第12章

LXII。CharactersofClass1；composedofPRIVATEoffences，oroffencesagainstassignableindividuals。 1。Whenarrivedattheirlaststage(thestageofconsumation) theyproduce，allofthem，aprimarymischiefaswellasasecondary。 2。Theindividualswhomtheyaffectinthefirstinstance(thatis，bytheirprimarymischief)areconstantlyassignable。Thisextendstoall；toattemptsandpreparations，aswellastosuchashavearrivedatthestageofconsummation。 3。Consequentlytheyadmitofcompensation:inwhichtheydifferfromtheoffencesofalltheotherclasses，assuch。 4。Theyadmitalsoofretaliation；inwhichalsotheydifferfromtheoffencesofalltheotherclasses。 5。Thereisalwayssomepersonwhohasanaturalandpeculiarinteresttoprosecutethem。Inthistheydifferfromself-regardingoffences:alsofromsemi-publicandpublicones；exceptinasfarasthetwolattermaychancetoinvolveaprivatemischief。 6。Themischieftheyproduceisobvious:moresothanthatofsemi-publicoffences:andstillmoresothanthatofself-regardingones，orevenpublic。 7。Theyareeverywhere，andmusteverbe，obnoxioustothecensureoftheworld:moresothansemi-publicoffencesassuch；andstillmoresothanpublicones。 8。Theyaremoreconstantlyobnoxioustothecensureoftheworldthanself-regardingoffences:andwouldbesouniversally，wereitnotfortheinfluenceofthetwofalseprinciples；theprincipleofasceticism，andtheprincipleofantipathy。 9。Theyarelessaptthansemi-publicandpublicoffencestorequiredifferentdescriptionsindifferentstatesandcountries:inwhichrespecttheyaremuchuponaparwithself-regardingones。 10。Bycertaincircumstancesofaggravation，theyareliabletobetransformedintosemi-publicoffences；andbycertainothers，intopublic。 11。Therecanbenogroundforpunishingthem，untiltheycanbeprovedtohaveoccasioned，ortobeabouttooccasionsomeparticularmischieftosomeparticularindividual。Inthistheydifferfromsemi-publicoffences，andfrompublic。 12。Inslightcases，compensationgiventotheindividualaffectedbythemmaybeasufficientgroundforremittingpunishment:foriftheprimarymischiefhasnotbeensudicienttoproduceanyalarm，thewholeofthemischiefmaybecuredbycompensation。Inthisalsotheydifferfromsemi-publicoffences，andfrompublicones。 LXIII。CharactersofClass2；composedofSEMI-PUBLICoffences，oroffencesaffectingawholesubordinateclassofpersons。 1。Assuch，theyproducenoprimarymischief。Themischieftheyproduceconsistsofoneorotherorbothbranchesofthesecondarymischiefproducedbyoffencesagainstindividuals，withouttheprimary。 2。Inasfarastheyaretobeconsideredasbelongingtothisclass，thepersonswhomtheyaffectinthefirstinstancearenotindividuallyassignable。 3。Theyareapt，however，toinvolveorterminateinsomeprimarymischiefofthefirstorder；whichwhentheydo，theyadvanceintothefirstclass，andbecomeprivateoffences。 4。Theyadmitnot，assuch，ofcompensation。 5。Norofretaliation6。Assuch，thereisneveranyoneparticularindividualwhoseexclusiveinterestitistoprosecutethem:acircleofpersonsmay，however，alwaysbemarkedout，withinwhichmaybefoundsomewhohaveagreaterinteresttoprosecutethananywhoareoutofthatcirclehave。 7。Themischieftheyproduceisingeneralprettyobvious: notsomuchsoindeedasthatofprivateoffences，butmoresouponthewholethanthatofself-regardingandpublicones。 8。Theyareratherlessobnoxioustothecensureoftheworldthanprivateoffences；buttheyaremoresothanpublicones: theywouldalsobemoresothanself-regardingones，wereitnotfortheinfluenceofthetwofalseprinciples，theprincipleofsympathyandantipathy，andthatofasceticism。 9。Theyaremoreaptthanprivateandself-regardingoffencestorequiredifferentdescriptionsindifferentcountries:butlesssothanpublicones。 10。Theremaybegroundforpunishingthembeforetheyhavebeenprovedtohaveoccasioned，ortobeabouttooccasion，mischieftoanyparticularindividual；whichisnotthecasewithprivateoffences。 11。Innocasescansatisfactiongiventoanyparticularindividualaffectedbythembeasufficientgroundforremittingpunishment:forbysuchsatisfactionitisbutapartofthemischiefofthemthatiscured。Inthistheydifferfromprivateoffences；butagreewithpublic。 LXIV。CharactersofClass3；consistingofSELFREGARDINGoffences: offencesagainstone\'sself。 1。Inindividualinstancesitwilloftenbequestionable，whethertheyareproductiveofanyprimarymischiefatall:secondary，theyproducenone。 2。Theyaffectnotanyotherindividuals，assignableornotassignable，exceptinasfarastheyaffecttheoffenderhimself； unlessbypossibilityinparticularcases； andinaveryslightanddistantmannerthewholestate。 3。Theyadmitnot，therefore，ofcompensation，4。Norofretaliation。 