第8章

OftheProportionbetweenPunishmentsandOffencesI。Wehaveseenthatthegeneralobjectofalllawsistopreventmischief； thatistosay，whenitisworthwhile；butthat，wheretherearenoothermeansofdoingthisthanpunishment，therearefourcasesinwhichitisnotworthwhile。 II。Whenitisworthwhile，therearefoursubordinatedesignsorobjects，which，inthecourseofhisendeavourstocompass，asfarasmaybe，thatonegeneralobject，alegislator，whoseviewsaregovernedbytheprincipleofutility，comesnaturallytoproposetohimself。 III。1。Hisfirst，mostextensive，andmosteligibleobject，istoprevent，inasfarasitispossible，andworthwhile，allsortsofoffenseswhatsoever:inotherwords，sotomanage，thatnooffensewhatsoevermaybecommitted。 IV。2。Butifamanmustneedscommitanoffenseofsomekindorother，thenextobjectistoinducehimtocommitanoffenselessmischievous，ratherthanonemoremischievous:inotherwords，tochoosealwaystheleastmischievous，oftwooffensesthatwilleitherofthemsuithispurpose。 V。3。Whenamanhasresolveduponaparticularoffense，thenextobjectistodisposehimtodonomoremischiefthanisnecessarytohispurpose:inotherwords，todoaslittlemischiefasisconsistentwiththebenefithehasinview。 VI。4。Thelastobjectis，whateverthemischiefbe，whichitisproposedtoprevent，topreventitatascheaparateaspossible。 VII。Subservienttothesefourobjects，orpurposes，mustbetherulesorcanonsbywhichtheproportionofpunishmentstooffensesistobegoverned。 VIII。Rule1。Thefirstobject，ithasbeenseen，istoprevent，inasfarasitisworthwhile，allsortsofoffenses；therefore，Thevalueofthepunishmentmustnotlessinanycasethanwhatissufficienttooutweighthatoftheprofitoftheoffense。 Ifitbe，theoffence(unlesssomeotherconsiderations，independentofthepunishmentshouldinterveneandoperateefficaciouslyinthecharacteroftutelarymotives)willbesuretobetocommittednotwithstanding:thewholelotofpunishmentwillbethrownaway:itwillbealtogetherinefficacious。 IX。Theaboverulehasbeenoftenobjectedto，onaccountofitsseemingharshness:butthiscanonlyhavehappenedforwantofitsbeingproperlyunderstood。Thestrengthofthetemptation，cæ；terisparibas，isastheprofitoftheoffense:thequantumofthepunishmentmustrisewiththeprofitoftheoffense:cæ；terisparibas，itmustthereforerisewiththestrengthofthetemptation。Thisthereisnodisputing。Trueitis，thatthestrongerthetemptation，thelessconclusiveistheindicationwhichtheactofdelinquencyaffordsofthedepravityoftheoffender\'sdisposition。 Sofarthenastheabsenceofanyaggravation，arisingfromextraordinarydepravityofdisposition，mayoperate，orattheutmost，sofarasthepresenceofagroundofextenuation，resultingfromtheinnocenceorbeneficenceoftheoffender\'sdisposition，canoperate，thestrengthofthetemptationmayoperateinabatementofthedemandforpunishment。Butitcanneveroperatesofarastoindicatetheproprietyofmakingthepunishmentineffectual，whichitissuretobewhenbroughtbelowtheleveloftheapparentprofitoftheoffense。 Thepartialbenevolencewhichshouldprevailforthereductionofitbelowthislevel，wouldcounteractaswellthosepurposeswhichsuchamotivewouldactuallyhaveinview，asthosemoreextensivepurposeswhichbenevolenceoughttohaveinview:itwouldbecrueltynotonlytothepublic，buttotheverypersonsinwhosebehalfitpleads:initseffects，Imean，howeveroppositeinitsintention。Crueltytothepublic，thatiscrueltytotheinnocent，bysufferingthem，forwantofanadequateprotection，tolieexposedtothemischiefoftheoffense:crueltyeventotheoffenderhimself，bypunishinghimtonopurpose，andwithoutthechanceofcompassingthatbeneficialend，bywhichalonetheintroductionoftheevilofpunishmentistobejustified。 X。Rule2。Butwhetheragivenoffenceshallbepreventedinagivendegreebyagivenquantityofpunishment，isneveranythingbetterthanachance；forthepurchasingofwhich，whateverpunishmentisemployed，issomuchexpendedintoadvance。 However，forthesakeofgivingitthebetterchanceofoutweighingtheprofitoftheoffence，Thegreaterthemischiefoftheoffense，thegreateristheexpensewhichitmaybeworthwhiletobeat，inthewayofpunishment。 XI。Rule3。Thenextobjectis，toinduceamantochoosealwaystheleastmischievousoftwooffenses；therefore，Wheretwooffencescomeincompetition，thepunishmentforthegreateroffencemustbesufficienttoinduceamantoprefertheless。 XII。Rule4。Whenamanhasresolveduponaparticularoffense，thenextobjectis，toinducehimtodonomoremischiefthanwhatisnecessaryforhispurpose:thereforeThepunishmentshouldbeadjustedinsuchmannertoeachparticularoffence，thatforeverypartofthemischieftheremaybeamotivetorestraintheoffenderfrowngivingbirthtoit。 XIII。Rule5。Thelastobjectis，whatevermischiefisguardedagainst，toguardagainstitatascheaparateaspossible: thereforeThepunishmentoughtinnocasetobemorethanwhatisnecessarytobringitintoconformitywiththerulesheregiven。 XIV。Rule6。Itisfurthertobeobserved，thatowingtothedifferentmannersanddegreesinwhichpersonsunderdifferentcircumstancesareaffectedbythesameexcitingcause，apunishmentwhichisthesameinnamewillnotalwayseitherreallyproduce，orevensomuchasappeartootherstoproduce，intwodifferentpersonsthesamedegreeofpain:thereforeThatthequantityactuallyindictedoneachindividualoffendernaycorrespondtothequantityintendedforsimilaroffendersingeneral，theseveralcircumstancesinfluencingsensibilityoughtalwaystobetakenintoaccount。 XV。