第1章

Thegoodsandservicesthatconstituteournationalincomearevaluedseverallyandcollectivelywithafairamountofaccuracyintermsofmoney。 Foragoldstandard，thoughbynomeansperfectfortheworkofmonetarymeasurement，isstableandhasasingledefinitemeaningtoallmen。Bymeansofitwecanestimatetheratesofgrowthordeclineinourindustry，asanaggregateorinitsseveraldepartments，andthequantitiesofoutputandconsumptionofthevariousproducts。Wecancomparethegrowthofournationalwealthwiththatofothernations。 Buthowfarcanthesemeasurementsofconcretewealthfurnishreliableinformationregardingthevitalvalues，thehumanwelfare，whichalleconomicprocessesaredesignedtoyield？Thoughitwillbegenerallyadmittedthateveryincreaseofeconomicwealthisinsomemeasureconducivetowelfare，everydecreasetoillfare，nobodywillpretendevenapproximatelytodeclarewhatthatmeasureis，ortolaydownanyexplicitrulesrelatingwealthtowelfare，eitherforanindividualoranation。Indeed，eventhegeneralassumptionthateverygrowthofwealthenhanceswelfarecannotbeadmittedwithoutqualification。Aninjuriousexcessofincomeispossibleforanindividual，perhapsforanation，andthenationalwelfarewhichanincreasedvolumeofwealthseemscapableofyieldingmightbemorethancancelledbyadistributionwhichbestoweduponafewanincreasedshareofthelargerwealth，orbyanaggravationofthetoiloftheproducers。 Suchobviousconsiderationsdriveustoseeksomeintelligibleandconsistentmethodofhumanvaluationforeconomicgoodsandprocesses。 Tofindastandardofhumanwelfareasstableandasgenerallyacceptableasthemonetarystandardismanifestlyimpossible。Indeed，thedifficultiesattendinganysortofcalculusofvitalvaluesmightappearinsuperable，wereitnotforonereflection。Everystatesman，socialreformer，philanthropist，everypublic-spiritedcitizen，doespossessandapplytotheconductofaffairssomesuchstandardorcriterionasweareseeking。Somenotionoridea，moreorlessclearandexplicit，ofthegeneralwelfare，crossedandblurrednodoubtbyotherinterestsandpassions，isanoperativeanddirectiveinfluenceinhispolicy。Moreover，thoughidiosyncrasieswilleverywhereaffectthisoperativeideal，therewillbefoundamongpersonsofwidelydifferentmindsanddispositionsasubstantialbodyofagreementintheirmeaningofhumanwelfare。 Thecommonsocialenvironmentpartlyevokes，partlyimposes，thisagreement。Infact，allco-operativeworkforsocialprogressimpliestheexistenceofsomesuchstandardasweareseeking。Thecompleximageofhumanvalueswhichitcontainsisalwaysslowlychanging，andvariessomewhatamongdifferentsortsandconditionsofmen。Butfortheinterpretationofeconomicgoodsandprocessesithas，atanytime，arealvalidity。Foritisanchoredtocertainsolidfoundationsofhumannature，theneedsandfunctionstowhich，alikeintheindividualandinthesociety，wegivetheterm\'organic。\'Onlybyconsideringtheorganicnatureofmanandofhumansocietycanwetraceanintelligibleorderintheevolutionofindustry。Thewantsofman，andthereforetheeconomicoperationsservingthemmustbetreatedasorganicprocesses。 Thisterm，borrowedfrombiology，mustbeextendedsoastocovertheentirephysicalandspiritualstructureofhumansociety，fornoothertermissowellfittedtodescribethenatureofthefederalunitywhichsocietypresents。Thestandardofvaluesthussetupisthecurrentestimateof\'organicwelfare。\' Thejustificationofthesetermsandofthismodeofhumanvaluationistobefoundintheirapplicationtothetaskbeforeus。Thesetoolswillbefoundtodotheworkbetterthananyothersthatareavailable。 