5。Nopersonhasnaturallyanypeculiarinteresttoprosecutethem:exceptinasfarasinvirtueofsomeconnectionhemayhavewiththeoffender，eitherinpointofsympathyorofinterest，amischiefofthederivativekindmayhappentodevolveuponhim。 6。Themischieftheyproduceisapttobeunobviousandingeneralmorequestionablethanthatofanyoftheotherclasses。 7。Theyarehoweverapt，manyofthem，tobemoreobnoxioustothecensureoftheworldthanpublicoffences；owingtotheinfluenceofthetwofalseprinciples； theprincipleofasceticism，andtheprincipleofantipathy。Someofthemmoreeventhansemi-public，oreventhanprivateoffence。 8。Theyarelessaptthanoffencesofanyotherclasstorequiredifferentdescriptionsindifferentstatesandcountries，9。Amongtheinducementstopunishthem，antipathyagainsttheoffenderisapttohaveagreatersharethansympathyforthepublic。 10。Thebestpleaforpunishingthemisfoundedonafaintprobabilitytheremaybeoftheirbeingproductiveofamischief，which，ifreal，willplacethemintheclassofpublicones:chieflyinthosedivisionsofitwhicharecomposedofoffencesagainstpopulation，andoffencesagainstthenationalwealth。 LXV。CharactersofClass4；consistingofPUBLICoffences，oroffencesagainstthestateingeneral。 1。Assuch，theyproducenotanyprimarymischief；andthesecondarymischieftheyproduce，whichconsistsfrequentlyofdangerwithoutalarm，thoughgreatinvalue，isinspecieveryindeterminate。 2。Theindividualswhomtheyaffect，inthefirstinstance，areconstantlyunassignable；exceptinasfarasbyaccidenttheyhappentoinvolveorterminateinsuchorsuchoffencesagainstindividuals。 3。Consequentlytheyadmitnotofcompensation。 4。Norofretaliation。 5。Noristhereanypersonwhohasnaturallyanyparticularinteresttoprosecutethem；exceptinasfarastheyappeartoaffectthepower，orinanyothermannertheprivateinterest，ofsomepersoninauthority。 6。Themischieftheyproduce，assuch，iscomparativelyunobvious；muchmoresothanthatofprivateoffences，andmoresolikewise，thanthatofsemi-publicones。 7。Theyare，assuch，muchlessobnoxioustothecensureoftheworld，thanprivateoffences；lesseventhansemi-public，oreventhanself-regardingoffences；unlessinparticularcases，throughsympathytocertainpersonsinauthority，whoseprivateintereststheymayappeartoaffect。 8。Theyaremoreaptthananyoftheotherclassestoadmitofdifferentdescriptions，indifferentstatesandcountries。 9。Theyareconstituted，inmanycases，bysomecircumstancesofaggravationsuperaddedtoaprivateoffence:andtherefore，inthesecases，involvethemischiefandexhibittheothercharactersbelongingtobothclasses。Theyarehowever，eveninsuchcases，properlyenoughrankedinthe4thclass，inasmuchasthemischieftheyproduceinvirtueofthepropertieswhichaggregatethemtothatclass，eclipsesandswallowsupthatwhichtheyproduceinvirtueofthosepropertieswhichaggregatethemtothe1st。 10。Theremaybesufficientgroundforpunishingthem，withouttheirbeingprovedtohaveoccasioned，ortobeabouttooccasion，anyparticularmischieftoanyparticularindividual。Inthistheydifferfromprivateoffences，butagreewithsemi-publicones。Here，asinsemi-publicoffences，theextentofthemischiefmakesupfortheuncertaintyofit。 11。Innocasecansatisfaction，giventoanyparticularindividualaffectedbythem，beasufficientgroundforremittingpunishment。Inthistheydifferfromprivateoffences；butagreewithsemi-public。 LXVI。CharactersofClass5，orappendix:composedofMULTIFORMorANOMALOUS offences；andcontainingoffencesbyFALSEHOOD，andoffencesconcerningTRUST。 1。Takencollectively，intheparcelsmarkedoutbytheirpopularappellations，theyareincapableofbeingaggregatedtoanysystematicalmethodofdistribution，groundeduponthemischiefoftheoffence。 2。Theymay，however，bethrownintosub-divisions，whichmaybeaggregatedtosuchamethodofdistribution。 3。Thesesub-divisionswillnaturallyandreadilyrankunderthedivisionsoftheseveralprecedingclassesofthissystem。 4。Eachofthetwogreatdivisionsofthisclassspreadsitselfinthatmanneroveralltheprecedingclasses。 5。Insomeactsofthisclass，thedistinguishingcircumstancewhichconstitutestheessentialcharacteroftheoffence，willinsomeinstancesenternecessarily，inthecharacterofacriminativecircumstance，intotheconstitutionoftheoffence； insomuchthat，withouttheinterventionofthiscircumstance，nooffenceatall，ofthatdenomination，canbecommitted。 Inotherinstances，theoffencemaysubsistwithoutit；andwhereitinterferes，itcomesinasanaccidentalindependentcircumstance，capableofconstitutingagroundofaggravation。 chapter17AnIntroductiontothePrinciplesofMoralsandLegislationChapterXVII OftheLimitsofthePenalBranchofJurisprudence。 §；1。LimitsbetweenPrivateEthicsandtheArtoflegislation。 I。Somuchforthedivisionofoffensesingeneral。Nowanoffenseisanactprohibited，or(whatcomestothesamething)anactofwhichthecontraryiscommanded，bythelaw:andwhatisitthatthelawcanbeemployedindoing，besidesprohibitingandcommanding？Itshouldseemthen，accordingtothisviewofthematter，thatwerewetohavesettledwhatmaybepropertobedonewithrelationtooffences，weshouldtherebyhavesettledeverythingthatmaybepropertobedoneinthewayoflaw。 Yetthatbranchwhichconcernsthemethodofdealingwithoffences，andwhichistermedsometimesthecriminal，sometimesthepenal，branch，isuniversallyunderstoodtobebutoneoutoftwobrancheswhichcomposethewholesubjectoftheartoflegislation；thatwhichistermedthecivilbeingtheother。Betweenthesetwobranchesthen，itisevidentenough，therecannotbutbeaveryintimateconnection；sointimateisitindeed，thatthelimitsbetweenthemarebynomeanseasytomarkout。Thecaseisthesameinsomedegreebetweenthewholebusinessoflegislation(civilandpenalbranchestakentogether)andthatofprivateethics。Oftheseseverallimitshoweveritwillbeinamannernecessarytoexhibitsomeidea:lest，ontheonehand，weshouldseemtoleaveanypartofthesubjectthatdoesbelongtoasuntouched，or，ontheotherhand，todeviateonanysideintoatrackwhichdoesnotbelongtous。 Inthecourseofthisenquiry，thatpartofitImeanwhichconcernsthelimitsbetweenthecivilandthepenalbranchoflaw，itwillbenecessarytosettleanumberofpoints，ofwhichtheconnectionwiththemainquestionmightnotatfirstsightbesuspected。 Toascertainwhatsortofathingalawis；whatthepartsarethataretobefoundinit；whatitmustcontaininordertobecomplete；whattheconnectionisbetweenthatpartofabodyoflawswhichbelongstothesubjectofprocedureandtherestofthelawatlarge:——allthese，itwillbeseen，aresomanyproblems，whichmustbesolvedbeforeanysatisfactoryanswercanbegiventothemainquestionabovementioned。 Noristhistheironlyuse:foritisevidentenough，thatthenotionofacompletelawmustfirstbefixed，beforethelegislatorcaninanycaseknowwhatitishehastodo，orwhenhisworkisdone。 II。Ethicsatlargemaybedefined，theartofdirectingmen\'sactionstotheproductionofthegreatestpossiblequantityofhappiness，onthepartofthosewhoseinterestisinview。 III。Whatthenaretheactionswhichitcanbeinaman\'spowertodirect？ Theymustbeeitherhisownactions，orthoseofotheragents。Ethics，inasfarasitistheartofdirectingaman\'sownactions，maybestyledtheartofself-government，orprivateethics。 IV。Whatotheragentsthenarethere，which，atthesametimethattheyareundertheinfluenceofman\'sdirection，aresusceptibleofhappiness。Theyareoftwosorts:1。Otherhumanbeingswhoarestyledpersons。2。Otheranimals，which，onaccountoftheirinterestshavingbeenneglectedbytheinsensibilityoftheancientjurists，standdegradedintotheclassofthings。 Astootherhumanbeings，theartofdirectingtheiractionstotheaboveendiswhatwemean，oratleasttheonlythingwhich，upontheprincipleofutility，weoughttomean，bytheartofgovernment: which，inasfarasthemeasuresitdisplaysitselfinareofapermanentnature，isgenerallydistinguishedbythenameoflegislation: asitisbythatofadministration，whentheyareofatemporarynature，determinedbytheoccurrencesoftheday。 V。Nowhumancreatures，consideredwithrespecttothematurityoftheirfaculties，areeitherinanadult，orinanon-adultstate。Theartofgovernment，inasfarasitconcernsthedirectionoftheactionsofpersonsinanon-adultstate，maybetermedtheartofeducation。Inasfarasthisbusinessisentrustedwiththosewho，invirtueofsomeprivaterelationship，areinthemainthebestdisposedtotakeuponthem，andthebestabletodischarge，thisoffice，itmaybetermedtheartofprivateeducation: inasfarasitisexercisedbythosewhoseprovinceitistosuperintendtheconductofthewholecommunity，itmaybetermedtheartofpubliceducation。 VI。Astoethicsingeneral，aman\'shappinesswilldepend，inthefirstplace，uponsuchpartsofhisbehaviourasnonebuthimselfareinterestedin；inthenextplace，uponsuchpartsofitasmayaffectthehappinessofthoseabouthim。Inasfarashishappinessdependsuponthefirst-mentionedpartofhisbehaviour，itissaidtodependuponhisdutytohimself。Ethicsthen，inasfarasitistheartofdirectingaman\'sactionsinthisrespect，maybetermedtheartofdischargingone\'sdutytoone\'sself: andthequalitywhichamanmanifestsbythedischargeofthisbranchofduty(ifdutyitistobecalled)isthatofprudence。Inasfarashishappiness，andthatofanyotherpersonorpersonswhoseinterestsareconsidered，dependsuponsuchpartsofhisbehaviourasmayaffecttheinterestsofthoseabouthim，itmaybesaidtodependuponhisdutytoothers；or，touseaphrasenowsomewhatantiquated，hisdutytohisneighbour。