Oftheaboverulesofproportion，thefirstfour，wemayperceiveservetomarkoutlimitsonthesideofdiminution；thelimitsbelowwhichapunishmentoughtnottobediminished:thefifththelimitsonthesideofincrease；thelimitsabovewhichitoughtnottobeincreased。Thefivefirstarecalculatedtoserveasguidestothelegislator:thesixthiscalculatedinsomemeasure，indeed，tothesamepurpose；butprincipallyforguidingthejudgeinhisendeavorstoconform，onbothsides，totheintentionsofthelegislator。 XVI。Letuslookbackalittle。Thefirstrule，inordertorenderitmoreconvenientlyapplicabletopractice，mayneedperhapstobealittlemoreparticularlyunfolded。Itistobeobserved，then，thatforthesakeofaccuracy，itwasnecessary，insteadofthewordquantitytomakeuseofthelessperspicuoustermvalue。Forthewordquantitywillnotproperlyincludeandthecircumstanceseitherofcertaintyorproximity:circumstanceswhich，inestimatingthevalueofalotofpainorpleasure，mustalwaysbetakenintotheaccount。Now，ontheonehand，alotofpunishmentisalotofpain；ontheotherhand，theprofitofanoffenseisalotofpleasure，orwhatisequivalenttoit。Buttheprofitoftheoffenseiscommonlymorecertainthanthepunishment，or，whatcomestothesamething，appearssoatleasttotheoffender。Itisatanyratecommonlymoreimmediate。 Itfollows，therefore，that，inordertomaintainitssuperiorityovertheprofitoftheoffense，thepunishmentmusthaveitsvaluemadeupinsomeotherway，inproportiontothatwherebyitfallsshortinthetwopointsofcertaintyandproximity。Nowthereisnootherwayinwhichitcanreceiveanyadditiontoitsvalue，butbyreceivinganadditioninpointofmagnitude。 Whereverthenthevalueofthepunishmentfallsshort，eitherinpointofcertainty，orofproximity，ofthatoftheprofitoftheoffence，itmustreceiveaproportionableadditioninpointofmagnitude。 XVII。Yetfarther。Tomakesureofgivingthevalueofthepunishmentthesuperiorityoverthatoftheoffence，itmaybeofnecessary，insomecases，totakeintoaccounttheprofitnotonlyoftheindividualoffencetowhichthepunishmentistobeannexed，butalsoofsuchotheroffencesofthesamesortastheoffenderislikelytohavealreadycommittedwithoutdetection。Thisrandommodeofcalculation，severeasitis，itwillbeimpossibletoavoidhavingrecourseto，incertaincases:insuch，towit，inwhichtheprofitispecuniary，thechanceofdetectionverysmall，andtheobnoxiousactofsuchanatureasindicatesahabit:forexample，inthecaseoffraudsagainstthecoin。 Ifitbenotrecurredto，thepracticeofcommittingtheoffencewillbesuretobe，uponthebalanceoftheaccount，againfulpractice。Thatbeingthecase，thelegislatorwillbeabsolutelysureofnotbeingabletosuppressit，andthewholepunishmentthatisbestoweduponitwillbethrownaway。Inaword(tokeeptothesameexpressionswesetoutwith)thatwholequantityofpunishmentwillbeinefficacious。 XVIII。Rule7。Thesethingsbeingconsidered，thethreefollowingrulesmaybelaiddownbywayofsupplementandexplanationtoRule1。 Toenablethevalueofthepunishmenttooutweighthatoftheprofitoftheoffense，itmustbeincreased，inpointofmagnitude，inproportionasitfallsshortinpointofcertainty。 XIX。Rule8。Punishmentmustbefurtherincreasedinpointofmagnitude，inproportionasitfallsshortinpointofproximity。 XX。Rule9。Wheretheactisconclusivelyindicativeofahabit，suchanincreasemustbegiventothepunishmentasmayenableittooutweightheprofitnotonlyoftheindividualoffence，butofsuchotherlikeoffensesasarelikelytohavebeencommittedwithimpunitybythesameoffender。 XXI。Theremaybeafewothercircumstancesorconsiderationswhichmayinfluence，insomesmalldegree，thedemandforpunishment:butastheproprietyoftheseiseithernotsodemonstrable，ornotsoconstant，ortheapplicationofthemnotsodeterminate，asthatoftheforegoing，itmaybedoubtedwhethertheybeworthputtingonalevelwiththeothers。 XXII。Rule10。Whenapunishment，whichinpointofqualityisparticularlywellcalculatedtoansweritsintentioncannotexistinlessthanacertainquantity，itmaysometimesbeofuse，forthesakeofemployingit，tostretchalittlebeyondthatquantitywhich，onotheraccounts，wouldbestrictlynecessary。 XXIII。Rule11。Inparticular，thismaysometimesbethecase，wherethepunishmentproposedisofsuchanatureastobeparticularlywellcalculatedtoanswerthepurposeofamorallesson。 XXIV。Rule12。Thetendencyoftheaboveconsiderationsistodictateanaugmentationinthepunishment:thefollowingruleoperatesinthewayofdiminution。Therearecertaincases(ithasbeenseen)inwhich，bytheinfluenceofaccidentalcircumstances，punishmentmayberenderedunprofitableinthewhole: inthesamecasesitmaychancetoberenderedunprofitableastoapartonly。Accordingly，Inadjustingthequantumofpunishment，thecircumstances；bywhichallpunishmentmayberenderedunprofitable，oughttobeattendedto。 XXV。Rule13。Itistobeobserved，thatthemorevariousandminuteanysetofprovisionsare，thegreaterthechanceisthatanygivenarticleinthemwillnotbeborneinmind:withoutwhich，nobenefitcanensuefromit。Distinctions，whicharemorecomplexthanwhattheconceptionsofthosewhoseconductitisdesignedtoinfluencecantakein，willevenbeworsethanuseless。Thewholesystemwillpresentaconfusedappearance:andthustheeffect，notonlyoftheproportionsestablishedbythearticlesinquestion，butofwhateverisconnectedwiththem，willbedestroyed。Todrawapreciselineofdirectioninsuchcaseseemsimpossible。However，bywayofmemento，itmaybeofsomeusetosubjointhefollowingrule。 Amongprovisionsdesignedtoperfecttheproportionbetweenpunishmentsandoffences，ifanyoccur，which，bytheirownparticulargoodeffects，wouldnotmakeupfortheharmtheywoulddobyaddingtotheintricacyoftheCode，theyshouldbeomitted。 XXVI。