowithregardtopains。Thiscircumstance，thoughintimatelyconnectedwiththatofthebiasofaman\'ssensibility，isnotundistinguishablefromit。Thequantityofpleasureorpain，whichonanygivenoccasionamanmayexperiencefromanapplicationofanysort，maybegreatlyinfluencedbytheexpectationshehasbeenusedtoentertainofpleasureorpainfromthatquarter；butitwillnotbeabsolutelydeterminedbythem:forpleasureorpainmaycomeuponhimfromaquarterfromwhichhewasnotaccustomedtoexpectit。 XVI。10。Thecircumstancesofmoral，religious，sympathetic，andantipatheticsensibility，whencloselyconsidered，willappeartobeincludedinsomesortunderthatofbentofinclination。 Onaccountoftheirparticularimportancetheymay，however，beworthmentioningapart。Aman\'smoralsensibilitymaybesaidtobestrong，whenthepainsandpleasuresofthemoralsanctionshowgreaterinhiseyes，incomparisonwithotherpleasuresandpains(andconsequentlyexertastrongerinfluence)thanintheeyesofthepersonsheiscomparedwith；inotherwords，whenheisactedonwithmorethanordinaryefficacybythesenseofhonour:itmaybesaidtobeweak，whenthecontraryisthecase。 XVII。11。Moralsensibilityseemstoregardtheaverageeffectorinfluenceofthepainsandpleasuresofthemoralsanction，uponallsortsofoccasionstowhichitisapplicable，orhappenstobeapplied。Itregardstheaverageforceorquantityoftheimpulsesthemindreceivesfromthatsourceduringagivenperiod。 Moralbiasregardstheparticularactsonwhich，uponsomanyparticularoccasions，theforceofthatsanctionislookeduponasattaching。Itregardsthequalityordirectionofthoseimpulses。Itadmitsofasmanyvarieties，therefore，astherearedictateswhichthemoralsanctionmaybeconceivedtoissueforth。Amanmaybesaidtohavesuchorsuchamoralbias，ortohaveamoralbiasinfavourofsuchorsuchanaction，whenhelooksuponitasbeingofthenumberofthoseofwhichtheperformanceisdictatedbythemoralsanction。 XVIII。12。Whathasbeensaidwithregardtomoralsensibility，maybeapplied，mutatismutandis，toreligious。 XIX。13。Whathasbeensaidwithregardtomoralbiases，mayalsobeapplied，mutatismutandis，toreligiousbiases。 XX。14。Bysympatheticsensibilityistobeunderstoodthepropensitythatamanhastoderivepleasurefromthehappiness，andpainfromtheunhappiness，ofothersensitivebeings。Itisthestronger，thegreatertheratioofthepleasureorpainhefeelsontheiraccountistothatofthepleasureorpainwhich(accordingtowhatappearstohim)theyfeelforthemselves。 XXI。15。Sympatheticbiasregardsthedescriptionofthepartieswhoaretheobjectsofaman\'ssympathy:andoftheactsorothercircumstancesoforbelongingtothosepersons，bywhichthesympathyisexcited。Thesepartiesmaybe，1。Certainindividuals。2。Anysubordinateclassofindividuals。3。Thewholenation。4。Humankindingeneral。5。Thewholesensitivecreation。Accordingastheseobjectsofsympathyaremorenumerous，theaffection，bywhichthemanisbiased，maybesaidtobethemoreenlarged。 XXII。16，17。Antipatheticsensibilityandantipatheticbiasesarejustthereverseofsympatheticsensibilityandsympatheticbiases。Byantipatheticsensibilityistobeunderstoodthepropensitythatamanhastoderivepainfromthehappiness，andpleasurefromtheunhappiness，ofothersensitivebeings。 XXIII。18。Thecircumstanceofinsanityofmindcorrespondstothatofbodilyimperfection。Itadmits，however，ofmuchlessvariety，inasmuchasthesoulis(foraughtwecanperceive)oneindivisiblething，notdistinguishable，likethebody，intoparts。 Whatlesserdegreesofimperfectionthemindmaybesusceptibleof，seemtobecomprisableunderthealready-mentionedheadsofignorance，weaknessofmind，irritability，orunsteadiness； orundersuchothersasarereducibletothem。Thosewhicharehereinviewarethoseextraordinaryspeciesanddegreesofmentalimperfection，which，wherevertheytakeplace，areasconspicuousandasunquestionableaslamenessorblindnessinthebody: operatingpartly，itshouldseem，byinducinganextraordinarydegreeoftheimperfectionsabovementioned，partlybygivinganextraordinaryandpreposterousbenttotheinclinations。 XXIV。19。Undertheheadofaman\'shabitualoccupations，aretobeunderstood，onthisoccasion，aswellthosewhichhepursuesforthesakeofprofit，asthosewhichhepursuesforthesakeofpresentpleasure。Theconsiderationoftheprofititselfbelongstotheheadofaman\'specuniarycircumstances。