Inseekingtotranslateeconomicvaluesintohumanbyreferencetosuchastandardoforganicwelfare，ItakeastheaptestmaterialforexperimenttheaggregateofgoodsandservicesthatconstitutetherealincomeoftheBritishnation。Inordertoreducethatincometotermsofhumanwelfare，Ifirstexamineseparatelytheeconomiccostsofproductionandtheeconomicutilitiesofconsumptionwhichmeetinthisconcretewealth，analysingthemintohumancostandhumanutility，thedebitandcreditsidesoftheaccountofwelfare。Analysisoftheproductiveprocesseswill，ofcourse，disclosethefactthatnotall\'economic\'costshavehumancostsattachedtothem，butthathumanutilitiesofvaryingvalueinhereinmanysortsofproductivework。 Surveyingthedifferentordersofproductiveenergy，fromthefinestartstothelowestmodesofroutinetoil，wediscoverthatanytwobodiesofeconomicwealth，possessingthesamepecuniaryvalue，maydifferenormouslyinthequantityofhumancosttheycarry。Forthatcostwilldependuponthenatureofthework，thenatureoftheworkers，andthedistributionoftheworkamongtheworkers。Thislineofenquiryopensout，informatanyrate，acompletecriticismofcurrentEnglishindustry，fromthehumaniststandpoint。Asimilaranalysisappliedontheconsumptionsideresolvestheeconomicutilityofthegoodsandservicesintohumanutility。Hereagainoutofeconomicutilitiesmuchhumancostemerges，justasoutofeconomiccostsmuchhumanutility。Equalquantitiesofincomeyieldintheirconsumptionwidelydiversequantitiesofhumanutilityorwelfare。 Piecingtogetherthetwosidesofourenquiryintotheproductionandconsumptionoftheincome，weperceive，asmightbeexpected，thatasoundhumaneconomyconformstotheorganiclawofdistribution，\'fromeachaccordingtohispower，toeachaccordingtohisneeds，\'andthat，preciselysofarasthecurrentprocessesofeconomicdistributionofworkandofitsproductcontravenethisorganiclaw，wasteaccruesandillfaredisplaceswelfare。 Theeconomicdistinctionbetweencostsandunearnedsurplus1furnishesineffectafaithfulmeasureoftheextentandformsofdivergencebetweentheeconomicandthehuman\'law\'ofdistribution。Forwhenthissurplusincomeistraced，backwardtothehumancostsinvolvedinitsproduction，forwardtothehumaninjuriesinflictedbytheexcessiveandbadconsumptionitsustains，itisseentobethedirectefficientcauseofallthehumandefectsinoureconomicsystem。Growinginmagnitudewiththedevelopmentofthemodernartsofindustryandcommerce，itistheconcreteembodimentofthesocial-economicproblem。Theabsorptionandutilisationofthesurplusforthebettermentoftheworking-classesandtheenrichmentofpubliclifeareessentialconditionsforthehumanisationofindustry。Thefirsthalfofthebookisoccupiedwiththegeneralexpositionandillustrationofthismethodofhumanvaluation。Thesecondpartappliesthehumanistprinciplesthusestablished，tothediscussionofsomeofthegreatpracticalissuesofsocial-economicreconstructioninthefieldsofbusinessandpolitics。Themedleyofoverlappingconflictsbetweencapitalandlabour，producerandconsumer，competitionandcombination，theindividualandsociety，issiftedsoastodiscoverlinesofindustrialreformationbaseduponaconceptionoforganicharmony。Thereconstructionofthebusiness，soasadequatelytorepresentinitsoperationtherespectiveinterestsofcapital，ability，labourandtheconsumer，isseentobethefirstdesideratumofreform。Here，asinthewideroppositionsbetweenbusinessandbusiness，tradeandtrade，nationandnation(misconceivedaseconomicunits)，themorerationalstandpointofahumanistvaluationsuggestsmodesofreconcilementfollowinganevolutionofeconomicstructureinwhichthecorporateorco-operativespiritfindsclearerandstrongerexpression。