第6章

Inthisrespecttheyareonlyonaparwiththedictatesoftheloveofreputation:inanothertheyarebelowit。Thedictatesofreligionareinallplacesintermixedmoreorlesswithdictatesunconformabletothoseofutility，deducedfromtests，wellorillinterpreted，ofthewritingsheldforsacredbyeachsect: unconformable，byimposingpracticessometimesinconvenienttoaman\'sself，sometimespernicioustotherestofthecommunity。Thesufferingsofuncalledmartyrs，thecalamitiesofholywarsandreligiouspersecutions，themischiefsofintolerantlaws，(objectswhichcanhereonlybeglancedat，notdetailed)aresomanyadditionalmischiefsoverandabovethenumberofthosewhichwereeverbroughtintotheworldbytheloveofreputation。 Ontheotherhand，itismanifest，thatwithrespecttothepowerofoperatinginsecret，thedictatesofreligionhavethesameadvantageoverthoseoftheloveofreputation，andthedesireofamity，asispossessedbythedictatesofbenevolence。 XLI。Happily，thedictatesofreligionseemtoapproachnearerandnearertoacoincidencewiththoseofutilityeveryday。Butwhy？Becausethedictatesofthemoralsanctiondoso:andthosecoincidewithorareinfluencedbythese。Menoftheworstreligions，influencedbythevoiceandpracticeofthesurroundingworld，borrowcontinuallyanewandanewleafoutofthebookofutility:andwiththese，inordernottobreakwiththeirreligion，theyendeavour，sometimeswithviolenceenough，topatchtogetherandadorntherepositoriesoftheirfaith。 XLII。Astotheself-regardinganddissocialmotives，theorderthattakesplaceamongthese，andtheprecedingone，inpointofextra-regardinginfluence，istooevidenttoneedinsistingon。Astotheorderthattakesplaceamongthemotives，oftheself-regardingclass，consideredincomparisonwithoneanother，thereseemstobenodifferencewhichonthisoccasionwouldbeworthmentioning。Withrespecttothedissocialmotive，itmakesadifference(withregardtoitsextra-regardingeffects)fromwhichoftwosourcesitoriginates；whetherfromself-regardingorfromsocialconsiderations。Thedispleasureyouconceiveagainstamanmaybefoundedeitheronsomeactwhichoffendsyouinthefirstinstance，oronanactwhichoffendsyounootherwisethanbecauseyoulookuponitasbeingprejudicialtosomeotherpartyonwhosebehalfyouinterestyourself:whichotherpartymaybeofcourseeitheradeterminateindividual，oranyassemblageofindividuals，determinateorindeterminate。Itisobviousenough，thatamotive，thoughinitselfdissocial，may，byissuingfromasocialorigin，possessasocialtendency；andthatitstendency，inthiscase，islikelytobethemoresocial，themoreenlargedthedescriptionisofthepersonswhoseinterestsyouespouse。Displeasure，ventingitselfagainstaman，onaccountofamischiefsupposedtobedonebyhimtothepublic，maybemoresocialinitseffectsthananygood-will，theexertionsofwhichareconfinedtoanindividual。 5。Conflictamongmotives。 XLIII。Whenamanhasitincontemplationtoengageinanyaction，heisfrequentlyacteduponatthesametimebytheforceofdiversmotives:onemotive，orsetofmotives，actinginonedirection； anothermotive，orsetofmotives，actingasitwereinanoppositedirection。Themotivesononesidedisposinghimtoengageintheaction:thoseontheother，disposinghimnottoengageinit。Now，anymotive，theinfluenceofwhichtendstodisposehimtoengageintheactioninquestion，maybetermedanimpellingmotive:anymotive，theinfluenceofwhichtendstodisposehimnottoengageinit，arestrainingmotive。Buttheseappellationsmayofcoursebeinterchanged，accordingastheactisofthepositivekind，orthenegative。 XLIV。Ithasbeenshown，thatthereisnosortofmotivebutmaygivebirthtoanysortofaction。Itfollows，therefore，thattherearenotwomotivesbutmaycometobeopposedtooneanother。Wherethetendencyoftheactisbad，themostcommoncaseisforittohavebeendictatedbyamotiveeitheroftheself-regarding，orofthedissocialclass。Insuchcasethemotiveofbenevolencehascommonlybeenacting，thoughineffectually，inthecharacterofarestrainingmotive。 XLV。Anexamplemaybeofuse，toshowthevarietyofcontendingmotives，bywhichamanmaybeacteduponatthesametime。Crillon，aCatholic(atatimewhenitwasgenerallythoughtmeritoriousamongCatholicstoextirpateProtestants)，wasorderedbyhisking，CharlesIX。ofFrance，tofallprivatelyuponColigny，aProtestant，andassassinatehim:hisanswerwas，？ Excuseme，Sire；butI\'llfighthimwithallmyheart？Here，then，wereallthethreeforcesabovementioned，includingthatofthepoliticalsanction，actinguponhimatonce。Bythepoliticalsanction，oratleastsomuchoftheforceofitassuchamandate，fromsuchasovereign，issuedonsuchanoccasion，mightbesupposedtocarrywithit，hewasenjoinedtoputColignytodeathinthewayofassassination:bythereligioussanction，thatis，bythedictatesofreligiouszeal，hewasenjoinedtoputhimtodeathinanyway:bythemoralsanction，orinotherwords，bythedictatesofhonour，thatis，oftheloveofreputation，hewaspermitted(whichpermission，whencoupledwiththemandatesofhissovereign，operated，heconceived，asaninjunction)tofighttheadversaryuponequalterms:bythedictatesofenlargedbenevolence(supposingthemandatetobeunjustifiable)hewasenjoinednottoattempthislifeinanyway，buttoremainatpeacewithhim:supposingthemandatetobeunjustifiable，bythedictatesofprivatebenevolencehewasenjoinednottomeddlewithhimatanyrate。