Itisevident，thatifbyanymeansapunishment，oranyotherexcitingcause，hastheeffectofputtingitoutofhispowertocontinueinthepursuitofanysuchoccupation，itmustonthataccountbemuchthemoredistressing。Aman\'shabitualoccupations，thoughintimatelyconnectedinpointofcausalitywiththebentofhisinclinations，arenottobelookeduponaspreciselythesamecircumstance。 Anamusement，orchannelofprofit，maybetheobjectofaman\'sinclinations，whichhasneverbeenthesubjectofhishabitualoccupations:foritmaybe，thatthoughhewishedtobetakehimselftoit，heneverdid，itnotbeinginhispower: acircumstancewhichmaymakeagooddealofdifferenceintheeffectofanyincidentbywhichhehappenstobedebarredfromit。 XXV。20。Undertheheadofpecuniarycircumstances，Imeantobringtoviewtheproportionwhichaman\'smeansbeartohiswants:thesumtotalofhismeansofeverykind，tothesumtotalofhiswantsofeverykind。Aman\'smeansdependuponthreecircumstances:1。Hisproperty。2。Theprofitofhislabour。3。Hisconnexionsinthewayofsupport。Hiswantsseemtodependuponfourcircumstances。1。Hishabitsofexpense。2。Hisconnexionsinthewayofburthen。3。Anypresentcasualdemandhemayhave。4。Thestrengthofhisexpectation。Byaman\'spropertyistobeunderstood，whateverhehasinstoreindependentofhislabour。Bytheprofitofhislabouristobeunderstoodthegrowingprofit。Astolabour，itmaybeeitherofthebodyprincipally，orofthemindprincipally，orofbothindifferently: nordoesitmatterinwhatmanner，noronwhatsubject，itbeapplied，soitproduceaprofit。Byaman\'sconnexionsinthewayofsupport，aretobeunderstoodthepecuniaryassistances，ofwhateverkind，whichheisinawayofreceivingfromanypersonswho，onwhateveraccount，andinwhateverproportion，hehasreasontoexpectshouldcontributegratistohismaintenance:suchashisparents，patrons，andrelations。Itseemsmanifest，thatamancanhavenoothermeansthanthese。Whatheuses，hemusthaveeitherofhisown，orfromotherpeople:iffromotherpeople，eithergratisorforaprice。Astohabitsofexpense，itiswellknown，thataman\'sdesiresaregovernedinagreatdegreebyhishabits。Manyarethecasesinwhichdesire(andconsequentlythepainofprivationconnectedwithit)wouldnotevensubsistatall，butforpreviousenjoyment。Byaman\'sconnexionsinthewayofburthen，aretobeunderstoodwhateverexpensehehasreasontolookuponhimselfasboundtobeatinthesupportofthosewhobylaw，orthecustomsoftheworld，arewarrantedinlookinguptohimforassistance；suchaschildren，poorrelations，superannuatedservants，andanyotherdependentswhatsoever。Astopresentcasualdemand，itismanifest，thatthereareoccasionsonwhichagivensumwillbeworthinfinitelymoretoamanthanthesamesumwouldatanothertime: where，forexample，inacaseofextremity，amanstandsinneedofextraordinarymedicalassistance:orwantsmoneytocarryonalaw-suit，onwhichhisalldepends:orhasgotalivelihoodwaitingforhiminadistantcountry，andwantsmoneyforthechargesofconveyance。Insuchcases，anypieceofgoodorillfortune，inthepecuniaryway，mighthaveaverydifferenteffectfromwhatitwouldhaveatanyothertime。Withregardtostrengthofexpectation；whenonemanexpectstogainortokeepathingwhichanotherdoesnot，itisplainthecircumstanceofnothavingitwillaffecttheformerverydifferentlyfromthelatter；who，indeed，commonlywillnotbeaffectedbyitatall。 Part2 XXVI。21。Undertheheadofaman\'sconnexionsinthewayofsympathy，Iwouldbringtoviewthenumberanddescriptionofthepersonsinwhosewelfarehetakessuchaconcern，asthattheideaoftheirhappinessshouldbeproductiveofpleasure，andthatoftheirunhappinessofpaintohim: forinstance，aman\'swife，hischildren，hisparents，hisnearrelations，andintimatefriends。Thisclassofpersons，itisobvious，willforthemostpartincludethetwoclassesbywhichhispecuniarycircumstancesareaffected:those，towit，fromwhosemeanshemayexpectsupport，andthosewhosewantsoperateonhimasaburthen。Butitisobvious，thatbesidesthese，itmayverywellincludeothers，withwhomhehasnosuchpecuniaryconnexion:andevenwithregardtothese，itisevidentthatthepecuniarydependence，andtheunionofaffections，arecircumstancesperfectlydistinguishable。Accordingly，theconnexionshereinquestion，independentlyofanyinfluencetheymayhaveonaman\'specuniarycircumstances，haveaninfluenceontheeffectofanyexcitingcauseswhatsoever。Thetendencyofthemistoincreaseaman\'sgeneralsensibility；toincrease，ontheonehand，thepleasureproducedbyallpleasurablecauses；ontheother，thepainproducedbyallafflictiveones。 