Itmayberemembered，thatthepoliticalsanction，beingthattowhichthesortofpunishmentbelongs，whichinthischapterisallalonginview，isbutoneoffoursanctions，whichmayallofthemcontributetheirsharetowardsproducingthesameeffects。Itmaybeexpected，therefore，thatinadjustingthequantityofpoliticalpunishment，allowanceshouldbemadefortheassistanceitmaymeetwithfromthoseothercontrollingpowers。 Trueitis，thatfromeachoftheseseveralsourcesaverypowerfulassistancemaysometimesbederived。Butthecaseis，that(settingasidethemoralsanction，inthecasewheretheforceofitisexpresslyadoptedintoandmodifiedbythepolitical) theforceofthoseotherpowersisneverdeterminateenoughtobedependedupon。Itcanneverbereduced，likepoliticalpunishment，intoexactlots，normetedoutinnumber，quantity，andvalue。Thelegislatoristhereforeobligedtoprovidethefullcomplementofpunishment，asifheweresureofnotreceivinganyassistancewhateverfromanyofthosequarters。Ifhedoes，somuchthebetter:butlestheshouldnot，itisnecessaryheshould，atallevents，makethatprovisionwhichdependsuponhimself。 XXVII。Itmaybeofuse，inthisplace，torecapitulatetheseveralcircumstances，which，inestablishingtheproportionbetwixtpunishmentsandoffenses，aretobeattendedto。Theseseemtobeasfollows: I。Onthepartoftheoffence: 1。Theprofitoftheoffense； 2。Themischiefoftheoffense； 3。Theprofitandmischiefofothergreaterorlesseroffences，ofdifferentsorts，whichtheoffendermayhavetochooseoutof； 4。Theprofitandmischiefofotheroffenses，ofthesamesort，whichthesameoffendermayprobablyhavebeenguiltyofalready。 II。Onthepartofthepunishment: 5。Themagnitudeofthepunishment:composedofitsintensityandduration； 6。Thedeficiencyofthepunishmentinpointofcertainty； 7。Thedeficiencyofthepunishmentinpointofproximity； 8。Thequalityofthepunishment； 9。Theaccidentaladvantageinpointofqualityofapunishment，notstrictlyneededinpointofquantity； 10。Theuseofapunishmentofaparticularquality，inthecharacterofamorallesson。 III。Onthepartoftheoffender: 11。Theresponsibilityoftheclassofpersonsinawaytooffend； 12。Thesensibilityofeachparticularoffender13。Theparticularmeritsorusefulqualitiesofanyparticularoffender，incaseofapunishmentwhichmightdeprivethecommunityofthebenefitofthem； 14。Themultitudeofoffendersonanyparticularoccasion。 IV。Onthepartofthepublic，atanyparticularconjuncture: 15。Theinclinationsofthepeople，fororagainstanyquantityormodeofpunishment； 16。Theinclinationsofforeignpowers。 V。Onthepartofthelaw:thatis，ofthepublicforacontinuance: 17。Thenecessityofmakingsmallsacrifices，inpointofproportionality，forthesakeofsimplicity。 XXVIII。Therearesome，perhaps，who，atfirstsight，maylookuponthenicetyemployedintheadjustmentofsuchrules，assomuchlabourlost:forgrossignorance，theywillsay，never，troublesitselfaboutlaws，andpassiondoesnotcalculate。But，theevilofignoranceadmitsofcure:andastothepropositionthatpassiondoesnotcalculate，this，likemostoftheseverygeneralandoracularpropositions，isnottrue。Whenmattersofsuchimportanceaspainandpleasureareatstake，andtheseinthehighestdegree(theonlymatters，inshort，thatcanbeofimportance) whoistherethatdoesnotcalculate？Mencalculate，somewithlessexactness，indeed，somewithmore:butallmencalculate。 Iwouldnotsay，thatevenamadmandoesnotcalculate。 Passioncalculates，moreorless，ineveryman:indifferentmen，accordingtothewarmthorcoolnessoftheirdispositions: accordingtothefirmnessorirritabilityoftheirminds:accordingtothenatureofthemotivesbywhichtheyareactedupon。 Happily，ofallpassions，thatisthemostgiventocalculation，fromtheexcessesofwhich，byreasonofitsstrength，constancy，anduniversality，societyhasmosttoapprehend:Imeanthatwhichcorrespondstothemotiveofpecuniaryinterest:sothattheseniceties，ifsuchtheyaretobecalled，havethebestchanceofbeingefficacious，whereefficacyisofthemostimportance。 chapter15AnIntroductiontothePrinciplesofMoralsandLegislationChapterXV OfthePropertiestobeGiventoaLotofPunishmentI。Ithasbeenshownwhattherulesare，whichoughttobeobservedinadjustingtheproportionbetweenthepunishmentsandtheoffense。Thepropertiestobegiventoalotofpunishment，ineveryinstance，willofcoursebesuchasitstandsinneedof，inordertobecapableofbeingapplied，inconformitytothoserules: thequalitywillberegulatedbythequantity。 II。Thefirstofthoserules，wemayremember，was，thatthequantityofpunishmentmustnotbeless，inanycase，thanwhatissufficienttooutweightheprofitoftheoffence:since，asoftenasitisless，thewholelot(unlessbyaccidentthedeficiencyshouldbesuppliedfromsomeoftheothersanctions)isthrownaway:itisinefficacious。Thefifthwas，thatthepunishmentoughtinnocasetobemorethanwhatisrequiredbytheseveralotherrules:since，ifitbe，allthatisabovethatquantityisneedless。Thefourthwas，thatthepunishmentshouldbeadjustedinsuchmannertoeachindividualoffence，thateverypartofthemischiefofthatoffencemayhaveapenalty(thatis，atutelarymotive)toencounterit:otherwise，withrespecttosomuchoftheoffenseashasnotapenaltytocorrespondtoit，itisasiftherewerenopunishmentinthecase。Nowtononeofthoserulescanalotofpunishmentbeconformable，unless，foreveryvariationinpointofquantity，inthemischiefofthespeciesofoffensetowhichitisannexed，suchlotofpunishmentadmitsofacorrespondentvariation。 Toprovethis，lettheprofitoftheoffenceadmitofamultitudeofdegrees。