Amongthisconfusionofrepugnantdictates，Crillon，itseems，gavethepreference，inthefirstplace，tothoseofhonour:inthenextplace，tothoseofbenevolence。 Hewouldhavefought，hadhisofferbeenaccepted；asitwasnot，heremainedatpeace。 Hereamultitudeofquestionsmightarise。Supposingthedictatesofthepoliticalsanctiontofollowthemandateofthesovereign，ofwhatkindwerethemotiveswhichtheyaffordedhimforcompliance？Theansweris，oftheself-regardingkindatanyrate:inasmuchas，bythesupposition，itwasinthepowerofthesovereigntopunishhimfornon-compliance，orrewardhimforcompliance。Didtheyaffordhimthemotiveofreligion(Imeanindependentlyofthecircumstanceofheresyabovementioned)theansweris，Yes，ifhisnotionwas，thatitwasGod\'spleasureheshouldcomplywiththem；No，ifitwasnot。Didtheyaffordhimthemotiveoftheloveofreputation？Yes，ifitwashisnotionthattheworldwouldexpectandrequirethatheshouldcomplywiththem:No，ifitwasnot。Didtheyaffordhimthatofbenevolence？Yes，ifitwashisnotionthatthecommunitywoulduponthewholebethebetterforhiscomplyingwiththem:No，ifitwasnot。Butdidthedictatesofthepoliticalsanction，inthecaseinquestion，actuallyfollowthemandatesofthesovereign:inotherwords，wassuchamandatelegal？Thisweseeisamerequestionoflocaljurisprudence，altogetherforeigntothepresentpurpose。 XLVI。Whatisheresaidaboutthegoodnessandbadnessofmotives，isfarfrombeingamerematterofwords。Therewillbeoccasiontomakeuseofithereafterforvariousimportantpurposes。 Ishallhaveneedofitforthesakeofdissipatingvariousprejudices，whichareofdisservicetothecommunity，sometimesbycherishingtheflameofcivildissensions，atothertimes，byobstructingthecourseofjustice。Itwillbeshown，thatinthecaseofmanyoffences，theconsiderationofthemotiveisamostmaterialone:forthatinthefirstplaceitmakesaverymaterialdifferenceinthemagnitudeofthemischief:inthenextplace，thatitiseasytobeascertained；andthencemaybemadeagroundforadifferenceinthedemandforpunishment:butthatinothercasesitisaltogetherincapableofbeingascertained；andthat，wereitcapableofbeingeversowellascertained，goodorbad，itcouldmakenodifferenceinthedemandforpunishment:thatinallcases，themotivethatmayhappentogovernaprosecutor，isaconsiderationtotallyimmaterial:whencemaybeseenthemischievousnessoftheprejudicethatissoapttobeentertainedagainstinformers；andtheconsequenceitisofthatthejudge，inparticular，shouldbeproofagainsttheinfluenceofsuchdelusions。 Lastly，Thesubjectofmotivesisonewithwhichitisnecessarytobeacquainted，inordertopassajudgmentonanymeansthatmaybeproposedforcombatingoffensesintheirsource。 Butbeforethetheoreticalfoundationforthesepracticalobservationscanbecompletelylaid，itisnecessaryweshouldsaysomethingonthesubjectofdisposition:which，accordingly，willfurnishmatterfortheensuingchapter。 chapter11AnIntroductiontothePrinciplesofMoralsandLegislationChapterXI HumanDispositionsinGeneralPart1 I。Intheforegoingchapterithasbeenshownatlarge。thatgoodnessorbadnesscannot，withanypropriety，bepredicatedofmotives。Istherenothingthenaboutamanthatmayproperlybetermedgoodorbad，when，onsuchorsuchanoccasion；hesuffershimselftobegovernedbysuchorsuchamotive。Yes，certainly: hisdisposition。Nowdispositionisakindoffictitiousentity，feignedfortheconvenienceofdiscourse，inordertoexpresswhatthereissupposedtobepermanentinaman\'sframeofmind，where，onsuchorsuchanoccasion，hehasbeeninfluencedbysuedorsuchamotive，toengageinanact，which，asitappearedtohim，wasofsuchorsuchatendency。 II。Itiswithdispositionaswitheverythingelse:itwillbegoodorbadaccordingtoitseffects:accordingtotheeffectsithasinaugmentingordiminishingthehappinessofthecommunity。Aman\'sdispositionmayaccordinglybeconsideredintwopointsofview:accordingtotheinfluenceithas，either，1。onhisownhappiness: or，2。onthehappinessofothers。Viewedinboththeselightstogether，orineitherofthemindiscriminately，itmaybetermed，ontheonehand，good；ontheother，bad；or，inflagrantcases，depraved。Viewedintheformeroftheselights，ithasscarcelyanypeculiarname，whichhasasyetbeenappropriatedtoit。Itmightbetermed，thoughbut，inexpressively，frailorinfirm，ontheonehand:soundorfirm，ontheother。Viewedintheotherlight，itmightbetermedbeneficent，ormeritorious，ontheonehand:perniciousormischievous，ontheother。Nowofthatbranchofaman\'sdisposition，theeffectsofwhichregardinthefirstinstanceonlyhimself，thereneedsnotmuchtobesaidhere。 Toreformitwhenbad，isthebusinessratherofthemoralistthanthelegislator:norisitsusceptibleofthosevariousmodificationswhichmakesomaterialdifferenceintheeffectsoftheother。Again，withrespecttothatpartofit，theeffectswhereofregardothersinthefirstinstance，itisonlyinasfarasitisofamischievousnaturethatthepenalbranchoflawhasanyimmediateconcernwithit:inasfarasitmaybeofabeneficentnature，itbelongstoahithertobutlittlecultivated，andasyetunnamedbranchoflaw，whichmightbestyledtheremuneratory。 III。