Themostdebatedquestion，howfarordinaryhumannaturecanyieldeconomicmotivestosocialservicestrongandreliableenoughtoenablesocietytodispensewithsomeoftheincentivesofcompetitivegreed，hithertodeemedindispensablesupportstoindustry，isdiscussedinseveralofthelaterchapters。Thepracticablelimitsofindustrialreformationarefoundtodependupontherealityandimportanceassignedto\'thesocialwill\'asapoweroperativeforindustrialpurposes，inotherwordsuponthestrengthofthespiritualunityofsociety。 Afinalchapterisgiventoadiscussionofthelimitationsofthescientificandquantitativemethodsintheinterpretationanddirectionofsocial-economiclife。Itiscontendedthattheartofsocialasofindividualconductmustalwaysdefyexactscientificguidance，themethodsofsciencebeingincompetentcloselytopredictordirectthecreativeelementinorganicprocesses。 Theprocessesofhumanvaluationandjudgment，therefore，whetherappliedtoindustryortootheractivitiesandachievements，mustultimatelybelongtotheartratherthantothescienceofsociety，thestatesmanandthecitizenabsorbingandassimilatingthehistoryofthepastwhichsciencepresentsinitsfactsandlaws，butusinghisfreeconstructivefacultytomakethehistoryofthefuture。Thefailuresoftheindividualstatesmanorcitizenintheperformanceofthisartisticworkareduetothefactthatalargerartist，whoseperformancethemostenlightenedindividualcanbutslightlyapprehend，viz。，societyitself，takesanover-rulingpartintheprocess。 Thisbriefpresentationoftheargument，dwellingunavoidablyuponintellectualmethod，maypossiblyhavefailedtoconveytheintenselypracticalpurposewhichIhavekeptinmindthroughoutthepreparationofthebook。 Thatpurposeistopresentafullandformalexposureoftheinhumanityandvitalwasteofmodernindustrybythecloseapplicationofthebest-approvedformulasofindividualandsocialwelfare，andtoindicatethemosthopefulmeasuresofremedyforasocietysufficientlyintelligent，courageousandself-governingtoapplythem。 Suchaworkevidentlypresentsalargefrontforhostilecriticism。 Itsscopehasoftencompelledarigorouscompressioninthediscussionofimportantcontroversialtopics，andhasprecludedallentranceuponthemoredetailedissuesinthepolicyofreconstruction。ButIventuretohopethatmanyreaders，whomaydisagreewiththeparticularvaluationsandinterpretationsofferedinthesechapters，willbeledtoacceptthebroaderoutlinesofthemethodofhumanvaluationhereproposed，andwillrecognizetheimportanceofabetterapplicationofthismethodinthesolutionsofthepracticalproblemsofeconomicreform。J。A。HOBSON。HAMPSTEAD，January，1914。 NOTES: 1。Thisdistinctioniselaboratedinmywork，TheIndustrialSystem。CHAPTERI:THEHUMANSTANDARDOFVALUE §；I。Inanagewhenhumanproblemsofadistinctivelyeconomiccharacter，relatingtowages，hoursoflabour，housing，employment，taxation，insuranceandkindredsubjects，arepressingforseparateconsiderationandsolution，itisparticularlyimportanttoenforcetheneedofageneralsurveyofoureconomicsystemfromthestandpointofhumanvalues。Socialstudents，ofcourse，arejustifiedbyconsiderationsofintellectualeconomyinisolatingtheseseveralproblemsforcertainpurposesofdetailedenquiry。Butthebroaderhumansetting，demandedforthejudgmentorthepolicyofastatesmanorreformer，canneverbeobtainedbythisseparatisttreatment。Fortheinteractionswhichrelatetheseissuestooneanotherarenumerousandintimate。