Supposeit，then，atanyoneofthesedegrees: ifthepunishmentbelessthanwhatissuitabletothatdegree，itwillbeinefficacious；itwillbesomuchthrownaway:ifitbemore，asfarasthedifferenceextends，itwillbeneedless；itwillthereforebethrownawayalsointhatcase。 Thefirstproperty，therefore，thatoughttobegiventoalotofpunishment，isthatofbeingvariableinpointofquantity，inconformitytoeveryvariationwhichcantakeplaceineithertheprofitormischiefoftheoffense。Thispropertymight，perhaps，betermed，inasingleword，variability。 III。Asecondproperty，intimatelyconnectedwiththeformer，maybestyledequability。Itwillavailbutlittle，thatamodeofpunishment(properinallotherrespects)hasbeenestablishedbythelegislator；andthatcapableofbeingscreweduporletdowntoanydegreethatcanberequired；if，afterall，whateverdegreeofitbepitchedupon，thatsamedegreeshallbeliable，accordingtocircumstances，toproduceaveryheavydegreeofpain，oraveryslightone，orevennoneatall。Inthiscase，asintheformer，ifcircumstanceshappenoneway，therewillbeagreatdealofpainproducedwhichwillbeneedless:iftheotherway，therewillbenopainatallapplied，ornonethatwillbeefficacious。 Apunishment，whenliabletothisirregularity，maybestyledanunequableone:whenfreefromit，anequableone。Thequantityofpainproducedbythepunishmentwill，itistrue，dependinaconsiderabledegreeuponcircumstancesdistinctfromthenatureofthepunishmentitself:upontheconditionwhichtheoffenderisin，withrespecttothecircumstancesbywhichaman\'ssensibilityisliabletobeinfluenced。Buttheinfluenceoftheseverycircumstanceswillinmanycasesbereciprocallyinfluencedbythenatureofthepunishment:inotherwords，thepainwhichisproducedbyanymodeofpunishment，willbethejointeffectofthepunishmentwhichisappliedtohim，andthecircumstancesinwhichheisexposedtoit。Nowtherearesomepunishments，ofwhichtheeffectmaybeliabletoundergoagreateralterationbytheinfluenceofsuchforeigncircumstances，thantheeffectofotherpunishmentsisliabletoundergo。Sofar，then，asthisisthecase，equabilityorunequabilitymayberegardedaspropertiesbelongingtothepunishmentitself。 IV。Anexampleofamodeofpunishmentwhichisapttobeunequable，isthatofbanishment，whenthelocusaquo(orplacethepartyisbanishedfrom)issomedeterminateplaceappointedbythelaw，whichperhapstheoffendercaresnotwhetherheeverseeorno。Thisisalsothecasewithpecuniary，orquasi-pecuniarypunishment，whenitrespectssomeparticularspeciesofproperty，whichtheoffendermayhavebeenpossessedof，ornot，asitmayhappen。Allthesepunishmentsmaybesplitdownintoparcels，andmeasuredoutwiththeutmostnicety:beingdivisiblebytime，atleast，ifbynothingelse。Theyarenot，therefore，anyofthemdefectiveinpointofvariability:andyet，inmanycases，thisdefectinpointofequabilitymaymakethemasunfitforuseasiftheywere。 V。Thethirdruleofproportionwas，thatwheretwooffensescomeincompetition，thepunishmentforthegreateroffensesmustbesufficienttoinduceamantoprefertheless。Now，tobesufficientforthispurpose，itmustbeevidentlyanduniformlygreater:greater，notintheeyesofsomemenonly，butofallmenwhoareliabletobeinasituationtotaketheirchoicebetweenthetwooffenses；thatis，ineffect，ofallmankind。Inotherwords，thetwopunishmentsmustbeperfectlycommensurable。 Hencearisesathirdproperty，whichmaybetermedcommensurability: towit，withreferencetootherpunishments。 VI。Butpunishmentsofdifferentkindsareinveryfewinstancesuniformlygreateronethananother；especiallywhenthelowestdegreesofthatwhichisordinarilythegreater，arecomparedwiththehighestdegreesofthatwhichisordinarilytheless:inotherwords，punishmentsofdifferentkindsareinfewinstancesuniformlycommensurable。Theonlycertainanduniversalmeansofmakingtwolotsofpunishmentperfectlycommensurable，isbymakingthelesseraningredientinthecompositionofthegreater。 Thismaybedoneineitheroftwoways。1。Byaddingtothelesserpunishmentanotherquantityofpunishmentofthesamekind。 2。Byaddingtoitanotherquantityofadifferentkind。Thelattermodeisnotlesscertainthantheformer:forthoughonecannotalwaysbeabsolutelysure，thattothesamepersonagivenpunishmentwillappeargreaterthananothergivenpunishment；yetonemaybealwaysabsolutelysure，thatanygivenpunishment，soasitdoesbutcomeintocontemplation，willappeargreaterthannoneatall。 VII。Again:Punishmentcannotactanyfartherthaninasfarastheideaofit，andofitsconnectionwiththeoffense，ispresentinthemind。Theideaofit，ifnotpresent，cannotactatall；andthenthepunishmentitselfmustbeinefficacious。Now，tobepresent，itmustberemembered，andtoberemembereditmusthavebeenlearnt。Butofallpunishmentsthatcanbeimagined，therearenoneofwhichtheconnectionwiththeoffenseiseithersoeasilylearnt，orsoefficaciouslyremembered，asthoseofwhichtheideaisalreadyinpartassociatedwithsomepartoftheideaoftheoffense:whichisthecasewhentheoneandtheotherhavesomecircumstancethatbelongstothemincommon。Whenthisisthecasewithapunishmentandanoffense，thepunishmentissaidtobearananalogyto，ortobecharacteristicof，theoffence。Characteristicalnessis，therefore，afourthproperty，whichonthisaccountoughttobegiven，wheneveritcanconvenientlybegiven，toalotofpunishment。 VIII。Itisobvious，thattheeffectofthiscontrivancewillbethegreater，astheanalogyisthecloser。Theanalogywillbethecloser，themorematerialthatcircumstanceis，whichisincommon。 Nowthemostmaterialcircumstancethatcanbelongtoanoffenseandapunishmentincommon，isthehurtordamagewhichtheyproduce。