Amanthenissaidtobeofamischievousdisposition，when，bytheinfluenceofnomatterwhatmotives，heispresumedtobemoreapttoengage，orformintentionsofengaging，inactswhichareapparentlyofapernicioustendency，thaninsuchasareapparentlyofabeneficialtendency:ofameritoriousorbeneficentdispositionintheoppositecase。 IV。Isaypresumed:for，bythesupposition，allthatappearsisonesingleaction，attendedwithonesingletrainofcircumstances: butfromthatdegreeofconsistencyanduniformitywhichexperiencehasshowntobeobservableinthedifferentactionsofthesameperson，theprobableexistence(pastorfuture)ofanumberofactsofasimilarnature，isnaturallyandjustlyinferredfromtheobservationofonesingleone。Undersuchcircumstances，suchasthemotiveprovestobeinoneinstance，suchisthedispositiontobepresumedtobeinothers。 V。Isayapparentlymischievous:thatis，apparentlywithregardtohim:suchastohimappeartopossessthattendency:forfromthemereevent，independentofwhattohimitappearsbeforehandlikelytobe，nothingcanbeinferredoneitherside。Iftohimitappearslikelytobemischievous，insuchcase，thoughintheupshotitshouldproveinnocent，orevenbeneficial，itmakesnodifference；thereisnotthelessreasonforpresuminghisdispositiontobeabadone:iftohimitappearslikelytobebeneficialorinnocent，insuchcase，thoughintheupshotitshouldprovepernicious，thereisnotthemorereasononthataccountforpresuminghisdispositiontobeagoodone。Andhereweseetheimportanceofthecircumstancesofintentionality，consciousness，unconsciousness，andmis-supposal。 VI。Thetruthofthesepositionsdependsupontwoothers，bothofthemsufficientlyverifiedbyexperience:Theoneis，thatintheordinarycourseofthingstheconsequencesofactionscommonlyturnoutconformabletointentions。Amanwhosetsupabutcher\'sshop，anddealsinbeef，whenheintendstoknockdownanox，commonlydoesknockdownanox；thoughbysomeunluckyaccidenthemaychancetomisshisblowandknockdownaman: hewhosetsupagrocer\'sshop，anddealssugar，whenheintendstosellsugar，commonlydoessellsugar:thoughbysomeunluckyaccidenthemaychancetosellarsenicintheroomofit。 VII。Theotheris，thatamanwhoentertainsintentionsofdoingmischiefatonetimeisapttoentertainthelikeintentionsatanother。 VIII。Therearetwocircumstancesuponwhichthenatureofthedisposition，asindicatedbyanyact，isliabletodepend:1。Theapparenttendencyoftheact:2。Thenatureofthemotivewhichgavebirthtoit。Thisdependencyissubjecttodifferentrules，accordingtothenatureofthemotive。Instatingthem，Isupposeallalongtheapparenttendencyoftheacttobe，asitcommonlyis，thesameasthereal。 IX。1。Wherethetendencyoftheactisgood，andthemotiveisoftheself-regardingkind。Inthiscasethemotiveaffordsnoinferenceoneitherside。Itaffordsnoindicationofagooddisposition: butneitherdoesitaffordanyindicationofabadone。 Abakersellshisbreadtoahungrymanwhoasksforit。This，wesee，isoneofthoseactsofwhich，inordinarycases，thetendencyisunquestionablygood。Thebaker\'smotiveistheordinarycommercialmotiveofpecuniaryinterest。Itisplain，thatthereisnothinginthetransaction，thusstated，thatcanaffordtheleastgroundforpresumingthatthebakerisabetteroraworsemanthananyofhisneighbours。 X。2。Wherethetendencyoftheactisbad，andthemotive，asbefore，isoftheself-regardingkind。Inthiscasethedispositionindicatedisamischievousone。 Amanstealsbreadoutofabaker\'sshop:thisisoneofthoseofwhichthetendencywillreadilybeacknowledgedtobebad。 Why，andinwhatrespectsitisso，willbestatedfartheron。Hismotive，wewillsay，isthatofpecuniaryinterest；thedesireofgettingthevalueofthebreadfornothing。Hisdisposition，accordingly，appearstobeabadone:foreveryonewillallowathievishdispositiontobeabadone。 XI。3。Wherethetendencyoftheactisgood，andthemotiveisthepurelysocialoneofgood-will。Inthiscasethedispositionindicatedisabeneficentone。 Abakergivesapoormanaloafofbread。Hismotiveiscompassion； anamegiventothemotiveofbenevolence，inparticularcasesofitsoperation。Thedispositionindicatedbythebaker，inthiscase，issuchaseverymanwillbereadyenoughtoacknowledgetobeagoodone。 XII。4。Wherethetendencyoftheactisbad，andthemotiveisthepurelysocialoneofgood-will。Eveninthiscasethedispositionwhichthemotiveindicatesisdubious:itmaybeamischievousorameritoriousone，asithappens；accordingasthemischievousnessoftheactismoreorlessapparent。 XIII。Itmaybethought，thatacaseofthissortcannotexist；andthattosupposeit，isacontradictioninterms。Fortheactisone，which，bythesupposition，theagentknowstobeamischievousone。Howthencanitbe，thatgood-will，thatis，thedesireofdoinggood，couldhavebeenthemotivethatledhimintoit？Toreconcilethis，wemustadverttothedistinctionbetweenenlargedbenevolenceandconfined。Themotivethatledhimintoit，wasthatofconfinedbenevolence。Hadhefollowedthedictatesofenlargedbenevolence，hewouldnothavedonewhathedid。 Now，althoughhefollowedthedictatesofthatbranchofbenevolence，whichinanysingleinstanceofitsexertionismischievous，whenopposedtotheother，yet，asthecaseswhichcallfortheexertionoftheformerare，beyondcomparison，morenumerousthanthosewhichcallfortheexertionofthelatter，thedispositionindicatedbyhim，infollowingtheimpulseoftheformer，willoftenbesuchasinaman，ofthecommonrunofmen，maybeallowedtobeagoodoneuponthewhole。 