Ethicsthen，inasfarasitistheartofdirectingaman\'sactionsinthisrespect，maybetermedtheartofdischargingone\'sdutytoone\'sneighbour。 Nowthehappinessofone\'sneighbourmaybeconsultedintwoways:1。Inanegativeway，byforbearingtodiminishit。2。Inapositiveway，bystudyingtoincreaseit。A man\'sdutytohisneighbourisaccordinglypartlynegativeandpartlypositive:todischargethenegativebranchofit，isprobity: todischargethepositivebranch，beneficence。 VII。Itmayherebeasked，Howitisthatupontheprincipleofprivateethics，legislationandreligionoutofthequestion，aman\'shappinessdependsuponsuchpartsofhisconductasaffect，immediatelyatleast，thehappinessofnoonebuthimself:thisisasmuchastoask，Whatmotives(independentofsuchaslegislationandreligionmaychancetofurnish)canonemanhavetoconsultthehappinessofanotherbywhatmotives，or，whichcomestothesamething，bywhatobligations，canhebeboundtoobeythedictatesofprobityandbeneficence。Inanswertothis，itcannotbutbeadmitted，thattheonlyinterestswhichamanatalltimesanduponalloccasionsissuretofindadequatemotivesforconsulting，arehisown。Notwithstandingthis，therearenooccasionsinwhichamanhasnotsomemotivesforconsultingthehappinessofothermen。Inthefirstplace，hehas，onalloccasions，thepurelysocialmotiveofsympathyorbenevolence:inthenextplace，hehas，onmostoccasions，thesemi-socialmotivesofloveofamityandloveofreputation。Themotiveofsympathywillactuponhimwithmoreorlesseffect，accordingtothebiasofhissensibility:thetwoothermotives，accordingtoavarietyofcircumstances，principallyaccordingtothestrengthofhisintellectualpowers，thefirmnessandsteadinessofhismind，thequantumofhismoralsensibility，andthecharactersofthepeoplehehastodealwith。 VIII。Nowprivateethicshashappinessforitsend:andlegislationcanhavenoother。Privateethicsconcernseverymember，thatis，thehappinessandtheactionsofeverymember，ofanycommunitythatcanbeproposed；andlegislationcanconcernnomore。Thusfar，then，privateethicsandtheartoflegislationgohandinhand。Theendtheyhave，oroughttohave，inview，isofthesamenature。Thepersonswhosehappinesstheyoughttohaveinview，asalsothepersonswhoseconducttheyoughttobeoccupiedindirecting，arepreciselythesame。Theveryactstheyoughttobeconversantabout，areeveninagreat，measurethesame。Wherethenliesthedifference？Inthattheactswhichtheyoughttobeconversantabout，thoughinagreatmeasure，arenotperfectlyandthroughoutthesame。Thereisnocaseinwhichaprivatemanoughtnottodirecthisownconducttotheproductionofhisownhappiness，andofthatofhisfellow-creatures: buttherearecasesinwhichthelegislatoroughtnot(inadirectwayatleast，andbymeansofpunishmentappliedimmediatelytoparticularindividualacts)toattempttodirecttheconductoftheseveralothermembersofthecommunity。Everyactwhichpromisestobebeneficialuponthewholetothecommunity(himselfincluded)eachindividualoughttoperformofhimself: butitisnoteverysuchactthatthelegislatoroughttocompelhimtoperform。Everyactwhichpromisestobeperniciousuponthewholetothecommunity(himselfincluded)eachindividualoughttoabstainfromofhim:butitisnoteverysuchactthatthelegislatoroughttocompelhimtoabstainfrom。 IX。Wherethenisthelinetobedrawn？——Weshallnothavefartoseekforit。Thebusinessistogiveanideaofthecasesinwhichethicsought，andinwhichlegislationoughtnot(inadirectmanneratleast)tointerfere。Iflegislationinterferesinadirectmanner，itmustbebypunishment。Nowthecasesinwhichpunishment，meaningthepunishmentofthepoliticalsanction，oughtnottobeinflicted，havebeenalreadystated。2。Ifthentherebeanyofthesecasesinwhich，althoughlegislationoughtnot，privateethicsdoesoroughttointerfere，thesecaseswillservetopointoutthelimitsbetweenthetwoartsorbranchesofscience。Thesecases。itmayberemembered，areoffoursorts:1。Wherepunishmentwouldbegroundless。2。Whereitwouldbeinefficacious。3。Whereitwouldbeunprofitable。4。Whereitwouldbeneedless。Letuslookoverallthesecases，andseewhetherinanyofthemthereisroomfortheinterferenceofprivateethics，atthesametimethatthereisnoneforthedirectinterferenceoflegislation。 X。1。Firstthen，astothecaseswherepunishmentwouldbegroundless。 Inthesecasesitisevident，thattherestrictiveinterferenceofethicswouldbegroundlesstoo。Itisbecause，uponthewhole，thereisnoevilintheact，thatlegislationoughtnottoendeavourtopreventit。Nomore，forthesamereason，oughtprivateethics。 XI。2。Astothecasesinwhichpunishmentwouldbeinefficacious。