Theclosestanalogy，therefore，thatcansubsistbetweenanoffenseandthepunishmentannexedtoit，isthatwhichsubsistsbetweenthemwhenthehurtordamagetheyproduceisofthesamenature:inotherwords，thatwhichisconstitutedbythecircumstanceofidentityinpointofdamage。 Accordingly，themodeofpunishment，whichofallothersbearstheclosestanalogytotheoffense，isthatwhichintheproperandexactsenseofthewordistermedretaliation。Retaliation，therefore，inthefewcasesinwhichitispracticable，andnottooexpensive，willhaveonegreatadvantageovereveryothermodeofpunishment。 IX。Again:Itistheideaonlyofthepunishment(or，inotherwords，theapparentpunishment)thatreallyactsuponthemind； thepunishmentitself(therealpunishment)actsnotanyfartherthanasgivingrisetothatidea。Itistheapparentpunishment，therefore，thatdoesalltheservice，Imeaninthewayofexample，whichistheprincipalobject。Itistherealpunishmentthatdoesallthemischief。Nowtheordinaryandobviouswayofincreasingthemagnitudeoftheapparentpunishment，isbyincreasingthemagnitudeofthereal。Theapparentmagnitude，however，maytoacertaindegreebeincreasedbyotherlessexpensivemeans:whenever，therefore，atthesametimethattheselessexpensivemeanswouldhaveansweredthatpurpose，anadditionalrealpunishmentisemployed，thisadditionalrealpunishmentisneedless。Astotheselessexpensivemeans，theyconsist，1。Inthechoiceofaparticularmodeofpunishment，apunishmentofaparticularquality，independentofthequantity。2。 Inaparticularsetofsolemnitiesdistinctfromthepunishmentitself，andaccompanyingtheexecutionofit。 X。Amodeofpunishment，accordingastheappearanceofitbearsagreaterproportiontothereality，maybesaidtobethemoreexemplary。Nowastowhatconcernsthechoiceofthepunishmentitself，thereisnotanymeansbywhichagivenquantityofpunishmentcanberenderedmoreexemplary，thanbychoosingitofsuchasortasshallbearananalogytotheoffense。Henceanotherreasonforrenderingthepunishmentanalogousto，orinotherwordscharacteristicof，theoffense。 XI。Punishment，itisstilltoberemembered，isinitselfanexpense: itisinitselfanevil。Accordinglythefifthruleofproportionis，nottoproducemoreofitthanwhatisdemandedbytheotherrules。 Butthisisthecaseasoftenasanyparticleofpainisproduced，whichcontributesnothingtotheeffectproposed。Nowifanymodeofpunishmentismoreaptthananothertoproduceanysuchsuperfluousandneedlesspain，itmaybestyledunfrugal； ifless，itmaybestyledfrugal。Frugality，therefore，isasixthpropertytobewishedforinamodeofpunishment。 XII。Theperfectionoffrugality，inamodeofpunishment，iswherenotonlynosuperfluouspainisproducedonthepartofthepersonpunished，buteventhatsameoperation，bywhichheissubjectedtopain，ismadetoanswerthepurposeofproducingpleasureonthepartofsomeotherperson。Understandaprofitorstockofpleasureoftheself-regardingkind:forapleasureofthedissocialkindisproducedalmostofcourse，onthepartofallpersonsinwhosebreaststheoffencehasexcitedthesentimentofill-will。Nowthisisthecasewithpecuniarypunishment，asalsowithsuchpunishmentsofthequasi-pecuniarykindasconsistinthesubtractionofsuchaspeciesofpossessionasistransferablefromonepartytoanother。Thepleasure，indeed，producedbysuchanoperation，isnotingeneralequaltothepain: itmay，however，besoinparticularcircumstances，aswherehe，fromwhomthethingistaken，isveryrich，andhe，towhomitisgiven，verypoor:and，beitwhatitwill，itisalwayssomuchmorethancanbeproducedbyanyothermodeofpunishment。 XIII。Thepropertiesofexemplarityandfrugalityseemtopursuethesameimmediateend，thoughbydifferentcourses。Bothareoccupiedindiminishingtheratiooftherealsufferingtotheapparent: butexemplaritytendstoincreasetheapparent；frugalitytoreducethereal。 XIV。Thusmuchconcerningthepropertiestobegiventopunishmentsingeneral，towhatsoeveroffensestheyaretobeapplied。Thosewhichfollowareoflessimportance，eitherasreferringonlytocertainoffensesinparticular，ordependingupontheinfluenceoftransitoryandlocalcircumstances。 Inthefirstplace，thefourdistinctendsintowhichthemainandgeneralendofpunishmentisdivisible，maygiverisetosomanydistinctproperties，accordingasanyparticularmodeofpunishmentappeartobemoreparticularlyadaptedtothecompassingofoneorofanotherofthoseends。Tothatofexample，asbeingtheprincipalone，aparticularpropertyhasalreadybeenadapted。Thereremainsthethreeinferioronesofreformation，disablement，andcompensation。 XV。Aseventhproperty，therefore，tobewishedforinamodeofpunishment，isthatofsubserviencytoreformation，orreformingtendency。Nowanypunishmentissubservienttoreformationinproportiontoitsquantity:sincethegreaterthepunishmentamanhasexperienced，thestrongeristhetendencyithastocreateinhimanaversiontowardstheoffensewhichwasthecauseofit:andthatwithrespecttoalloffensesalike。Buttherearecertainpunishmentswhich，withregardtocertainoffenses，haveaparticulartendencytoproducethateffectbyreasonoftheirquality:andwherethisisthecase，thepunishmentsinquestion，asappliedtotheoffensesinquestion，willprotantohavetheadvantageoverallothers。Thisinfluencewilldependuponthenatureofthemotivewhichisthecauseoftheoffence:thepunishmentmostsubservienttoreformationwillbethesortofpunishmentthatisbestcalculatedtoinvalidatetheforceofthatmotive。 XVI。Thus，inoffensesoriginatingfromthemotiveofill-will，thatpunishmenthasthestrongestreformingtendency，whichisbestcalculatedtoweakentheforceoftheirascibleaffections。