Takingasthemostfamiliarexamplethegroupsofquestionsrelatingtotheworking-classes，werecogniseatoncehowthewages，hours，regularityofemploymentandotherconsiderationsoflabour，overlapandintertwine， while，again，thequestionsrelatingtoconditionsofliving，suchashousing，food，drink，education，recreation，facilitiesoftransit，havesimilarinterrelationsasfactorsinastandardofcomfort。Norisitlessevidentthatconditionsoflabourandconditionsofliving，takenseverallyandintheaggregate，interactinwaysthataffecttheefficiencyandwell-beingofthepeople。 Thespecialandseparatestudiesofthesevariousproblemsmustthen，inordertobesociallyserviceable，besubjecttotheguidanceanddirectionofsomegeneralconceptionwhichshallhaveregardtoallsortsofeconomicfactorsandoperations，assessingthembyreferencetosomesinglestandardofthehumanlydesirable。Thisgeneralsurveyandtheapplicationofthissinglestandardofvaluationarenecessaryaliketoascientificinterpretationoftheeconomicorindustrialworldandtoaconsciousartofsocial-economicprogress。Theymustexertacontroloverthedivisionofintellectuallabourontheonehand，andovertheutilisationofsuchlabourforsocialpolicyupontheother。Thenotionthat，bysettinggroupsofstudentstoworkatgathering，testing，measuringandtabulatingcrudefacts，relating，say，toinfantmortality，expenditureondrink，orwagesinwomen\'sindustries，valuabletruthsofwideapplicationwillsomehowbespontaneouslygenerated，andthatbyapurelyinductiveprocesstherewillcometolightgenerallawsauthoritativeforsocialpolicy，isentirelydestituteoffoundation。 Thehumblestgrubberamong\'facts\'mustapproachthemwithsomeequipmentofquestions，hypotheses，andmethodsofclassification，allofwhichimplytheacceptanceofprinciplesderivedfromawiderfieldofthought。Thesameholdsagainofthenexthighergradeofstudents，theintellectualmiddlemenwhoutilisethe\'facts\'gotbythedetailedworkers\'attheface。\' Theytoomustbringwiderprinciplestocorrelateandtointerprettheresultsgotbythehumblerworkers。Soateachstageoftheinductiveprocess，lawsandstandardsderivedfromahigherintellectualstagearebroughttobear。 Evenifsuchstudieswerepromptedentirelybyadisinteresteddesireforknowledge，itisevidentthattheirsuccessimpliestheinspirationandapplicationofsomegeneralideas，whichinrelationtothesestudiesareapriori。Butregardingthesestudiesasdesignedprimarilytoassisttheartofsocialpolicy，wemustrecognisethattheinnerpromptingmotiveofeveryquestionthatisputateachstageofsuchenquiries，theinnerregulativeprincipleofthedivisionoflabourandofthecorrelationoftheresults，isthedesiretorealisesomemoreorlessclearconceptionofgeneralhumanwell-being。Itmust，ofcourse，beadmittedthatthisprocedurerestsuponasortofparadox。Thegeneralconceptionofhumanwell-beingisitselfvagueandunsubstantial，untilithasacquiredandassimilatedtheverysortsofknowledgethecollection ofwhichitishereassumedtobeabletodirect。Thisparadox，however，isfamiliartoallwhoreflectupontheprogressofknowledgeinanydepartmentandforanypurpose。Ionlynameithereinordertoanticipatetheobjectionofthosedisposedtoquestionthevalidityofassuminganysortofstandardofhumanwelfare，andtoinsistupontestingeacheconomicissueuponwhattheycall\'itsownmerits。\'Theapplicationofageneralsurveyandageneralstandardofvaluesisnonethelessalogicallyvalidandapracticallyusefulprocedure，becausethenewfactswhichitsapplicationdisclosesaffordmorefulnessandexactitudetothesurvey，whilethestandardisitselfmadeclearerandmoreeffectivethereby。 