These，wemayobserve，maybedividedintotwosetsorclasses。Thefirstdonotdependatalluponthenaturedoftheact: theyturnonlyuponadefectinthetimingofthepunishment。 Thepunishmentinquestionisnomorethanwhat，foranythingthatappears，oughttohavebeenappliedtotheactinquestion。 Itought，however，tohavebeenappliedatadifferenttime；viz。nottillafterithadbeenproperlydenounced。Thesearethecasesofanex-post-factolaw；ofajudicialsentencebeyondthelaw； andofalawnotsufficientlypromulgated。Theactshereinquestionthenmight，foranythingthatappears，comeproperlyunderthedepartmentevenofcoercivelegislation:ofcoursedotheyunderthatofprivateethics。Astotheothersetofcases，inwhichpunishmentwouldbeinefficacious；neitherdothesedependuponthenatureoftheact，thatis，ofthesortofact:theyturnonlyuponsomeextraneouscircumstances，withwhichanactofanysortmaychancetobeaccompanied。These，however，areofsuchanatureasnotonlytoexcludetheapplicationoflegalpunishment，butingeneraltoleavelittleroomfortheinfluenceofprivateethics。Thesearethecaseswherethewillcouldnotbedeterredfromanyact，evenbytheextraordinaryforceofartificialpunishment:asinthecasesofextremeinfancy，insanity，andperfectintoxication:ofcourse，therefore，itcouldnotbysuchslenderandprecariousforceascouldbeappliedbyprivateethics。Thecaseisinthisrespectthesame，underthecircumstancesofunintentionalitywithrespecttotheeventoftheaction，unconsciousnesswithregardtothecircumstances，andmis-supposalwithregardtotheexistenceofcircumstanceswhichhavenotexisted；asalsowheretheforce，evenofextraordinarypunishment，isrenderedinoperativebythesuperiorforceofaphysicaldangerorthreatenedmischief。Itisevident，thatinthesecases，ifthethundersofthelawproveimpotent，thewhispersofsimplemoralitycanhavebutlittleinfluence。 XII。3。Astothecaseswherepunishmentwouldbeunprofitable。Thesearethecaseswhichconstitutethegreatfieldfortheexclusiveinterferenceofprivateethics。Whenapunishmentisunprofitable，orinotherwordstooexpensive，itisbecausetheevilofthepunishmentexceedsthatoftheoffence。Nowtheevilofthepunishment，wemayremember，isdistinguishableintofourbranches:1。Theevilofcoercion，includingconstraintorrestraint，accordingastheactcommandedisofthepositivekindorthenegative。2。Theevilofapprehension。3。Theevilofsufferance。 4。Thederivativeevilsresultingtopersonsinconnectionwiththosebywhomthethreeabove-mentionedoriginalevilsaresustained。 Nowwithrespecttothoseoriginalevils，thepersonswholieexposedtothemmaybetwoverydifferentsetsofpersons。 Inthefirstplace，personswhomayhaveactuallycommitted，orbeenpromptedtocommit，theactsreallymeanttobeprohibited。Inthenextplace，personswhomayhaveperformed，orbeenpromptedtoperform，suchotheractsastheyfearmaybeindangerofbeinginvolvedinthepunishmentdesignedonlyfortheformer。Butofthesetwosetsofacts，itistheformeronlythatarepernicious:itis，therefore，theformeronlythatitcanbethebusinessofprivateethicstoendeavourtoprevent。Thelatterbeingbythesuppositionnotmischievous，topreventthemiswhatitcannomorebethebusinessofethicstoendeavourat，thanoflegislation。Itremainstoshowhowitmayhappen，thatthereshouldbeactsreallypernicious，which，althoughtheymayveryproperlycomeunderthecensureofprivateethics，mayyetbenofitobjectsforthelegislatortocontrol。 XIII。Punishmentthen，asappliedtodelinquency，maybeunprofitableinbothoreitheroftwoways:1。Bytheexpenseitwouldamountto，evensupposingtheapplicationofittobeconfinedaltogethertodelinquency:2。Bythedangertheremaybeofitsinvolvingtheinnocentinthefatedesignedonlyfortheguilty。Firstthen，withregardtothecasesinwhichtheexpenseofthepunishment，asappliedtotheguilty，wouldoutweightheprofittobemadebyit。Thesecases，itisevident，dependuponacertainproportionbetweentheevilofthepunishmentandtheeviloftheoffence。Nowweretheoffenceofsuchanature，thatapunishmentwhich，inpointofmagnitude，shouldbutjustexceedtheprofitofit，wouldbesufficienttopreventit，itmightberatherdifficultperhapstofindaninstanceinwhichsuchpunishmentwouldclearlyappeartobeunprofitable。Butthefactis，therearemanycasesinwhichapunishment，inordertohaveanychanceofbeingefficacious，must，inpointofmagnitude，beraisedagreatdealabovethatlevel。Thusitis，whereverthedangerofdetectionis，or，whatcomestothesamething，islikelytoappeartobe，sosmall，astomakethepunishmentappearinahighdegreeuncertain。Inthiscaseitisnecessary，ashasbeenshown，ifpunishmentbeatallapplied，toraiseitinpointofmagnitudeasmuchasitfallsshortinpointofcertainty。