XIV。Amanwithanumerousfamilyofchildren，onthepointofstarving，goesintoabaker\'sshop，stealsaloaf，dividesitallamongthechildren，reservingnoneofitforhimself。Itwillbehardtoinferthatthatman\'sdispositionisamischievousoneuponthewhole。Alterthecase，givehimbutonechild，andthathungryperhaps，butinnoimminentdangerofstarving:andnowletthemansetfiretoahousefullofpeople，forthesakeofstealingmoneyoutofittobuythebreadwith。Thedispositionhereindicatedwillhardlybelookeduponasagoodone。 XV。Anothercasewillappearmoredifficulttodecidethaneither。Ravaillacassassinatedoneofthebestandwisestofsovereigns，atatimewhenagoodandwisesovereign，ablessingatalltimessovaluabletoastate，wasparticularlyprecious: andthattotheinhabitantsofapopulousandextensiveempire。Heistaken，anddoomedtothemostexcruciatingtortures。Hisson，wellpersuadedofhisbeingasincerepenitent，andthatmankind，incaseofhisbeingatlarge，wouldhavenothingmoretofearfromhim，effectuateshisescape。Isthisthenasignofagooddispositionintheson，orofabadone？Perhapssomewillanswer，ofabadone；for，besidestheinterestwhichthenationhasinthesufferingsofsuchacriminal，onthescoreoftheexample，thefuturegoodbehaviourofsuchacriminalismorethananyonecanhavesufficientgroundtobepersuadedof。 XVI。Wellthen，letRavaillac，theson，notfacilitatehisfather\'sescape；butcontenthimselfwithconveyingpoisontohim，thatatthepriceofaneasierdeathhemayescapehistorments。Thedecisionwillnow，perhaps，bemoredifficult。Theactisawrongone，letitbeallowed，andsuchasoughtbyallmeanstobepunished: butisthedispositionmanifestedbyitabadone？ Becausetheyoungmanbreaksthelawsinthisoneinstance，isitprobable，thatifletalone，hewouldbreakthelawsinordinaryinstances，forthesatisfactionofanyinordinatedesiresofhisown？ Theanswerofmostmenwouldprobablybeinthenegative。 XVII。5。Wherethetendencyoftheactisgood，andthemotiveisasemi-socialone，theloveofreputation。Inthiscasethedispositionindicatedisagoodone。 Inatimeofscarcity，abaker，forthesakeofgainingtheesteemoftheneighbourhood，distributesbreadgratisamongtheindustriouspoor。Letthisbetakenforgranted:andletitbeallowedtobeamatterofuncertainty，whetherhehadanyrealfeelingforthesufferingsofthosewhomhehasrelieved，orno。Hisdisposition，forallthat，cannot，withanypretenceofreason，betermedotherwisethanagoodandbeneficentone。Itcanonlybeinconsequenceofsomeveryidleprejudice，ifitreceivesadifferentname。 XVIII。6。Wherethetendencyoftheactisbad，andthemotive，asbefore，isasemi-socialone，theloveofreputation。Inthiscase，thedispositionwhichitindicatesismoreorlessgoodorbad: inthefirstplace，accordingasthetendencyoftheactismoreorlessmischievous:inthenextplaceaccordingasthedictatesofthemoralsanction，inthesocietyinquestion，approachmoreorlesstoacoincidencewiththoseofutility。Itdoesnotseemprobable，thatinanynation，whichisinastateoftolerablecivilization，inshort，inanynationinwhichsuchrulesasthesecancometobeconsulted，thedictatesofthemoralsanctionwillsofarrecedefromacoincidencewiththoseofutility(thatis，ofenlightenedbenevolence)thatthedispositionindicatedinthiscasecanbeotherwisethanagoodoneuponthewhole。 XIX。AnIndianreceivesaninjury，realorimaginary，fromanIndianofanothertribe。Herevengesituponthepersonofhisantagonistwiththemostexcruciatingtorments:thecasebeing，thatcrueltiesinflictedonsuchanoccasion，gainhimreputationinhisowntribe。Thedispositionmanifestedinsuchacasecanneverbedeemedagoodone，amongapeopleeversofewdegreesadvanced，inpointofcivilization，abovetheIndians。 XX。Anobleman(tocomebacktoEurope)contractsadebtwithapoortradesman。Thesamenobleman，presentlyafterwards，contractsadebt，tothesameamount，toanothernobleman，atplay。Heisunabletopayboth:hepaysthewholedebttothecompanionofhisamusements，andnopartofittothetradesman。 Thedispositionmanifestedinthiscasecanscarcelybetermedotherwisethanabadone。Itiscertainly，however，notsobadasifhehadpaidneither。Theprincipleofloveofreputation，or(asitiscalledinthecaseofthispartialapplicationofit)honour，ishereopposedtotheworthierprincipleofbenevolence，andgetsthebetterofit。Butitgetsthebetteralsooftheself-regardingprincipleofpecuniaryinterest。Thedisposition，therefore，whichitindicates，althoughnotsogoodaoneasthatinwhichtheprincipleofbenevolencepredominates，isbetterthanoneinwhichtheprincipleofselfinterestpredominates。Hewouldbethebetterforhavingmorebenevolence:butwouldhebethebetterforhavingnohonour？Thisseemstoadmitofgreatdispute。 XXI。7。Wherethetendencyoftheactisgood，andthemotiveisthesemi-socialoneofreligion。Inthiscase，thedispositionindicatedbyit(consideredwithrespecttotheinfluenceofitontheman\'sconducttowardsothers)ismanifestlyabeneficentandmeritoriousone。 Abakerdistributesbreadgratisamongtheindustriouspoor。Itisnotthathefeelsfortheirdistresses:norisitforthesakeofgainingreputationamonghisneighbours。