Assumingittobeadmitted，then，thatahumanvaluationofeconomicprocessesispossibleanddesirable，bothfortheenlargementofknowledgeandforpurposesofsocialpolicy，thequestionsnextarise，\'Howshallweconceiveanddescribethestandardofhumanvaluation，andhowshallweapplyittotheinterpretationofthepresenteconomicsystem？\' §；2。Beforefacingthesequestions，however，itwillbewelltohavebeforeourmindsaclearoutlinepictureofthiseconomicsystemwhichweseektovalue。Itconsistsoftwocomplexoperations，constantlyinteracting，knownasProductionandConsumptionofwealth。Bywealthisunderstoodallsortsofvendiblegoodsandservices。Sofarasmaterialwealthisconcerned，itis\'produced\'byaseriesofprocesseswhichconvertrawmaterialsintofinishedgoodsofvarioussortsandsizesanddisposetheminsuchquantitiesasarerequired，forthesatisfactionofconsumersorasinstrumentsinsomefurtherprocessofproduction。Similarly，inthecaseofprofessional，official，domestic，industrial，commercial，andotherpersonalservices，whichalsorankaswealth，1avarietyofproductiveprocessesgotopreparethemandtoplacethematthedisposalofconsumers。 Theprocessesofproductionmaythusbeclassifiedasextractive，manufacturing，artistic，transport，commercial，professional，domestic。Thusitisseenthattheworkof\'distribution\'and\'exchange，\'2sometimesdistinguishedfromtheworkofproduction，ishereincludedinthatcategory。 Now，thefirstdifficultyconfrontingusinoursearchforahumanvaluationofthiseconomicsystemconsistsintheobscurityinwhichhalfthissystemlies。Forthoughthereiseverywhereaformalrecognitionthatconsumptionistheendorgoalofindustry，thereisnoadmissionthattheartsofconsumptionareequallyimportantwiththeartsofproductionandaredeservingofasmuchattentionbystudentsorreformersofour\'economicsystem。\'Onthecontrary，soabsorbingaretheproductiveprocessesintheirclaimsuponthephysicalandmentalenergiesofmankind，thattheeconomicsystem，alikeforpractitionersandtheorists，hasalmostcometobeidentifiedwiththeseprocesses。Thisdepreciationandneglectofconsumptionnodoubthasbeennaturalenough。Somuchmoreconsciousenergyofthoughtandfeeling，andsomuchmoreexpenditureoftimeandefforthavegoneintothediscovery，developmentandpracticeoftheproductivearts。Theirpracticehasinvolvedsomuchmorepublicity，somuchwiderandmorevariedintercourse，andthereforesomuchmoreorganisation。Consumption，ontheotherhand，hasbeensomuchmorepassiveinitscharacter，soprivateandindividualintheactswhichcompriseit，solittleassociatedwithsequencesofthoughtorpurpose，thatithashardlycometoberegardedasanart。Hence，eveninthemoreelaboratecivilisationswheremuchdetailedskillandattentionaredevotedtotheuseandenjoymentofgoodsandservices，theneglectofconsumptiveprocessesbyeconomicscienceremainsalmostunimpaired。Theartsofproductionremainsomuchmoreexactingintheirdemandsuponourattention。 Theearlyinfluenceofthisdominanceoftheproductivestandpointineconomicsciencehashadeffectsupontheterminologyandstructureofthatsciencewhichareseriousobstaclestothehumaninterpretationofindustry。unconsciously，butconsistently，theearlystructureofthesciencewasbuiltwithexclusiveregardtotheindustrialorproductiveprocesses。Theartoutofwhichthesciencegrewwasconcernedwiththeprogressofagriculture，manufacture，andcommerce，orwithproblemsofmoney，taxation，andpopulation，regardedmainlyorwhollyfromtheproductivestandpoint。Theunderlyingassumptioneverywherewasthequestion，\'Howwillthisorthatpolicyaffectthequantityofwealthproducedinthecountry？\'alwayswithanimportantcorollarytotheeffect，\'Howwillitaffectthequantityofwealth，passingasrents，profits，interest，orwagestotheseveralclassesofthenation？