Whenanypleasurableincidenthappenstoaman，henaturally，inthefirstmoment，thinksofthepleasureitwillaffordimmediatelytohimself:presentlyafterwards，however(exceptinafewcases，whichisnotworthwhileheretoinsiston)hebeginstothinkofthepleasurewhichhisfriendswillfeelupontheircomingtoknowofit:andthissecondarypleasureiscommonlynomeanadditiontotheprimaryone。 Firstcomestheself-regardingpleasure:thencomestheideaofthepleasureofsympathy，whichyousupposethatpleasureofyourswillgivebirthtointhebosomofyourfriend:andthisideaexcitesagaininyoursanewpleasureofsympathy，groundeduponhis。Thefirstpleasureissuingfromyourownbosom，asitwerefromaradiantpoint，illuminatesthebosomofyourfriend:reverberatedfromthence，itisreflectedwithaugmentedwarmthtothepointfromwhenceitfirstproceeded:andsoitiswithpains。 Nordoesthiseffectdependwhollyuponaffection。Amongnearrelations，althoughthereshouldbenokindness，thepleasuresandpainsofthemoralsanctionarequicklypropagatedbyapeculiarkindofsympathy:noarticle，eitherofhonourordisgrace，canwellfalluponaman，withoutextendingtoacertaindistancewithinthecircleofhisfamily。Whatreflectshonouruponthefather，reflectshonourupontheson:whatreflectsdisgrace，disgrace。 Thecauseofthissingularandseeminglyunreasonablecircumstance(thatis，itsanalogytotherestofthephenomenaofthehumanmind，)belongsnottothepresentpurpose。Itissufficientiftheeffectbebeyonddispute。 XXVII。22。Ofaman\'sconnexionsinthewayofantipathy，thereneedsnotanythingveryparticulartobeobserved。Happilythereisnoprimevalandconstantsourceofantipathyinahumannature，asthereisofsympathy。Therearenopermanentsetsofpersonswhoarenaturallyandofcoursetheobjectsofantipathytoaman，astherearewhoaretheobjectsofthecontraryaffection。Sources，however，buttoomany，ofantipathy，areapttospringupuponvariousoccasionsduringthecourseofaman\'slife:andwhenevertheydo，thiscircumstancemayhaveaveryconsiderableinfluenceontheeffectsofvariousexcitingcauses。Asontheonehand，apunishment，forinstance，whichtendstoseparateamanfromthosewithwhomheisconnectedinthewayofsympathy，soontheotherhand，onewhichtendstoforcehimintothecompanyofthosewithwhomheisconnectedinthewayofantipathy，will，onthataccount，besomuchthemoredistressing。Itistobeobserved，thatsympathyitselfmultipliesthesourcesofantipathy。Sympathyforyourfriendgivesbirthtoantipathyonyourpartagainstallthosewhoareobjectsofantipathy，aswellastosympathyforthosewhoareobjectsofsympathytohim。Inthesamemannerdoesantipathymultiplythesourcesofsympathy；thoughcommonlyperhapswithratheralessdegreeofefficacy。Antipathyagainstyourenemyisapttogivebirthtosympathyonyourparttowardsthosewhoareobjectsofantipathy，aswellastoantipathyagainstthosewhoareobjectsofsympathy，tohim。 XXVIII。23。Thusmuchforthecircumstancesbywhichtheeffectofanyexcitingcausemaybeinfluenced，whenapplieduponanygivenoccasion，atanygivenperiod。Butbesidesthesesuperveningincidents，thereareothercircumstancesrelativetoaman，thatmayhavetheirinfluence，andwhichareco-evaltohisbirth。 Inthefirstplace，itseemstobeuniversallyagreed，thatintheoriginalframeortextureofeveryman\'sbody，thereisasomethingwhich，independentlyofallsubsequentlyinterveningcircumstances，rendershimliabletobeaffectedbycausesproducingbodilypleasureorpain，inamannerdifferentfromthatinwhichanothermanwouldbeaffectedbythesamecauses。Tothecatalogueofcircumstancesinfluencingaman\'ssensibility，wemaythereforeaddhisoriginalorradicalframe，texture，constitution，ortemperamentofbody。 XXIX。24。Inthenextplace，itseemstobeprettywellagreed，thatthereissomethingalsointheoriginalframeortextureofeveryman\'smind，which，independentlyofallexteriorandsubsequentlyinterveningcircumstances，andevenofhisradicalframeofbody，makeshimliabletobedifferentlyaffectedbythesameexcitingcauses，fromwhatanothermanwouldbe。Tothecatalogueofcircumstancesinfluencingaman\'ssensibility，wemaythereforefurtheraddhisoriginalorradicalframe，texture，constitutionortemperamentofmind。 XXX。Itseemsprettycertain，allthiswhile，thataman\'ssensibilitytocausesproducingpleasureorpain，evenofmind，maydependinaconsiderabledegreeuponhisoriginalandacquiredframeofbody。