ItisforthesakeofgainingthefavouroftheDeity:towhom，hetakesforgranted，suchconductwillbeacceptable。Thedispositionmanifestedbysuchconductisplainlywhateverymanwouldcallagoodone。 XXII。8。Wherethetendencyoftheactisbad，andthemotiveisthatofreligion，asbefore。Inthiscasethedispositionisdubious。Itisgoodorbad，andmoreorlessgoodorbad，inthe[8] firstplace，asthetendencyoftheactismoreorlessmischievous；inthenextplace，accordingasthereligioustenetsofthepersoninquestionapproachmoreorlesstoacoincidencewiththedictatesofutility。 XXIII。Itshouldseemfromhistory，thateveninnationsinatolerablestateofcivilizationinotherrespects，thedictatesofreligionhavebeenfoundsofartorecedefromacoincidencewiththoseofutility；inotherwords，fromthoseofenlightenedbenevolence；thatthedispositionindicatedinthiscasemayevenbeabadoneuponthewhole。Thishoweverisnoobjectiontotheinferencewhichitaffordsofagooddispositioninthosecountries(suchasperhapsaremostofthecountriesofEuropeatpresent)inwhichitsdictatesrespectingtheconductofamantowardsothermenapproachverynearlytoacoincidencewiththoseofutility。Thedictatesofreligion，intheirapplicationtotheconductofamaninwhatconcernshimselfalone，seeminmostEuropeannationstosavouragooddealoftheasceticprinciple:buttheobediencetosuchmistakendictatesindicatesnotanysuchdispositionasislikelytobreakoutintoactsofpernicioustendencywithrespecttoothers。Instancesinwhichthedictatesofreligionleadamanintoactswhichareperniciousinthislatterview，seematpresenttobebutrare:unlessitbeactsofpersecution，orimpoliticmeasuresonthepartofgovernment，wherethelawitselfiseithertheprincipalactororanaccompliceinthemischief。Ravaillac，instigatedbynoothermotivethanthis，gavehiscountryoneofthemostfatalstabsthatacountryeverreceivedfromasinglehand:buthappilytheRavaillacsarebutrare。 Theyhavebeenmorefrequent，however，inFrancethaninanyothercountryduringthesameperiod:anditisremarkable，thatineveryinstanceitisthismotivethathasproducedthem。 Whentheydoappear，however，nobody，Isuppose，butsuchasthemselves，willbefortermingadisposition，suchastheymanifest，agoodone。Itseemshardlytobedenied，butthattheyarejustsomuchtheworsefortheirnotionsofreligion；andthathadtheybeenlefttothesoleguidanceofbenevolence，andtheloveofreputation，withoutanyreligionatall，itwouldhavebeenbutsomuchthebetterformankind。Onemaysaynearlythesamething，perhaps，ofthosepersonswho，withoutanyparticularobligation，havetakenanactivepartintheexecutionoflawsmadeforthepunishmentofthosewhohavethemisfortunetodifferwiththemagistrateinmattersofreligion，muchmoreofthelegislatorhimself，whohasputitintheirpower。 IfLouisXIV。hadhadnoreligion，Francewouldnothavelost800，000 ofitsmostvaluablesubjects。Thesamethingmaybesaidoftheauthorsofthewarscalledholyones；whetherwagedagainstpersonscalledInfidelsorpersonsbrandedwiththestillmoreodiousnameofHeretics。InDenmark，notagreatmanyyearsago，asectissaidtohavearisen，who，byastrangeperversionofreason，tookitintotheirheads，that，byleadingtorepentance，murder，oranyotherhorridcrime，mightbemadetheroadtoheaven。Itshouldallalong，however，beobserved，thatinstancesofthislatterkindwerealwaysrare:andthatinalmostallthecountriesofEurope，instancesoftheformerkind，thoughonceabundantlyfrequent，haveforsometimeceased。 Incertaincountries，however，persecutionathome，or(whatproducesadegreeofrestraint，whichisonepartofthemischiefsofpersecution)Imeanthedispositiontopersecute，whensoeveroccasionhappens，isnotyetatanend:insomuchthatifthereisnoactualpersecution，itisonlybecausetherearenoheretics； andiftherearenoheretics，itisonlybecausetherearenothinkers。 XXIV。9。Wherethetendencyoftheactisgood，andthemotive(asbefore) isthedissocialoneofill-will。Inthiscasethemotiveseemsnottoaffordanyindicationoneitherside。Itisnoindicationofagooddisposition；butneitherisitanyindicationofabadone。 Youhavedetectedabakerinsellingshortweight:youprosecutehimforthecheat。Itisnotforthesakeofgainthatyouengagedintheprosecution；forthereisnothingtobegotbyit:itisnotfrompublicspirit:itisnotforthesakeofreputation；forthereisnoreputationtobegotbyit:itisnotintheview:(seeB。I。tit。[OffencesagainstReligion])ofpleasingtheDeity:itismerelyonaccountofaquarrelyouhavewiththemanyouprosecute。 Fromthetransaction，asthusstated，theredoesnotseemtobeanythingtobesaideitherinfavourofyourdispositionoragainstit。Thetendencyoftheactisgood:butyouwouldnothaveengagedinit，haditnotbeenfromamotivewhichthereseemsnoparticularreasontoconcludewilleverpromptyoutoengageinanactofthesamekindagain。Yourmotiveisofthatsortwhichmay，withleastimpropriety，betermedabadone: buttheactisofthatsort，which，wereitengagedineversooften，couldneverhaveanyeviltendency；norindeedanyothertendencythanagoodone。Bythesupposition，themotiveithappenedtobedictatedbywasthatofill-will:buttheactitselfisofsuchanatureastohavewantednothingbutsufficientdiscernmentonyourpartinordertohavebeendictatedbythemostenlargedbenevolence。