\'Butnowherewasthereanydirectconsiderationoftheartsofconsumption，withoneparticularlyinstructiveexception。Theonlybitofattentionpaidbyourearlyclassicaleconomiststoprocessesofconsumptionwastodistinguish\'productive\' from\'unproductive\'consumption，thatis，tosuggestavaluationofconsumptionbasedentirelyuponitssubordinationtofuturepurposesofproduction。 Theircondemnationofluxuriousexpenditureandwaste，alikeinthewealthyandtheworking-classes，wasnotprimarilydirectedagainstthelossofrealenjoyment，orhumanwell-being，orthemoraldegradationinvolvedinsuchabuseofspendingpower，butagainstthedamagetothefurtherprocessesofmakingwealthbyreducingtherateofsavingorbyimpairingtheworkingefficiencyoflabour。Thoughoccasionalconsiderationsofamoredistinctivelyhumaneormoralcharacterenteredintothetiradesagainstluxury，orthedieteticadviceofferedbytheseeconomicteachers，themaintrendoftheirreflectionsontheuseofwealthwasquiteevidentlydominatedbyconsiderationsofincreasedproduction。Thistendencyfurtherimpresseditselfuponthecentralconceptofeconomicscience，thatofvalue，whichwastreatedbytheseearlymakersofPoliticalEconomyexclusivelyfromtheproductivestandpointof\'costs。\'When，however，latertheorists，beginningwithJevonsinthiscountry，soughttoconverttheformalgoalofconsumptionintotherealgoal，bysubstituting\'utility\'for\'cost\' asthedeterminantofvalue，itmighthavebeensupposedthattheywouldhavebeenimpelled，passingthroughthegatewayofutilityintoconsumption，toopenupthathithertoneglectedcountry。Butnosuchthinghashappened。 Whileanelaboratedivisionofintellectuallabourhasbeenapplied，bothtothestudyoftheobjectivestructureofindustryandtothepsychologyofthevariousagentsofproduction，nocorrespondingstudiesofconsumptionhavebeenmade。Whentheproductsofindustrypassovertheretailcounter，economicsciencealmostentirelylosescountofthem。Theypassfromsightintothemysteriousmawof\'theConsumer。\'ithasneveroccurredtotheeconomistthatitisjustasimportanttohaveaclearandcloseknowledgeofwhathappenstoproductswhentheyhavebecomeconsumer\'sgoods，asitistotracetheirhistoryintheproductivestages。Itwould，ofcourse，beuntruetosaythatmoderneconomistscompletelyignoremethodsandmotivesofconsumption。TheirstudiesofvalueandofmarketscompelthemtodirectequalattentiontoforcesregulatingSupplyandDemand，andmanyofthemassignaformalsuperioritytothedemandforfinalcommoditieswhichissues fromConsumers，astheregulatorofthewholeindustrialsystem。Butwhilethishasevokedsomeinterestingenquiriesintoquantitiesandmodesofconsumption，themaininterestoftheseenquirieshaslain，notinthelighttheyshedupontheuseandenjoymentgotfromconsumption，butintheeffectsofthatconsumptionupondemandasafactorinproblemsofpriceandofproduction。Inaword，theeconomicartsofconsumptionstillruninsubordinationtotheartsofproduction，andtheverynatureoftheinteresttakeninthematteststheirsecondaryplace。Halfofthefieldofeconomicsurveyimportantfromthestandpointofhumanwelfarethusstandsunexploredorill-explored。 §；3。Anecessaryresultofthisidentificationofeconomicsubject-matterwiththeproductiveapparatus，hasbeentoimposeuponthestudyofeconomicsadistinctivelymechanicalcharacter。Thenetworkofbusinessesandtradesandprocesses，whichconstitutesindustry，mayindeed，byaninterpretativeeffortofimagination，beresolvedintothemyriadsofthoughts，desiresandrelationswhichareitsspiritualtexture。