Butwehavenoreasontothinkthatitcandependaltogetheruponthatframe:since，ontheonehand，weseepersonswhoseframeofbodyisasmuchalikeascanbeconceived，differingveryconsiderablyinrespectoftheirmentalframe: and，ontheotherhand，personswhoseframeofmindisasmuchalikeascanbeconceived，differingveryconspicuouslyinregardtotheirbodilyframe。 XXXI。Itseemsindisputablealso，thatthedifferentsetsofaexternaloccurrencesthatmaybefallamaninthecourseofhislife，willmakegreatdifferencesinthesubsequenttextureofhismindatanygivenperiod:yetstillthosedifferencesarenotsolelytobeattributedtosuchoccurrences。Equallyfarfromthetruthseemsthatopiniontobe(ifanysuchbemaintained)whichattributesalltonature，andthatwhichattributesalltoeducation。 Thetwocircumstanceswillthereforestillremaindistinct，aswellfromoneanother，asfromallothers。 XXXII。Distincthoweverastheyare，itismanifest，thatatnoperiodintheactivepartofaman\'slifecantheyeitherofthemmaketheirappearancebythemselves。Alltheydoistoconstitutethelatentground-workwhichtheothersuperveningcircumstanceshavetoworkuponandwhateverinfluencethoseoriginalprinciplesmayhave，issochangedandmodified，andcoveredover，asitwere，bythoseothercircumstances，asnevertobeseparatelydiscernible。Theeffectsoftheoneinfluenceareindistinguishablyblendedwiththoseoftheother。 XXXIII。Theemotionsofthebodyarereceived，andwithreason，asprobableindicationsofthetemperatureofthemind。Buttheyarefarenoughfromconclusive。Amanmayexhibit，forinstance，theexteriorappearancesofgrief，withoutreallygrievingatall，oratleastinanythingneartheproportioninwhichheappearstogrieve。OliverCromwell，whoseconductindicatedaheartmorethanordinarilycallous，wasasremarkablyprofuseintears(Hume\'sHistory)。Manymencancommandtheexternalappearancesofsensibilitywithverylittlerealfeeling。Thefemalesexcommonlywithgreaterfacilitythanthemale:hencetheproverbialexpressionofawoman\'stears。Tohavethiskindofcommandoverone\'sself，wasthecharacteristicexcellenceoftheoratorofancienttimes，andisstillthatoftheplayerinourown。 XXXIV。Theremainingcircumstancesmay，withreferencetothosealreadymentioned，betermedsecondaryinfluencingcircumstances。Thesehaveaninfluence，itistrue，onthequantumorbiasofaman\'ssensibility，butitisonlybymeansoftheotherprimaryones。Themannerinwhichthesetwosetsofcircumstancesareconcerned，issuchthattheprimaryonesdothebusiness，whilethesecondaryonesliemostopentoobservation。Thesecondaryones，therefore，arethosewhicharemostheardof；onwhichaccountitwillbenecessarytotakenoticeofthem: atthesametimethatitisonlybymeansoftheprimaryonesthattheirinfluencecanbeexplained；whereastheinfluenceoftheprimaryoneswillbeapparentenough，withoutanymentionofthesecondaryones。 XXXV。25。Amongsuchoftheprimitivemodificationsofthecorporealframeasmayappeartoinfluencethequantumandbiasofsensibility，themostobviousandconspicuousarethosewhichconstitutethesex。Inpointofquantity，thesensibilityofthefemalesexappearsingeneraltobegreaterthanthatofthemale。 Thehealthofthefemaleismoredelicatethanthatofthemale:inpointofstrengthandhardinessofbody，inpointofquantityandqualityofknowledge，inpointofstrengthofintellectualpowers，andfirmnessofmind，sheiscommonlyinferior:moral，religious，sympathetic，andantipatheticsensibilityarecommonlystrongerinherthaninthemale。Thequalityofherknowledge，andthebentofherinclinations，arecommonlyinmanyrespectsdifferent。Hermoralbiasesarealso，incertainrespects，remarkablydifferent:chastity，modesty，anddelicacy，forinstance，areprizedmorethancourageinawoman:courage，morethananyofthosequalities，inaman。Thereligiousbiasesinthetwosexesarenotapttoberemarkablydifferent；exceptthatthefemaleisrathermoreinclinedthanthemaletosuperstition；thatis，toobservancesnotdictatedbytheprincipleofutility；adifferencethatmaybeprettywellaccountedforbysomeofthebefore-mentionedcircumstances。Hersympatheticbiasesareinmanyrespectsdifferent；forherownoffspringalltheirliveslong，andforchildreningeneralwhileyoung，heraffectioniscommonlystrongerthanthatofthemale。Heraffectionsareapttobelessenlarged:seldomexpandingthemselvessomuchastotakeinthewelfareofhercountryingeneral，muchlessthatofmankind，orthewholesensitivecreation:seldomembracinganyextensiveclassordivision，evenofherowncountrymen，unlessitbeinvirtueofhersympathyforsomeparticularindividualsthatbelongtoit。