Andmoreparticularly，inthatsortofoffensewhichconsistsinanobstinaterefusal，onthepartoftheoffender，todosomethingwhichislawfullyrequiredofhim，andinwhichtheobstinacyisingreatmeasurekeptupbyhisresentmentagainstthosewhohaveaninterestinforcinghimtocompliance，themostefficaciouspunishmentseemstobethatofconfinementtosparediet。 XVII。Thus，also，inoffenseswhichowetheirbirthtothejointinfluenceofindolenceandpecuniaryinterest，thatpunishmentseemstopossessthestrongestreformingtendency，whichisbestcalculatedtoweakentheforceoftheformerofthosedispositions。Andmoreparticularly，inthecasesoftheft，embezzlement，andeveryspeciesofdefraudment，themodeofpunishmentbestadaptedtothispurposeseems，inmostcases，tobethatofpenallabour。 XVIII。Aneighthpropertytobegiventoalotofpunishmentincertaincases，isthatofefficacywithrespecttodisablement，or，asitmightbestyledmorebriefly，disablingefficacy。Thisisapropertywhichmaybegiveninperfectiontoalotofpunishment；andthatwithmuchgreatercertaintythanthepropertyofsubserviencytoreformation。Theinconvenienceis，thatthispropertyisapt，ingeneral，toruncountertothatoffrugality: therebeing，inmostcases，nocertainwayofdisablingamanfromdoingmischief，without，atthesametime，disablinghim，inagreatmeasure，fromdoinggood，eithertohimselforothers。 Themischiefthereforeoftheoffensemustbesogreatastodemandaveryconsiderablelotofpunishment，forthepurposeofexample，beforeitcanwarranttheapplicationofapunishmentequaltothatwhichisnecessaryforthepurposeofdisablement。 XIX。Thepunishment，ofwhichtheefficacyinthiswayisthegreatest，isevidentlythatofdeath。Inthiscasetheefficacyofitiscertain。Thisaccordinglyisthepunishmentpeculiarlyadaptedtothosecasesinwhichthenameoftheoffender，solongashelives，maybesufficienttokeepawholenationinaflame。Thiswillnowandthenbethecasewithcompetitorsforthesovereignty，andleadersofthefactionsincivilwars:though，whenappliedtooffensesofsoquestionableanature，inwhichthequestionconcerningcriminalityturnsmoreuponsuccessthananythingelse；aninflictionofthissortmayseemmoretosavourofhostilitythanpunishment。Atthesametimethispunishment，itisevident，isinaneminentdegreeunfrugal；whichformsoneamongthemanyobjectionsthereareagainsttheuseofit，inanybutveryextraordinarycases。 XX。Inordinarycasesthepurposemaybesufficientlyansweredbyoneorotherofthevariouskindsofconfinementandbanishment:ofwhich，imprisonmentisthemoststrictandefficacious。 Forwhenanoffenseissocircumstancedthatitcannotbecommittedbutinacertainplace，asisthecase，forthemostpart，withoffensesagainsttheperson，allthelawhastodo，inordertodisabletheoffenderfromcommittingit，istopreventhisbeinginthatplace。Inanyoftheoffenseswhichconsistinthebreachortheabuseofanykindoftrust，thepurposemaybecompassedatastillcheaperrate，merelybyforfeitureofthetrust: andingeneral，inanyofthoseoffenseswhichcanonlybecommittedunderfavourofsomerelationinwhichtheoffenderstandswithreferencetoanyperson，orsetsofpersons，merelybyforfeitureofthatrelation:thatis，oftherightofcontinuingtoreaptheadvantagesbelongingtoit。Thisisthecase，forinstance，withanyofthoseoffenceswhichconsistinanabuseoftheprivilegesofmarriage，orofthelibertyofcarryingonanylucrativeorotheroccupation。 XXI。Theninthpropertyisthatofsubserviencytocompensation。Thispropertyofpunishment，ifitbevindictivecompensationthatisinview，will，withlittlevariation，beinproportiontothequantity:iflucrative，itisthepeculiarandcharacteristicpropertyofpecuniarypunishment。 XXII。Intherearofallthesepropertiesmaybeintroducedthatofpopularity；averyfleetingandindeterminatekindofproperty，whichmaybelongtoalotofpunishmentonemoment，andbelostbyitthenext。Bypopularityismeantthepropertyofbeingacceptable，orrathernotunacceptable，tothebulkofthepeople，amongwhomitisproposedtobeestablished。Instrictnessofspeech，itshouldratherbecalledabsenceofunpopularity: foritcannotbeexpected，inregardtosuchamatteraspunishment，thatanyspeciesorlotofitshouldbepositivelyacceptableandgratefultothepeople:itissufficient，forthemostpart，iftheyhavenodecidedaversiontothethoughtsofit。Nowthepropertyofcharacteristicalness，abovenoticed，seemstogoasfartowardsconciliatingtheapprobationofthepeopletoamodeofpunishment，asany；insomuchthatpopularitymayberegardedasakindofsecondaryquality，dependinguponthatofcharacteristicalness。 Theuseofinsertingthispropertyinthecatalogue，ischieflytomakeitservebywayofmementotothelegislatornottointroduce，withoutacogentnecessity，anymodeorlotofpunishment，towardswhichhehappenstoperceiveanyviolentaversionentertainedbythebodyofthepeople。 XXIII。Theeffectsofunpopularityinamodeofpunishmentareanalogoustothoseofunfrugality。Theunnecessarypainwhichdenominatesapunishmentunfrugal，ismostapttobethatwhichisproducedonthepartoftheoffender。Aportionofsuperfluouspainisinlikemannerproducedwhenthepunishmentisunpopular:butinthiscaseitisproducedonthepartofpersonsaltogetherinnocent，thepeopleatlarge。Thisisalreadyonemischief；andanotheris，theweaknesswhichitisapttointroduceintothelaw。Whenthepeoplearesatisfiedwiththelaw，theyvoluntarilylendtheirassistanceintheexecution:whentheyaredissatisfied，theywillnaturallywithholdthatassistance； itiswelliftheydonottakeapositivepartinraisingimpediments。Thiscontributesgreatlytotheuncertaintyofthepunishment； bywhich，inthefirstinstance，thefrequencyoftheoffensereceivesanincrease。