Everybusiness，withitsvariedmachineryandplant，itsbuildings，materials，etc。，istheembodimentofconscioushumaneffort，andthepersonnelofmanagementandoperativesrepresentalivecurrentofvolitionandintelligence，directingandcooperatingwithit。Abusiness，thusregarded，isadistinctivelyspiritualfabric。 Noristhistrueonlyofthoseindustriesemployedinfashioningmaterialgoods。Thecomplicatedarrangementsofcommunicationsandofcommercewiththeirgangliaofmarkets，bywhichgoodspassfromoneprocesstoanotherandaregathered，sortedanddistributedinregulatedchannelsthroughouttheworldofworkersandconsumers，representanevenmoredelicateadjustmentofpsychicalactivities。Economicsciencetends，undoubtedly，tobecomelessmaterialinitsoutlookandtreatment，andtogivemoreattentiontothepsychologicalsupportsoftheindustrialsystem。Notonlyhavewemanyspecialstudiesofsucheconomicquestionsassavingandinvestment，businessadministrationandothercriticaloperationsofwillandjudgment，butinsuchworksasthoseofM。TardeinFrance，andMr。Wicksteedinthiscountry，wefindattemptsatasystematicpsychologicalinterpretationofindustry。Economics，indeed，accordingtothelatterwriter，isabranchofthescienceof\'preferences，\'theapplicationofintelligenthumanvolitiontothesatisfactionofeconomicwants。 Andyetthescienceremainsdistinctivelymechanicalandunfittedforthe performanceofanyhumaninterpretationofindustry。ThisisduetothefailureofourpsychologicaleconomiststotearthemselvesfreefromthetraditionsofaPoliticalEconomywhichinitsverystructurehasmademansubservienttomarketablewealth。TheacceptedconceptionoftheArtofPoliticalEconomyisthatitisdirectedtotheproductionofwealthwhosevalueisattestedbythepurelyquantitativecalculusofmoney\'andtheScienceofPoliticalEconomyisvirtuallyconfinedtodiscoveringandformulatingthelawsfortheproductionofsuchwealth。ThebasicconceptsofValue，Cost，andUtility，aresubjectedtothisgoverningpresupposition。 Theirprimarysignificanceisamonetaryone。Thevalueofanystockofwealthissignifiedinmoney，thecostofitsproduction，theutilityofitsconsumption，areregisteredinmonetaryterms。Thepsychologicalresearcheswhichtakeplaceintoprocessesofthoughtanddesirearenotregardedashavingsignificanceontheirownaccount，butmerelyasmeansorinstrumentsintheworkingofindustrialprocesses。Thestudyofmotives，interests，andideasintheprocessofinvention，orintheorganisationandoperationofsomeproductivework，treatsthesethoughtsandfeelingsnotintheirfullbearinguponhumanlife，itsprogressorhappiness，butinexclusiverelationtothemonetaryendtowhichtheyaredirected。 §；4。Itisnoconcernofourstocriticisethisattitudeinthesenseofcondemnation。Butitisimportanttorealisethatnoprogressofpsychologicalanalysiswillenableeconomicsciencetosupplyahumanvaluationofindustrysolongasallthehumanfunctionsinvolvedineconomicprocessesaremeasured，assessed，andvalued，accordingtotheirbearingupontheproductionofa\'wealth\'whichhasnodirectlyassignablerelationtohumanwelfare， butisestimatedbyapurelymonetarymeasure。Theneteffectofthisconceptionoftheeconomicsystemasanelaboratearrangementofmaterialandspiritualfactors，contributingtotheproductionanddistributionofastreamofvariousgoodsvaluedbyamonetarystandard，istoleaveuponthemindtheimpressofadistinctivelymechanicalapparatus。Noone，forexample，canreadthemasterlyworkofMr。Wicksteed3withoutrecognisingthathisdelicate，elaboratemeasurementsandbalancesofmotivesandpreferences，whileinvolvingandimplyingactionsthatnoonebutmancanperform，treatnotonlyindustry，buthumanityitselfasapsychologicalmechanism。 