Itisevident，however，thatallthiscanbebutguess-work:andthattheeffectofsuchaproportionwillberenderedprecarious，byavarietyofcircumstances:bythewantofsufficientpromulgationonthepartofthelaws:bytheparticularcircumstancesofthetemptation:andbythecircumstancesinfluencingthesensibilityoftheseveralindividualswhoareexposedtoit。Lettheseducingmotivesbestrong，theoffencethenwillatanyratebefrequentlycommitted。Nowandthenindeed，owingtoacoincidenceofcircumstancesmoreorlessextraordinary，itwillbedetected，andbythatmeanspunished。Butforthepurposeofexample，whichistheprincipalone，anactofpunishment，consideredinitself，isofnouse:whatuseitcanbeof，dependsaltogetherupontheexpectationitraisesofsimilarpunishment，infuturecasesofsimilardelinquency。Butthisfuturepunishment，itisevident，mustalwaysdependupondetection。Ifthenthewantofdetectionissuchasmustingeneral(especiallytoeyesfascinatedbytheforceoftheseducingmotives)appeartooimprobabletobereckonedupon，thepunishment，thoughitshouldbeinflicted，maycometobeofnouse。Herethenwillbetwooppositeevilsrunningonatthesametime，yetneitherofthemreducingthequantumoftheother:theevilofthediseaseandtheevilofthepainfulandinefficaciousremedy。Itseemstobepartlyowingtosomesuchconsiderations，thatfornication，forexample，ortheillicitcommercebetweenthesexes，hascommonlyeithergonealtogetherunpunished，orbeenpunishedinadegreeinferiortothatinwhich，onotheraccounts，legislatorsmighthavebeendisposedtopunishit。 XIV。Secondly，withregardtothecasesinwhichpoliticalpunishment，asappliedtodelinquency，maybeunprofitable，invirtueofthedangertheremaybeofitsinvolvingtheinnocentinthefatedesignedonlyfortheguilty。Whenceshouldthisdangerthenarise？Fromthedifficultytheremaybeoffixingtheideaoftheguiltyaction:thatis。ofsubjectingittosuchadefinitionasshallbeclearandpreciseenoughtoguardeffectivelyagainstmisapplication。 Thisdifficultymayarisefromeitheroftwosources:theonepermanent，towit，thenatureoftheactionsthemselves:theotheroccasional，Imeanthequalitiesofthemenwhomayhavetodealwiththoseactionsinthewayofgovernment。Inasfarasitarisesfromthelatterofthesesources，itmaydependpartlyupontheusewhichthelegislatormaybeabletomakeoflanguage； partlyupontheusewhich，accordingtotheapprehensionofthelegislatorsthejudgemaybedisposedtomakeofit。Asfaraslegislationisconcerned，itwilldependuponthedegreeofperfectingtowhichtheartsoflanguagemayhavebeencarried，inthefirstplace，inthenationingeneral；inthenextplace。bythelegislatorinparticular。Itistoasenseofthisdifficulty，asitshouldseem，thatwemayattributethecautionwithwhichmostlegislatorshaveabstainedfromsubjectingtocensure，onthepartofthelaw，suchactionsascomeunderthenotionofrudeness，forexample，ortreachery，oringratitude。Theattempttobringactsofsovagueandquestionableanatureunderthecontroloflaw，willargueeitheraveryimmatureage，inwhichthedifficultieswhichgivebirthtothatdangerarenotdescried；oraveryenlightenedage，inwhichtheyareovercome。 XV。Forthesakeofobtainingtheclearerideaofthelimitsbetweentheartoflegislationandprivateethics，itmaynowbetimetocalltomindthedistinctionsaboveestablishedwithregardtoethicsingeneral。Thedegreeinwhichprivateethicsstandsinneedoftheassistanceoflegislationisdifferentinthethreebranchesofdutyabovedistinguished。Oftherulesofmoralduty，thosewhichseemtostandleastinneedoftheassistanceoflegislationaretherulesofprudence。Itcanonlybethroughsomedefectonthepartoftheunderstanding，ifamanbeeverdeficientinpointofdutytohimself。Ifhedoeswrong，thereisnothingelsethatitcanbeowingtobuteithersomeinadvertenceorsomemis-supposalwithregardtothecircumstancesonwhichhishappinessdepends。Itisastandingtopicofcomplaint，thatamanknowstoolittleofhimself。Beitso:butisitsocertainthatthelegislatormustknowmore？Itisplain，thatofindividualsthelegislatorcanknownothing:concerningthosepointsofconductwhichdependupontheparticularcircumstancesofeachindividual，itisplain，therefore，thathecandeterminenothingtoadvantage。Itisonlywithrespecttothosebroadlinesofconductinwhichallpersons，orverylargeandpermanentdescriptionsofpersons，maybeinawaytoengage，thathecanhaveanypretenseforinterfering；andevenheretheproprietyofhisinterferencewill，inmostinstances，lieveryopentodispute。Atanyrate，hemustneverexpecttoproduceaperfectcompliancebythemereforceofthesanctionofwhichheishimselftheauthor。 Allhecanhopetodo，istoincreasetheefficacyofprivateethics，bygivingstrengthanddirectiontotheinfluenceofthemoralsanction。