Now，fromaman\'shavingsufferedhimselftobeinducedtogratifyhisresentmentbymeansofanactofwhichthetendencyisgood，itbynomeansfollowsthathewouldbereadyonanotheroccasion，throughtheinfluenceofthesamesortofmotive，toengageinanyactofwhichthetendencyisabadone。Themotivethatimpelledyouwasadissocialone: butwhatsocialmotivecouldtherehavebeentorestrainyou？None，butwhatmighthavebeenoutweighedbyamoreenlargedmotiveofthesamekind。Now，becausethedissocialmotiveprevailedwhenitstoodalone，itbynomeansfollowsthatitwouldprevailwhenithadasocialonetocombatit。 XXV。10。Wherethetendencyoftheactisbad，andthemotiveisthedissocialoneofmalevolence。Inthiscasethesedispositionitindicatesisofcourseamischievousone。 Themanwhostolethebreadfromthebaker，asbefore，diditwithnootherviewthanmerelytoimpoverishandafflicthim: accordingly，whenhehadgotthebread，hedidnoteat，orsellit； butdestroyedit。Thatthedisposition，evidencedbysuchatransaction，isabadone，iswhateverybodymustperceiveimmediately。 Part2 XXVI。Thusmuchwithrespecttothecircumstancesfromwhichthemischievousnessormeritoriousnessofaman\'sdispositionistobeinferredinthegross:wecomenowtothemeasureofthatmischievousnessormeritoriousness，asresultingfromthosecircumstances。Nowwithmeritoriousactsanddispositionswehavenodirectconcerninthepresentwork。Allthatpenallawisconcernedtodo，istomeasurethedepravityofthedispositionwheretheactismischievous。Tothisobject，therefore，weshallhereconfineourselves。 XXVII。Itisevident，thatthenatureofaman\'sdispositionmustdependuponthenatureofthemotivesheisapttobeinfluencedby:inotherwords，uponthedegreeofhissensibilitytotheforceofsuchandsuchmotives。Forhisdispositionis，asitwere，thesumofhisintentions:thedispositionheisofduringacertainperiod，thesumorresultofhisintentionsduringthatperiod，If，oftheactshehasbeenintendingtoengageinduringthesupposedperiod，thosewhichareapparentlyofamischievoustendency，bearalargeproportiontothosewhichappeartohimtobeofthecontrarytendency，hisdispositionwillbeofthemischievouscast:ifbutasmallproportion，oftheinnocentorupright。 XXVIII。Nowintentions，likeeverythingelse，areproducedbythethingsthataretheircauses:andthecausesofintentionsaremotives。If，onanyoccasion，amanformseitheragoodorabadintention，itmustbebytheinfluenceofsomemotive。 XXIX。Whentheact，whichamotivepromptsamantoengagein，isofamischievousnature，itmay，fordistinction\'ssake，betermedaseducingorcorruptingmotive:inwhichcasealsoanymotivewhich，inoppositiontotheformer，actsinthecharacterofarestrainingmotive，maybestyledatutelary，preservatory，orpreservingmotive。 XXX。Tutelarymotivesmayagainbedistinguishedintostandingorconstant，andoccasional。Bystandingtutelarymotives，I meansuchasactwithmoreorlessforceinall，oratleastinmostcases，tendingtorestrainamanfromanymischievousactshemaybepromptedtoengagein；andthatwithaforcewhichdependsuponthegeneralnatureoftheact，ratherthanuponanyaccidentalcircumstancewithwhichanyindividualactofthatsortmayhappentobeaccompanied。Byoccasionaltutelarymotives，Imeansuchmotivesasmaychancetoactinthisdirectionornot，accordingtothenatureoftheact，andoftheparticularoccasiononwhichtheengaginginitisbroughtintocontemplation。 XXXI。Nowithasbeenshown，thatthereisnosortofmotivebywhichamanmaynotbepromptedtoengageinactsthatareofamischievousnature；thatis，whichmaynotcometoactinthecapacityofaseducingmotive。Ithasbeenshown，ontheotherhand，thattherearesomemotiveswhichareremarkablylesslikelytooperateinthiswaythanothers。Ithasalsobeenshown，thattheleastlikelyofallisthatofbenevolenceorgood-will: themostcommontendencyofwhich，ithasbeenshown，istoactinthecharacterofatutelarymotive。Ithasalsobeenshown，thatevenwhenbyaccidentitactsinonewayinthecharacterofaseducingmotive，stillinanotherwayitactsintheoppositecharacterofatutelaryone。Themotiveofgood-will，inasfarasitrespectstheinterestsofonesetofpersons，maypromptamantoengageinactswhichareproductiveofmischieftoanotherandmoreextensiveset:butthisisonlybecausehisgood-willisimperfectandconfined:nottakingintocontemplationtheinterestsofallthepersonswhoseinterestsareatstake。Thesamemotive，weretheaffectionitissuedfrommoreenlarged，wouldoperateeffectually，inthecharacterofaconstrainingmotive，againstthatveryacttowhich，bythesupposition，itgivesbirth。Thissamesortofmotivemaytherefore，withoutanyrealcontradictionordeviationfromtruth，berankedinthenumberofstandingtutelarymotives，notwithstandingtheoccasionsinwhichitmayactatthesametimeinthecharacterofaseducingone。 XXXII。Thesameobservation，nearly，maybeappliedtothesemi-socialmotiveofloveofreputation。Theforceofthis，likethatoftheformer，isliabletobedividedagainstitself。Asinthecaseofgood-will，theinterestsofsomeofthepersons，whomaybetheobjectsofthatsentiment，areliabletobeatvariancewiththoseofothers:sointhecaseofloveofreputation，thesentimentsofsomeofthepersons，whosegoodopinionisdesired，maybeatvariancewiththesentimentsofotherpersonsofthatnumber。