Inprocessoftimethatdeficiency，asusual，isapttodrawonanincreaseinmagnitude:anadditionofacertainquantitywhichotherwisewouldbeneedless。 XXIV。Thisproperty，itistobeobserved，necessarilysupposes，onthepartofthepeople，someprejudiceorother，whichitisthebusinessofthelegislatortoendeavourtocorrect。Foriftheaversiontothepunishmentinquestionweregroundedon，theprincipleofutility，thepunishmentwouldbesuchas，onotheraccounts，oughtnottobeemployed:inwhichcaseitspopularityorunpopularitywouldneverbeworthdrawingintoquestion。Itisproperlythereforeapropertynotsomuchofthepunishmentasofthepeople:adispositiontoentertainanunreasonabledislikeagainstanobjectwhichmeritstheirapprobation。Itisthesignalsoofanotherproperty，towit。indolenceorweakness，onthepartofthelegislator:insufferingthepeopleforthewantofsomeinstruction，whichoughttobeandmightbegiventhem，toquarrelwiththeirowninterest。Bethisasitmay，solongasanysuchdissatisfactionsubsists，itbehovesthelegislatortohaveaneyetoit，asmuchasifitwereeversowellgrounded。Everynationisliabletohaveitsprejudicesanditscapriceswhichitisthebusinessofthelegislatortolookoutfor，tostudy，andtocure。 XXV。Theeleventhandlastofallthepropertiesthatseemtoberequisiteinalotofpunishment，isthatofremissibility。Thegeneralpresumptionis，thatwhenpunishmentisapplied，punishmentisneedful:thatitoughttobeapplied，andthereforecannotwanttoberemitted。Butinveryparticular，andthosealwaysverydeplorablecases，itmaybyaccidenthappenotherwise。Itmayhappenthatpunishmentshallhavebeeninflicted，where，accordingtotheintentionofthelawitself，itoughtnottohavebeeninflicted:thatis，wherethesuffererisinnocentoftheoffense。 Atthetimeofthesentencepassedheappearedguilty:butsincethen，accidenthasbroughthisinnocencetolight。Thisbeingthecase，somuchofthedestinedpunishmentashehassufferedalready，thereisnohelpfor。Thebusinessisthentofreehimfromasmuchasisyettocome。Butisthereanyyettocome？Thereisverylittlechanceoftherebeingany，unlessitbesomuchasconsistsofchronicalpunishment:suchasimprisonment，banishment，penallabour，andthelike。Somuchasconsistsofacutepunishment，towitwherethepenalprocessitselfisoverpresently，howeverpermanentthepunishmentmaybeinitseffects，maybeconsideredasirremissible。Thisisthecase，forexample，withwhipping，branding，mutilation，andcapitalpunishment。Themostperfectlyirremissibleofanyiscapitalpunishment。Forthoughotherpunishmentscannot，whentheyareover，beremitted，theymaybecompensatedfor；andalthoughtheunfortunatevictimcannotbeputintothesamecondition，yetpossiblymeansmaybefoundofputtinghimintoasgoodacondition，ashewouldhavebeeninifhehadneversuffered。 Thismayingeneralbedoneveryeffectuallywherethepunishmenthasbeennootherthanpecuniary。 Thereisanothercaseinwhichthepropertyofremissibilitymayappeartobeofuse:thisis，where，althoughtheoffenderhasbeenjustlypunished，yetonaccountofsomegoodbehaviourofhis，displayedatatimesubsequenttothatofthecommencementofthepunishment，itmayseemexpedienttoremitapartofit。Butthisitcanscarcelybe，iftheproportionofthepunishmentis，inotherrespects，whatitoughttobe。Thepurposeofexampleisthemoreimportantobject，incomparisonofthatofreformation。Itisnotverylikely，thatlesspunishmentshouldberequiredfortheformerpurposethanforthelatter。 Foritmustberatheranextraordinarycase，ifapunishment，whichissufficienttodeteramanwhohasonlythoughtofitforafewmoments，shouldnotbesufficienttodeteramanwhohasbeenfeelingitallthetime。Whatever，then，isrequiredforthepurposeofexample，mustabideatallevents:itisnotanyreformationonthepartoftheoffender，thatcanwarranttheremittingofanypartofit:ifitcould，amanwouldhavenothingtodobuttoreformimmediately，andsofreehimselffromthegreatestpartofthatpunishmentwhichwasdeemednecessary。Inorder，then，towarranttheremittingofanypartofapunishmentuponthisground，itmustfirstbesupposedthatthepunishmentatfirstappointedwasmorethanwasnecessaryforthepurposeofexample，andconsequentlythatapartofitwasneedlessuponthewhole。 This，indeed，isaptenoughtobethecase，undertheimperfectsystemsthatareasyetonfoot:andtherefore，duringthecontinuanceofthosesystems，thepropertyofremissibilitymay，onthissecondgroundlikewise，aswellasontheformer，bedeemedausefulone。Butthiswouldnotbethecaseinanynew-constructedsystem，inwhichtherulesofproportionabovelaiddownshouldbeobserved。Insuchasystem，therefore，theutilityofthispropertywouldrestsolelyontheformerground。 XXVI。Upontakingasurveyofthevariouspossiblemodesofpunishment，itwillappearevidently，thatthereisnotanyoneofthemthatpossessesalltheabovepropertiesinperfection。Todothebestthatcanbedoneinthewayofpunishment，itwillthereforebenecessary，uponmostoccasions，tocompoundthem，andmakethemintocomplexlots，eachconsistingofanumberofdifferentmodesofpunishmentputtogether:thenatureandproportionsoftheconstituentpartsofeachlotbeingdifferent，accordingtothenatureoftheoffencewhichitisdesignedtocombat。 XXVII。Itmaynotbeamisstobringtogether，andexhibitinoneview，theelevenpropertiesaboveestablished。Theyareasfollows: Twoofthemareconcernedinestablishingaproperproportionbetweenasingleoffenseanditspunishment；viz。 1。Variability。 2。Equability。 One，inestablishingaproportion，betweenmoreoffencesthanone，andmorepunishmentsthanone；viz。 3。Commensurability。 