Ingeneral，herantipathetic，aswellassympatheticbiasesareapttobelessconformabletotheprincipleofutilitythanthoseofthemale；owingchieflytosomedeficiencyinpointofknowledge，discernment，andcomprehension。Herhabitualoccupationsoftheamusingkindareapttobeinmanyrespectsdifferentfromthoseofthemale。Withregardtoherconnexionsinthewayofsympathy，therecanbenodifference。Inpointofpecuniarycircumstances，accordingtothecustomsofperhapsallcountries，sheisingenerallessindependent。 XXXVI。26。Ageisofcoursedividedintodiversperiods，ofwhichthenumberandlimitsarebynomeansuniformlyascertained。Onemightdistinguishit，forthepresentpurpose，into，1。Infancy。2。Adolescence。3。Youth。4。Maturity。5。 Decline。6。Decrepitude。Itwerelosttimetostoponthepresentoccasiontoexamineitateachperiod，andtoobservetheindicationsitgives，withrespecttotheseveralprimarycircumstancesjustreviewed。Infancyanddecrepitudearecommonlyinferiortotheotherperiods，inpointofhealth，strength，hardiness，andsoforth。Ininfancy，onthepartofthefemale，theimperfectionsofthatsexareenhanced:onthepartofthemale，imperfectionstakeplacemostlysimilarinquality，butgreaterinquantity，tothoseattendingthestatesofadolescence，youth，andmaturityinthefemale。Inthestageofdecrepitudebothsexesrelapseintomanyoftheimperfectionsofinfancy。Thegeneralityoftheseobservationsmayeasilybecorrecteduponaparticularreview。 XXXVII。27。Station，orrankinlife，isacircumstance，that，amongacivilizedpeople，willcommonlyundergoamultiplicityofvariations。Cæ；terisParibus，thequantumofsensibilityappearstobegreaterinthehigherranksofmenthaninthelower。Theprimarycircumstancesinrespectofwhichthissecondarycircumstanceisapttoinduceorindicateadifference，seemprincipallytobeasfollows:1。QuantityandQualityofknowledge。 2。Strengthofmind。3。Bentofinclination。4。Moralsensibility。5。Moralbiases。6。Religioussensibility。7。Religiousbiases。8。Sympatheticsensibility。9。Sympatheticbiases。10。 Antipatheticsensibility。11。Antipatheticbiases。12。Habitualoccupations。 13。Natureandproductivenessofaman\'smeansoflivelihood。14。Connexionsimportingprofit。15。Habitofexpense。 16。Connexionsimportingburthen。Amanofacertainrankwillfrequentlyhaveanumberofdependentsbesidesthosewhosedependencyistheresultofnaturalrelationship。Astohealth，strength，andhardiness，ifrankhasanyinfluenceonthesecircumstances，itisbutinaremotewaychieflybytheinfluenceitmayhaveonitshabitualoccupations。 XXXVIII。28。Theinfluenceofeducationisstillmoreextensive。Educationstandsuponafootingsomewhatdifferentfromthatofthecircumstancesofage，sex，andrank。Thesewords，thoughtheinfluenceofthecircumstancestheyrespectivelydenoteexertsitselfprincipally，ifnotentirely，throughthemediumofcertainoftheprimarycircumstancesbeforementioned，present，however，eachofthemacircumstancewhichhasaseparateexistenceofitself。Thisisnotthecasewiththewordeducation: whichmeansnothinganyfartherthanasitservestocalluptoviewsomeoneormoreofthoseprimarycircumstances。 Educationmaybedistinguishedintophysicalandmental；theeducationofthebodyandthatofthemind:mental，again，intointellectualandmoral；thecultureoftheunderstanding，andthecultureoftheaffections。Theeducationamanreceives，isgiventohimpartlybyothers，partlybyhimself。Byeducationthennothingmorecanbeexpressedthantheconditionamanisininrespectofthoseprimarycircumstances，asresultingpartlyfromthemanagementandcontrivanceofothers，principallyofthosewhointheearlyperiodsofhislifehavehaddominionoverhim，partlyfromhisown。Tothephysicalpartofhiseducation，belongthecircumstancesofhealth，strength，andhardiness:sometimes，byaccident，thatofbodilyimperfection；aswherebyintemperanceornegligenceanirreparablemischiefhappenstohisperson。 Totheintellectualpart，thoseofquantityandqualityofknowledge，andinsomemeasureperhapsthoseoffirmnessofmindandsteadiness。Tothemoralpart，thebentofhisinclinations，thequantityandqualityofhismoral，religious，sympathetic，andantipatheticsensibility:toallthreebranchesindiscriminately，butunderthesuperiorcontrolofexternaloccurrences，hishabitualrecreations，hisproperty，hismeansoflivelihood，hisconnexionsinthewayofprofitandofburthen，andhishabitsofexpense。