Nowinthecaseofanact，whichisreallyofamischievousnature，itcanscarcelyhappenthatthereshallbenopersonswhateverwhowilllookuponitwithaneyeofdisapprobation。 Itcanscarcelyeverhappen，therefore，thatanactreallymischievousshallnothavesomepartatleast，ifnotthewhole，oftheforceofthismotivetoopposeit；nor，therefore，thatthismotiveshouldnotactwithsomedegreeofforceinthecharacterofatutelarymotive。This，therefore，maybesetdownasanotherarticleinthecatalogueofstandingtutelarymotives。 XXXIII。Thesameobservationmaybeappliedtothedesireofamity，thoughnotinaltogetherequalmeasure。For，notwithstandingthemischievousnessofanact，itmayhappen，withoutmuchdifficulty，thatallthepersonsforwhoseamityamanentertainsanyparticularpresentdesirewhichisaccompaniedwithexpectation，mayconcurinregardingitwithaneyeratherofapprobationthanthecontrary。Thisisbuttooapttobethecaseamongsuchfraternitiesasthoseofthieves，smugglers，andmanyotherdenominationsofoffenders。This，however，isnotconstantly，norindeedmostcommonlythecase: insomuch，thatthedesireofamitymaystillberegarded，uponthewhole，asatutelarymotive，wereitonlyfromtheclosenessofitsconnexionwiththeloveofreputation。Anditmayberankedamongstandingtutelarymotives，since，whereitdoesapply，theforcewithwhichitacts，dependsnotupontheoccasionalcircumstancesoftheactwhichitopposes，butuponprinciplesasgeneralasthoseuponwhichdependtheactionoftheothersemi-socialmotives。 XXXIV。Themotiveofreligionisnotaltogetherinthesamecasewiththethreeformer。Theforceofitisnot，liketheirs，liabletobedividedagainstitself。Imeaninthecivilizednationsofmoderntimes，amongwhomthenotionoftheunityoftheGodheadisuniversal。Intimesofclassicalantiquityitwasotherwise。IfamangotVenusonhisside，Pallaswasontheother:ifÆ；oluswasforhim，Neptunewasagainsthim。Æ；neas，withallhispiety，hadbutapartialinterestatthecourtofheaven。Thatmatterstandsuponadifferentfootingnow-a-days。Inanygivenperson，theforceofreligion，whateveritbe，isnowallofitononeside。Itmaybalance，indeed，onwhichsideitshalldeclareitself:anditmaydeclareitself，aswehaveseenalreadyinbuttoomanyinstances，onthewrongaswellasontheright。Ithasbeen，atleasttilllately，perhapsisstill，accustomedsomuchtodeclareitselfonthewrongside，andthatinsuchmaterialinstances，thatonthataccountitseemednotpropertoplaceit，inpointofsocialtendency，onalevelaltogetherwiththemotiveofbenevolence。 Whereitdoesact，however，asitdoesinbyfarthegreatestnumberofcases，inoppositiontotheordinaryseducingmotives，itacts，likethemotiveofbenevolence，inanuniformmanner，notdependingupontheparticularcircumstancesthatmayattendthecommissionoftheact；buttendingtoopposeit，merelyonaccountofitsmischievousness；andtherefore，withequalforce，inwhatsoevercircumstancesitmaybeproposedtobecommitted。This，therefore，mayalsobeaddedtothecatalogueofstandingtutelarymotives。 XXXV。Astothemotiveswhichmayoperateoccasionally(inthecharacteroftutelarymotives，these，ithasbeenalreadyintimated，areofvarioussorts，andvariousdegreesofstrengthinvariousoffenses:dependingnotonlyuponthenatureoftheoffence，butupontheaccidentalcircumstancesinwhichtheideaofengaginginitmaycomeincontemplation。Noristhereanysortofmotivewhichmaynotcometooperateinthischaracter；asmaybeeasilyconceived。Athief，forinstance，maybepreventedfromengaginginaprojectedschemeofhouse-breaking，bysittingtoolongoverhisbottle(loveofthepleasuresofthepalate)，byavisitfromhisdoxy，bytheoccasionhemayhavetogoelsewhere，inordertoreceivehisdividendofaformerbooty(pecuniaryinterest)；andsoon。 XXXVI。Therearesomemotives，however，whichseemmoreapttoactinthischaracterthanothers；especiallyasthingsarenowconstituted，nowthatthelawhaseverywhereopposedtotheforceoftheprincipalseducingmotives，artificialtutelarymotivesofitsowncreation。Ofthemotivesheremeantitwillbenecessarytotakeageneralview。Theyseemtobereducibletotwoheads；viz。1。Theloveofease；amotiveputintoactionbytheprospectofthetroubleoftheattempt；thatis，thetroublewhichitmaybenecessarytobestow，inovercomingthephysicaldifficultiesthatmayaccompanyit。2。Self-preservation，asopposedtothedangerstowhichamanmaybeexposedintheprosecutionofit。 XXXVII。Thesedangersmaybeeither，1。Ofapurelyphysicalnature: or，2。Dangersresultingfrommoralagency；inotherwords，fromtheconductofanysuchpersonstowhomtheact，ifknown，maybeexpectedtoproveobnoxious。Butmoralagencysupposesknowledgewithrespecttothecircumstancesthataretohavetheeffectofexternalmotivesingivingbirthtoit。 Nowtheobtainingsuchknowledge，withrespecttothecommissionofanyobnoxiousact，onthepartofanypersonswhomaybedisposedtomaketheagentsufferforit，iscalleddetection；andtheagentconcerningwhomsuchknowledgeisobtained，issaidtobedetected。Thedangers，therefore，whichmaythreatenanoffenderfromthisquarter，depend，whatevertheymaybe，ontheeventofhisdetection；andmay，therefore，beallofthemcomprisedunderthearticleofthedangerofdetection。 XXXVIII。Thedangerdependingupondetectionmaybedividedagainintotwobranches:1。