Afourthcontributestoplacethepunishmentinthatsituationinwhichaloneitcanbeefficacious；andatthesametimetobebestowingonitthetwofartherpropertiesofexemplarityandpopularity； viz。 4。Characteristicalness。 Twoothersareconcernedinexcludingalluselesspunishment；theoneindirectly，byheighteningtheefficacyofwhatisuseful； theotherinadirectway；viz。 5。Exemplarity。 6。Frugality。 Threeotherscontributeseverallytothethreeinferiorendsofpunishment； viz。 7。Subserviencytoreformation。 8。Efficacyindisabling。 9。Subserviencytocompensation。 Anotherpropertytendstoexcludeacollateralmischief，whichaparticularmodeofpunishmentisliableaccidentallytoproduce；viz。 10。Popularity。 Theremainingpropertytendstopalliateamischief，whichallpunishment，assuchisliableaccidentallytoproduce；viz。 11。Remissibility。 Thepropertiesofcommensurability，characteristicalness，exemplarity，subserviencytoreformation，andefficacyindisabling，aremoreparticularlycalculatedtoaugmenttheprofitwhichistobemadebypunishment:frugality，subserviencytocompensation，popularity，andremissibility，todiminishtheexpense: variabilityandequabilityarealikesubservienttoboththosepurposes。 XXVIII。Wenowcometotakeageneralsurveyofthesystemofoffences: thatis，ofsuchactstowhich，onaccountofthemischievousconsequencestheyhaveanaturaltendencytoproduce，andintheviewofputtingastoptothoseconsequences，itmaybepropertoannexacertainartificialconsequence，consistingofpunishment，tobeinflictedontheauthorsofsuchactsaccordingtotheprinciplesjustestablished。 chapter16AnIntroductiontothePrinciplesofMoralsandLegislationChapterXVI DivisionofOffenses1。ClassesofOffences。 I。Itisnecessary，attheoutset，tomakeadistinctionbetweensuchactsasareormaybe，andsuchasoughttobeoffences。 Anyactmaybeanoffence，whichtheywhomthecommunityofareinthehabitofobeyingshallbepleasedtomakeone:thattois，anyactwhichtheyshallbepleasedtoprohibitortopunish。 But，upontheprincipleofutility，suchactsaloneoughttobemadeoffences，asthegoodofthecommunityrequiresshouldbemadeso。 II。Thegoodofthecommunitycannotrequire，thatanyactshouldbemadeanoffence，whichisnotliable。insomewayorother，tobedetrimetaltothecommunity。Forinthecaseofsuchanact，allpunishmentisgroundless。 III。Butifthewholeassemblageofanynumberofindividualsbeconsideredasconstitutinganimaginarycompoundbody，acommunityorpoliticalstate；anyactthatisdetrimentaltoanyoneormoreofthosemembersis，astosomuchofitseffects，detrimentaltothestate。 IV。Anactcannotbedetrimentaltoastate，butbybeingdetrimentaltosomeoneormoreoftheindividualsthatcomposeit。 Buttheseindividualsmayeitherbeassignableorunassignable。 V。Whenthereisanyassignableindividualtowhomanoffenceisdetrimental，thatpersonmayeitherbeapersonotherthantheoffender，ortheoffenderhimself。 VI。Offencesthataredetrimental，inthefirstinstance，toassignablepersonsotherthantheoffender，maybetermedbyonecommonname，offencesagainstindividuals。Andofthesemaybecomposedthe1stclassofoffences。Tocontrastthemwithoffencesofthe2ndand4thclasses，itmayalsosometimesbeconvenienttostylethemprivateoffences。Tocontrastthematthesametimewithoffencesofthe3rdclass，theymaybestyledprivateextra-regardingoffences。 VII。Whenitappears，ingeneral，thattherearepersonstowhomtheactinquestionmaybedetrimental，butsuchpersonscannotbeindividuallyassigned，thecirclewithinwhichitappearsthattheymaybefound，iseitheroflessextentthanthatwhichcomprisesthewholecommunity，ornot。Ifofless，thepersonscomprisedwithinthislessercirclemaybeconsideredforthispurposeascomposingabodyofthemselves；comprisedwithin，butdistinguishablefrom，thegreaterbodyofthewholecommunity。Thecircumstancethatconstitutestheunionbetweenthemembersofthislesserbody，maybeeithertheirresidencewithinaparticularplace，or，inshort，anyotherlessexplicitprincipleofunion，whichmayservetodistinguishthemfromtheremainingmembersofthecommunity。Inthefirstcase，theactmaybestyledanoffenceagainstaneighbourhood:inthesecond，anoffenceagainstaparticularclassofpersonsinthecommunity。 Offenses，then，againstaclassorneighbourhood，may，together，constitutethe2ndclassofoffences。Tocontrastthemwithprivateoffencesontheonehand，andpublicontheother，theymayalsobestyledsemi-publicoffences。 VIII。Offences，whichinthefirstinstancearedetrimentaltotheoffenderhimself，andtonooneelse，unlessitbebytheirbeingdetrimentaltohimself，mayservetocomposeathirdclass。Tocontrastthemthebetterwithoffencesofthefirst，second，andfourthclasses，allwhichareofatransitivenature，theymightbestyledintransitiveoffences；butstillbetter，self-regarding。 IX。Thefourthclassmaybecomposedofsuchactsasoughttobemadeoffences，onaccountofthedistantmischiefwhichtheythreatentobringuponanunassignableindefinitemultitudeofthewholenumberofindividuals，ofwhichthecommunityiscomposed:althoughnoparticularindividualshouldappearmorelikelytobeasuffererbythemthananother。Thesemaybecalledpublicoffences，oroffencesagainstthestate。 X。Afifthclass，orappendix，maybecomposedofsuchactsas，accordingtothecircumstancesinwhichtheyarecommitted，orandmoreparticularlyaccordingtothepurposestowhichtheyareapplied，maybedetrimentalinanyoneofthewaysinwhichtheactofonemancanbedetrimentaltoanother。Thesemaytobetermedmultiform，orheterogeneousoffences。 Offencesthatareinthiscasemaybereducedtotwogreatheads:1。 Offencesbyfalsehood:and2。Offensesagainsttrust。 2。Divisionsandsub-divisions。