Withrespectindeedtoallthesepoints，theinfluenceofeducationismodified，inamannermoreorlessapparent，bythatofexterioroccurrences；andinamannerscarcelyatallapparent，andaltogetheroutofthereachofcalculation，bytheoriginaltextureandconstitutionaswellofhisbodyasofhismind。 XXXIX。29。Amongtheexternalcircumstancesbywhichtheinfluenceofeducationismodified，theprincipalarethosewhichcomeundertheheadofclimate。Thiscircumstanceplacesitselfinfront，anddemandsaseparatedenomination，notmerelyonaccountofthemagnitudeofitsinfluence，butalsoonaccountofitsbeingconspicuoustoeverybody，andofitsapplyingindiscriminatelytogreatnumbersatatime。Thiscircumstancedependsforitsessenceuponthesituationofthatpartoftheearthwhichisinquestion，withrespecttothecoursetakenbythewholeplanetinitsrevolutionroundthesun:butforitsinfluenceitdependsupontheconditionofthebodieswhichcomposetheearth\'ssurfaceatthatpart，principallyuponthequantitiesofsensibleheatatdifferentperiods，anduponthedensity，andpurity，anddrynessormoistureofthecircumambientair。Ofthesooftenmentionedprimarycircumstances，therearefewofwhichtheproductionisnotinfluencedbythissecondaryone；partlybyitsmanifesteffectsuponthebody；partlybyitslessperceptibleeffectsuponthemind。Inhotclimatesmen\'shealthisapttobemoreprecariousthanincold:theirstrengthandhardinessless: theirvigour，firmness，andsteadinessofmindless:andthenceindirectlytheirquantityofknowledge:thebentoftheirinclinationsdifferent: mostremarkablysoinrespectoftheirsuperiorpropensitytosexualenjoyments，andinrespectoftheearlinessoftheperiodatwhichthatpropensitybeginstomanifestitself: theirsensibilitiesofallkindsmoreintense:theirhabitualoccupationssavouringmoreofsloththanofactivity:theirradicalframeofbodylessstrong，probably，andlesshardy:theirradicalframeofmindlessvigorous，lessfirm，lesssteady。 Part3 XL。30。Anotherarticleinthecatalogueofsecondarycircumstances，isthatofraceorlineage:thenationalraceorlineageamanissuesfrom。Thiscircumstance，independentlyofthatofclimate，willcommonlymakesomedifferenceinpointofradicalframeofmindandbody。Amanofnegrorace，borninFranceorEngland，isaverydifferentbeing，inmanyrespects，fromamanofFrenchorEnglishrace。AmanofSpanishrace，borninMexicoorPeru，isatthehourofhisbirthadifferentsortofbeing，inmanyrespects，fromamanoftheoriginalMexicanorPeruvianrace。Thiscircumstance，asfarasitisdistinctfromclimate，rank，andeducation，andfromthetwojustmentioned，operateschieflythroughthemediumofmoral，religious，sympathetic，andantipatheticbiases。 XLI。31。Thelastcircumstancebutone，isthatofgovernment:thegovernmentamanlivesunderatthetimeinquestion；orratherthatunderwhichhehasbeenaccustomedmosttolive。Thiscircumstanceoperatesprincipallythroughthemediumofeducation:themagistrateoperatinginthecharacterofatutoruponallthemembersofthestate，bythedirectionhegivestotheirhopesandtotheirfears。Indeedunderasolicitousandattentivegovernment，theordinarypreceptor，nayeventheparenthimself，isbutadeputy，asitwere，tothemagistrate:whosecontrollinginfluence，differentinthisrespectfromthatoftheordinarypreceptor，dwellswithamantohislife\'send。Theeffectsofthepeculiarpowerofthemagistrateareseenmoreparticularlyintheinfluenceitexertsoverthequantumandbiasofmen\'smoral，religious，sympathetic，andantipatheticsensibilities。Underawell-constituted，orevenunderawell-administeredthoughill-constitutedgovernment，men\'smoralsensibilityiscommonlystronger，andtheirmoralbiasesmoreconformabletothedictatesofutility:theirreligioussensibilityfrequentlyweaker，buttheirreligiousbiaseslessunconformabletothedictatesofutility:theirsympatheticaffectionsmoreenlarged，directedtothemagistratemorethantosmallpartiesortoindividuals，andmoretothewholecommunitythantoeither:theirantipatheticsensibilitieslessviolent，asbeingmoreobsequioustotheinfluenceofwell-directedmoralbiases，andlessapttobeexcitedbythatofill-directedreligiousones:theirantipatheticbiasesmoreconformab]etowell-directedmoralones，moreapt(inproportion)tobegroundedonenlargedandsympatheticthanonnarrowandself-regardingaffections，andaccordingly，uponthewhole，moreconformabletothedictatesofutility。 