Thatwhichmayresultfromanyoppositionthatmaybemadetotheenterprisebypersonsonthespot； thatis，attheverytimetheenterpriseiscarryingon:2。 Thatwhichrespectsthelegalpunishment，ortoothersuffering，thatmayawaitatadistanceupontheissueoftheenterprise。 XXXIX。Itmaybeworthcallingtomindonthisoccasion，thatamongthetutelarymotives，whichhavebeenstyledconstantones，therearetwoofwhichtheforcedepends(thoughnotsoentirelyastheforceoftheoccasionaloneswhichhavebeenorjustmentioned，yetinagreatmeasure)uponthecircumstanceofdetection。 These，itmayberemembered，are，theloveofreputation，andthedesireofamity。Inproportion，therefore，asthechanceofbeingdetectedappearsgreater，thesemotiveswillapplywiththegreaterforce:withthelessforce，asitappearsless。 Thisisnotthecasewiththetwootherstandingtutelarymotives，thatofbenevolence，andthatofreligion。 XL。Wearenowinaconditiontodetermine，withsomedegreeofprecision，whatistobeunderstoodbythestrengthofatemptation，andwhatindicationitmaygiveofthedegreeofmischievousnessinaman\'sdispositioninthecaseofanyoffence。 Whenamanispromptedtoengageinanymischievousact，wewillsay，forshortness，inanoffense，thestrengthofthetemptationdependsupontheratiobetweentheforceoftheseducingmotivesontheonehand，andsuchoftheoccasionaltutelaryones，asthecircumstancesofthecasecallforthintoaction，ontheother。Thetemptation，then，maybesaidtobestrong，whenthepleasureoradvantagetobegotfromthecrimeissuchasintheeyesoftheoffendermustappeargreatincomparisonofthetroubleanddangerthatappeartohimtoaccompanytheenterprise:slightorweak，whenthatpleasureoradvantageissuchasmustappearsmallincomparisonofsuchtroubleandsuchdanger。Itisplainthestrengthofthetemptationdependsnotupontheforceoftheimpelling(thatisoftheseducing) motivesaltogether:forlettheopportunitybemorefavourable，thatis，letthetrouble，oranybranchofthedanger，bemadelessthanbefore，itwillbeacknowledged，thatthetemptationismadesomuchthestronger:andontheotherhand，lettheopportunitybecomelessfavourable，or，inotherwords，letthetrouble，oranybranchofthedanger，bemadegreaterthanbefore，thetemptationwillbesomuchtheweaker。 Now，aftertakingaccountofsuchtutelarymotivesashavebeenstyledoccasional，theonlytutelarymotivesthatcanremainarethosewhichhavebeentermedstandingones。Butthosewhichhavebeentermedthestandingtutelarymotives，arethesamethatwehavebeenstylingsocial。Itfollows，therefore，thatthestrengthofthetemptation，inanycase，afterdeductingtheforceofthesocialmotives，isasthesumoftheforcesoftheseducing，tothesumoftheforcesoftheoccasionaltutelarymotives。 XLI。Itremainstobeinquired，whatindicationconcerningthemischievousnessordepravityofaman\'sdispositionisaffordedbythestrengthofthetemptation，inthecasewhereanyoffensehappenstohavebeencommitted。Itappears，then，thattheweakerthetemptationis，bywhichamanhasbeenovercome，themoredepravedandmischievousitshowshisdispositiontohavebeen。Forthegoodnessofhisdispositionismeasuredbythedegreeofhissensibilitytotheactionofthesocialmotives:inotherwords，bythestrengthoftheinfluencewhichthosemotiveshaveoverhim:now，thelessconsiderabletheforceisbywhichtheirinfluenceonhimhasbeenovercome，themoreconvincingistheproofthathasbeengivenoftheweaknessofthatinfluence。 Again，Thedegreeofaman\'ssensibilitytotheforceofthesocialmotivesbeinggiven，itisplainthattheforcewithwhichthosemotivestendtorestrainhimfromengaginginanymischievousenterprise，willbeastheapparentmischievousnessofsuchenterprise，thatis，asthedegreeofmischiefwithwhichitappearstohimlikelytobeattended。Inotherwords，thelessmischievoustheoffenceappearstohimtobe，thelessaversehewillbe，asfarasheisguidedbysocialconsiderations，toengageinit；themoremischievous，themoreaverse。Ifthenthenatureoftheoffenseissuchasmustappeartohimhighlymischievous，andyetheengagesinitnotwithstanding，itshows，thatthedegreeofhissensibilitytotheforceofthesocialmotivesisbutslight；andconsequentlythathisdispositionisproportionablydepraved。Moreover，thelessthestrengthofthetemptationwas；themoreperniciousanddepraveddoesitshowhisdispositiontohavebeen。Forthelessthestrengthofthetemptationwas，thelesswastheforcewhichtheinfluenceofthosemotiveshadtoovercome:theclearerthereforeistheproofthathasbeengivenoftheweaknessofthatinfluence。 XLII。Fromwhathasbeensaid，itseems，that，forjudgingoftheindicationthatisaffordedconcerningthedepravityofaman\'sdispositionbythestrengthofthetemptation，comparedwiththemischievousnessoftheenterprise，thefollowingrulesmaybelaiddown: Rule1。Thestrengthofthetemptationbeinggiven，themischievousnessofthedispositionmanifestedbytheenterprise，isas。theapparentmischievousnessoftheact。 Thus，itwouldshowamoredepraveddisposition，tomurderamanforarewardofaguinea，orfalselytochargehimwitharobberyforthesamereward，thantoobtainthesamesumfromhimbysimpletheft:thetroublehewouldhavetotake，andtheriskhewouldhavetorun，beingsupposedtostandonthesamefootingintheonecaseasintheother。