Withwhatchanceofsuccess，forexample，wouldalegislatorgoabouttoextirpatedrunkennessandfornicationbydintoflegalpunishment？Notallthetortureswhichingenuitycouldinventwouldcompassit:and，beforehehadmadeanyprogressworthregarding，suchamassofevilwouldbeproducedbythepunishment，aswouldexceed，athousand-fold，theutmostpossiblemischiefoftheoffence……Thegreatdifficultywouldbeintheprocuringevidence；anobjectwhichcouldnotbeattempted，withanyprobabilityofsuccess，withoutspreadingdismaythrougheveryfamily，tearingthebondsofsympathyasunder，androotingouttheinfluenceofallthesocialmotives。Allthathecandothen，againstoffencesofthisnature，withanyprospectofadvantage，inthewayofdirectlegislation，istosubjectthem，incasesofnotoriety，toaslightcensure，soastherebytocoverthemwithaslightshadeofartificialdisrepute。 XVI。Itmaybeobserved，thatwithregardtothisbranchofduty，legislatorshave，ingeneral，beendisposedtocarrytheirinterferencefullasfarasisexpedient。Thegreatdifficultyhereis，topersuadethemtoconfinethemselveswithinbounds。A thousandlittlepassionsandprejudiceshaveledthemtonarrowthelibertyofthesubjectinthisline，incasesinwhichthepunishmentiseitherattendedwithnoprofitatall，orwithnonethatwillmakeupfortheexpense。 XVII。Themischiefofthissortofinterferenceismoreparticularlyconspicuousinthearticleofreligion。Thereasoning，inthiscase，isofthefollowingstamp。Therearecertainerrors，inmattersofbelief，towhichallmankindareprone:andfortheseerrorsinjudgment，itisthedeterminationofaBeingofinfinitebenevolence，topunishthemwithaninfinityoftorments。Butfromtheseerrorsthelegislatorhimselfisnecessarilyfree:forthemen，whohappentobeathandforhimtoconsultwith，beingmenperfectlyenlightened，unfettered，andunbiased，havesuchadvantagesoveralltherestoftheworld，thatwhentheysitdowntoenquireoutthetruthrelativetopointssoplainandsofamiliarasthoseinquestion，theycannotfailtofindit。Thisbeingthecase，whenthesovereignseeshispeoplereadytoplungeheadlongintoanabyssoffire，shallhenotstretchoutahandtosavethem？Such，forexample，seemstohavebeenthetrainofreasoning，andsuchthemotives，whichledLewistheXIVthintothosecoercivemeasureswhichhetookfortheconversionofhereticsandtheconfirmationoftruebelievers。Theground-work，puresympathyandloving-kindness:thesuperstructure，allthemiserieswhichthemostdeterminedmalevolencecouldhavedevised。Butofthismorefullyinanotherplace。 XVIII。Therulesofprobityarethose，whichinpointofexpediencystandmostinneedofassistanceonthepartofthelegislator，andinwhich，inpointoffact，hisinterferencehasbeenmostextensive。Therearefewcasesinwhichitwouldbeexpedienttopunishamanforhurtinghimself:buttherearefewcases，ifany，inwhichitwouldnotbeexpedienttopunishamanforinjuringhisneighbour。Withregardtothatbranchofprobitywhichisopposedtooffencesagainstproperty，privateethicsdependsinamannerforitsveryexistenceuponlegislation。 Legislationmustfirstdeterminewhatthingsaretoberegardedaseachman\'sproperty，beforethegeneralrulesofethics，onthishead，canhaveanyparticularapplication。Thecaseisthesamewithregardtooffencesagainstthestate。Withoutlegislationtherewouldbenosuchthingasastate:noparticularpersonsinvestedwithpowerstobeexercisedforthebenefitoftherest。Itisplain，therefore，thatinthisbranchtheinterferenceofthelegislatorcannotanywherebedispensedwith。Wemustfirstknowwhatarethedictatesoflegislation，beforewecanknowwhatarethedictatesofprivateethics。 XIX。Astotherulesofbeneficence，these，asfarasconcernsmattersofdetail，mustnecessarilybeabandonedingreatmeasuretothejurisdictionofprivateethics。Inmanycasesthebeneficialqualityoftheactdependsessentiallyuponthedispositionoftheagent；thatis，uponthemotivebywhichheappearstohavebeenpromptedtoperformit:upontheirbelongingtotheheadofsympathy，loveofamity，orloveofreputation； andnottoanyheadofself-regardingmotives。broughtintoplaybytheforceofpoliticalconstraint:inaword，upontheirbeingsuchasdenominatehisconductfreeandvoluntary，accordingtooneofthemanysensesgiventothoseambiguousexpressions。 Thelimitsofthelawonthisheadseem，however，tobecapableofbeingextendedagooddealfartherthantheyseemevertohavebeenextendedhitherto。Inparticular，incaseswherethepersonisindanger，whyshoulditnotbemadethedutyofeverymantosaveanotherfrommischief，whenitcanbedonewithoutprejudicinghimself，aswellastoabstainfrombringingitonhim？Thisaccordinglyistheideapursuedinthebodyofthework。 XX。Toconcludethissection，letusrecapitulateandbringtoapointthedifferencebetweenprivateethics。