XLII。32。Thelastcircumstanceisthatofreligiousprofession:thereligiousprofessionamanisof:thereligiousfraternityofwhichheisamember。Thiscircumstanceoperatesprincipallythroughthemediumofreligioussensibilityandreligiousbiases。Itoperates，however，asanindicationmoreorlessconclusive，withrespecttoseveralothercircumstances。Withrespecttosome，scarcelybutthroughthemediumofthetwojustmentioned:thisisthecasewithregardtothequantumandbiasofaman\'smoral，sympathetic，andantipatheticsensibility:perhapsinsomecaseswithregardtoquantityandqualityofknowledge，strengthofintellectualpowers，andbentofinclination。Withrespecttoothers，itmayoperateimmediatelyofitself:thisseemstobethecasewithregardtoaman\'shabitualoccupations，pecuniarycircumstances，andconnexionsinthewayofsympathyandantipathy。Amanwhopaysverylittleinwardregardtothedictatesofthereligionwhichhefindsitnecessarytoprofess，mayfinditdifficulttoavoidjoiningintheceremoniesofit，andbearingapartinthepecuniaryburthensitimposes。Bytheforceofhabitandexamplehemayevenbeledtoentertainapartialityforpersonsofthesameprofession，andaproportionableantipathyagainstthoseofarivalone。Inparticular，theantipathyagainstpersonsofdifferentpersuasionsisoneofthelastpointsofreligionwhichmenpartwith。Lastly，itisobvious，thatthereligiousprofessionamanisofcannotbuthaveaconsiderableinfluenceonhiseducation。But，consideringtheimportofthetermeducation，tosaythisisperhapsnomorethansayinginotherwordswhathasbeensaidalready。 XLIII。Thesecircumstances，allormanyofthem，willneedtobeattendedtoasoftenasuponanyoccasionanyaccountistakenofanyquantityofpainorpleasure，asresultingfromanycause。 Hasanypersonsustainedaninjury？theywillneedtobeconsideredinestimatingthemischiefoftheoffense……Issatisfactiontobemadetohim？theywillneedtobeattendedtoinadjustingthequantumofthatsatisfaction。Istheinjurertobepunished？ theywillneedtobeattendedtoinestimatingtheforceoftheimpressionthatwillbemadeonhimbyanygivenpunishment。 XLIV。Itistobeobserved，thatthoughtheyseemallofthem，onsomeaccountorother，tomeritaplaceinthecatalogue，theyarenotallofequaluseinpractice。Differentarticlesamongthemareapplicabletodifferentexcitingcauses。Ofthosethatmayinfluencetheeffectofthesameexcitingcause，someapplyindiscriminatelytowholeclassesofpersonstogether；beingapplicabletoall，withoutanyremarkabledifferenceindegree:thesemaybedirectlyandprettyfullyprovidedforbythelegislator。Thisisthecase，forinstance，withtheprimarycircumstancesofbodilyimperfection，andinsanity:withthesecondarycircumstanceofsex:perhapswiththatofage:atanyratewiththoseofrank，ofclimate，oflineage，andofreligiousprofession。 Others，howevertheymayapplytowholeclassesofpersons，yetintheirapplicationtodifferentindividualsaresusceptibleofperhapsanindefinitevarietyofdegrees。Thesecannotbefullyprovidedforbythelegislator；but，astheexistenceofthem，ineverysortofcase，iscapableofbeingascertained，andthedegreeinwhichtheytakeplaceiscapableofbeingmeasured，provisionmaybemadeforthembythejudge，orotherexecutivemagistrate，towhomtheseveralindividualsthathappentobeconcernedmaybemadeknown。Thisisthecase，1。Withthecircumstanceofhealth。2。Insomesortwiththatofstrength。3。 Scarcelywiththatofhardiness:stilllesswiththoseofquantityandqualityofknowledge，strengthofintellectualpowers，firmnessorsteadinessofmind；exceptinasfarasaman\'scondition，inrespectofthosecircumstances，maybeindicatedbythesecondarycircumstancesofsex，age，orrank:hardlywiththatofbentofinclination，exceptinasfarasthatlatentcircumstanceisindicatedbythemoremanifestoneofhabitualoccupations:hardlywiththatofaman\'smoralsensibilityorbiases，exceptinasfarastheymaybeindicatedbyhissex，age，rank，andeducation: notatallwithhisreligioussensibilityandreligiousbiases，exceptinasfarastheymaybeindicatedbythereligiousprofessionhebelongsto:notatallwiththequantityorqualityofhissympatheticorantipatheticsensibilities，exceptinasfarastheymaybepresumedfromhissex，age，rank，education，lineage，orreligiousprofession。Itisthecase，however，withhishabitualoccupations，withhispecuniarycircumstances，andwithhisconnexionsinthewayofsympathy。Ofothers，again，eithertheexistencecannotbeascertained，orthedegreecannotbemeasured。These，therefore，cannotbetakenintoaccount，eitherbythelegislatorortheexecutivemagistrate。Accordingly，theywouldhavenoclaimtobetakennoticeof，wereitnotforthosesecondarycircumstancesbywhichtheyareindicated，andwhoseinfluencecouldnotwellbeunderstoodwithoutthem。Whatthesearehasbeenalreadymentioned。 XLV。Ithasalreadybeenobserved，thatdifferentarticlesinthislistofcircumstancesapplytodifferentexcitingcauses:thecircumstanceofbodilystrength，forinstance，hasscarcelyanyinfluenceofitself(whateveritmayhaveinaroundaboutway，andbyaccident)ontheeffectofanincidentwhichshouldincreaseordiminishthequantumofaman\'sproperty。Itremainstobeconsidered，whattheexcitingcausesarewithwhichthelegislatorhastodo。Thesemay，bysomeaccidentorother，beanywhatsoever:butthosewhichhehasprincipallytodo，arethoseofthepainfulorafflictivekind。Withpleasurableoneshehaslittletodo，exceptnowandthenbyaccident:thereasonsofwhichmaybeeasilyenoughperceived，atthesametimethatitwouldtakeuptoomuchroomtounfoldthemhere。Theexcitingcauseswithwhichhehasprincipallytodo，are，ontheonehand，themischievousacts，whichitishisbusinesstoprevent；ontheotherhand，thepunishments，bytheterrorofwhichitishisendeavourtopreventthem。Nowofthesetwosetsofexcitingcauses，thelatteronlyisofhisproduction:beingproducedpartlybyhisownspecialappointment，partlyinconformitytohisgeneralappointment，bythespecialappointmentofthejudge。 Forthelegislator，therefore，aswellasforthejudge，itisnecessary(iftheywouldknowwhatitistheyaredoingwhentheyareappointingpunishment)tohaveaneyetoallthesecircumstances。Forthelegislator，lest，meaningtoapplyacertainquantityofpunishmenttoallpersonswhoshallputthemselvesinagivenpredicament，heshouldunawaresapplytosomeofthosepersonsmuchmoreormuchlessthanhehimselfintended；forthejudge，lest，inapplyingtoaparticularpersonaparticularmeasureofpunishment，heshouldapplymuchmoreormuchlessthanwasintended，perhapsbyhimself，andatanyratebythelegislator。 Theyoughteachofthem，therefore，tohavebeforehim，ontheonehand，alistoftheseveralcircumstancesbywhichsensibilitymaybeinfluenced； ontheotherhand，alistoftheseveralspeciesanddegreesofpunishmentwhichtheypurposetomakeuseof:andthen，bymakingacomparisonbetweenthetwo，toformadetailedestimateoftheinfluenceofeachofthecircumstancesinquestion，upontheeffectofeachspeciesanddegreeofpunishment。 Therearetwoplansorordersofdistribution，eitherofwhichmightbepursuedinthedrawingupthisestimate。Theoneistomakethenameofthecircumstancetakethelead，andunderittorepresentthedifferentinfluencesitexertsovertheeffectsoftheseveralmodesofpunishment:theotheristomakethenameofthepunishmenttakethelead，andunderittorepresentthedifferentinfluenceswhichareexertedovertheeffectsofitbytheseveralcircumstancesabovementioned。Nowofthesetwosortsofobjects，thepunishmentisthattowhichtheintentionofthelegislatorisdirectedinthefirstinstance。Thisisofhisowncreation，andwillbewhatsoeverhethinksfittomakeit:theinfluencingcircumstanceexistsindependentlyofhim，andiswhatitiswhetherhewillorno。Whathehasoccasiontodoistoestablishacertainspeciesanddegreeofpunishment:anditisonlywithreferencetothatpunishmentthathehasoccasiontomakeanyinquiryconcerninganyofthecircumstanceshereinquestion。Thelatterofthetwoplansthereforeisthatwhichappearsbyfarthemostusefulandcommodious。Butneitherupontheonenortheotherplancananysuchestimatebedeliveredhere。 XLVI。Oftheseveralcircumstancescontainedinthiscatalogue，itmaybeofusetogivesomesortofanalyticview；inorderthatitmaybethemoreeasilydiscoveredifanywhichoughttohavebeeninsertedareomitted；andthat，withregardtothosewhichareinserted，itmaybeseenhowtheydifferandagree。 Inthefirstplace，theymaybedistinguishedintoprimaryandsecondary: thosemaybetermedprimary，whichoperateimmediatelyofthemselves:thosesecondary，whichoperatenotbutbythemediumoftheformer。Tothislatterheadbelongthecircumstancesofsex，age，stationinlife，education，climate，lineage，government，andreligiousprofession:therestareprimary。 Theseagainareeitherconnateoradventitious:thosewhichareconnate，areradicalframeofbodyandradicalframeofmind。