consideredasanartorscience，ontheonehand，andthatbranchofjurisprudencewhichcontainstheartorscienceoflegislation，ontheother。 Privateethicsteacheshoweachmanmaydisposehimselftopursuethecoursemostconducivetohisownhappiness，bymeansofsuchmotivesasofferofthemselves:theartoflegislation(whichmaybeconsideredasonebranchofthescienceofjurisprudence)teacheshowamultitudeofmen，composingacommunity，maybedisposedtopursuethatcoursewhichuponthewholeisthemostconducivetothehappinessofthewholecommunity，bymeansofmotivestobeappliedbythelegislator。 Wecomenowtoexhibitthelimitsbetweenpenalandciviljurisprudence。 Forthispurposeitmaybeofusetogiveadistinctthoughsummaryviewoftheprincipalbranchesintowhichjurisprudence，consideredinitsutmostextent，iswonttobedivided。 2。Jurisprudence，itsbranches。 XXI。Jurisprudenceisafictitiousentity:norcananymeaningbefoundfortheword，butbyplacingitincompanywithsomewordthatshallbesignificativeofarealentity。Toknowwhatismeantbyjurisprudence，wemustknow，forexample，whatismeantbyabookofjurisprudence。Abookofjurisprudencecanhavebutoneortheotheroftwoobjects:1。Toascertainwhatthelawis:2。toascertainwhatitoughttobe。Intheformercaseitmaybestyledabookofexpositoryjurisprudence；inthelatter，abookofcensorialjurisprudence:or，inotherwords，abookontheartoflegislation。 XXII。Abookofexpositoryjurisprudence，iseitherauthoritativeorunauthoritative。Itisstyledauthoritative，whenitiscomposedbyhimwho，byrepresentingthestateofthelawtobesoandso，causethitsotobe；thatis，ofthelegislatorhimself: unauthoritative，whenitistheworkofanyotherpersonatlarge。 XXIII。Nowlaw，orthelaw，takenindefinitely，isanabstractandcollectiveterm；which，whenitmeansanything，canmeanneithermorenorlessthanthesumtotalofanumberofindividuallawstakentogether。Itfollows，thatofwhateverothermodificationsthesubjectofabookofjurisprudenceissusceptible，theymustallofthembetakenfromsomecircumstanceorotherofwhichsuchindividuallaws，ortheassemblagesintowhichtheymaybesorted，aresusceptible。Thecircumstancesthathavegivenrisetotheprincipalbranchesofjurisprudencewearewonttohearof，seemtobeasfollows:1。Theextentofthelawsinquestioninpointofdominion。2。Thepoliticalqualityofthepersonswhoseconducttheyundertaketoregulate。3。Thetimeoftheirbeinginforce。4。Themannerinwhichtheyareexpressed。 5。Theconcernwhichtheyhavewiththearticleofpunishment。 XXIV。Inthefirstplace，inpointofextent，whatisdeliveredconcerningthelawsinquestion，mayhavereferenceeithertothelawsofsuchorsuchanationornationsinparticular，ortothelawsofallnationswhatsoever:inthefirstcase，thebookmaybesaidtorelatetolocal，intheother，touniversaljurisprudence。 Nowoftheinfinitevarietyofnationsthereareupontheearth，therearenotwowhichagreeexactlyintheirlaws:certainlynotinthewhole:perhapsnoteveninanysinglearticle:andletthemagreetoday，theywoulddisagreeto-morrow。Thisisevidentenoughwithregardtothesubstanceofthelaws:anditwouldbestillmoreextraordinaryiftheyagreedinpointofform；thatis，iftheywereconceivedinpreciselythesamestringsofwords。Whatismore，asthelanguagesofnationsarecommonlydifferent，aswellastheirlaws，itisseldomthat，strictlyspeaking，theyhavesomuchasasinglewordincommon。However，amongthewordsthatareappropriatedtothesubjectoflaw，therearesomethatinalllanguagesareprettyexactlycorrespondenttooneanother:whichcomestothesamethingnearlyasiftheywerethesame。Ofthisstamp，forexample，arethosewhichcorrespondtothewordspower，right，obligation，liberty，andmanyothers。 Itfollows，thatifthereareanybookswhichcan，properlyspeaking，bestyledbooksofuniversaljurisprudence，theymustbelookedforwithinverynarrowlimits。Amongsuchasareexpository，therecanbenonethatareauthoritative:noreven，asfarasthesubstanceofthelawsisconcerned，anythatareunauthoritative。 Tobesusceptibleofanuniversalapplication，allthatabookoftheexpositorykindcanhavetotreatof，istheimportofwords:tobe，strictlyspeaking，universal，itmustconfineitselftoterminology。Accordinglythedefinitionswhichtherehasbeenoccasionhereandtheretointersperseinthecourseofthepresentwork，andparticularlythedefinitionhereaftergivenofthewordlaw，maybeconsideredasmatterbelongingtotheheadofuniversaljurisprudence。Thusfarinstrictnessofspeech: thoughinpointofusage，whereaman，inlayingdownwhatheapprehendstobethelaw，extendshisviewstoafewofthenationswithwhichhisownismostconnected，itiscommonenoughtoconsiderwhathewritesasrelatingtouniversaljurisprudence。