Thisdistinctivelymechanicalcharacterisinherentinthestructureofaneconomicsciencebaseduponthesubserviencyofallhumanactivitiestoapurelyquantitativeconceptionofwealth，andapurelymonetarystandardofvalue。Thischaracterofeconomicscienceis，ofcourse，bynomeansdisablingforallpurposes。Onthecontrary，itfurnishesvalidinstrumentsfortheinterpretationofmanyimportantgroupsofphenomenainthebusinessworld，andforthesolutionofcertainproblemswherepurelyquantitativestandardsandmethodsareapplicable。Indeed，theincreasingdevotionofeconomiststoproblemsofmoney，price，andotherdefinitelymonetaryquestions，maybetakenasahalf-instinctiverecognitionoftherealinadequacyofcurrenteconomicsforanyveryusefulsolutionofthosemorevitalproblemsintowhichcloselyhumanconsiderationsenterasgoverningfactors。Asweproceed，weshallrealiseinmoredetailthenatureoftheincapacityofcurrenteconomicstofurnishanyrulesforsettlingissuesthatrelatetowages，hoursoflabour，Stateinterferencewithprivateindustry，privateproperty，andotherhumanproblemswhichareinfirstappearance\'economic。\' Threedefectsappear，then，todisqualifycurrenteconomicsciencefortheworkofhumanvaluation。First，anexaggeratedstressuponproduction，reflectedintheterminologyandmethodofthescience，withacorrespondingneglectofconsumption。Secondly，astandardofvalueswhichhasnoconsistentrelationtohumanwelfare。Thirdly，amechanicalconceptionoftheeconomicsystem，duetothetreatmentofeveryhumanactionasameanstotheproductionofnon-humanlyvaluedwealth。 §；5。Thesewarning-postsmayhelpustodiscoverandtoformulateanintellectualproceduremoresuitedtoourneeds。AhumanvaluationofindustrywillgiveequalattentiontoProductionandConsumption，willexpressCostandUtilityintermsofhumaneffortandsatisfaction，andwillsubstituteforthemonetarystandardofwealthastandardofhumanwell-being。Thisassertionofvitalvalueasthestandardandcriterionis，ofcourse，nonovelty。Ithasunderlainallthemorecomprehensivecriticismsoforthodoxpoliticaleconomybymoralistsandsocialreformers。 Byfarthemostbrilliantandeffectiveofthesecriticisms，thatofJohnRuskin，wasexpresslyformulatedintermsofvitalvalue。Thedefectswhichhefoundinthecurrenteconomicscienceweresubstantiallythesameasthosewhichwehavenoted。Hisfamousdeclarationthat\'Thereisnowealthbutlife，\'andhisinsistencethatallconcretewealthormoneyincomemustbeestimatedinrelationtothevitalcostofitsproductionandthevitalutilityofitsconsumption，istheevidentlyaccuratestandpointforahumanvaluationofindustry。Thisvitalcriterionhebroughttobearwithgreatskill，alikeupontheprocessesofproductionandconsumption，disposingtheimmensediscrepanciesbetweenmonetarycostsandhumancosts，monetarywealthandvitalwealth。Nooneeverhadamorevividandcomprehensiveviewoftheessentially organicnatureoftheharmonyofvariousproductiveactivitiesneededforawholesomelife，andoftherelatedharmonyofusesandsatisfactionsontheconsumptiveside。Hismindseizedwithincomparableforceofvisionthecardinaltruthofhumaneconomics，viz。，thateverypieceofconcretewealthmustbevaluedintermsofthevitalcostsofitsproductionandthevitalusesofitsconsumption，andhismosteffectiveassaultuponcurrenteconomictheorywasbaseduponitscompleteinadequacytoaffordsuchinformation。But，thoughmostofhislaterwritingsweresuffusedwiththisconceptionofwealthandwiththedoubleprocessofanalysiswhichitinvolved，nowherewasthatanalysissystematicallyapplied。 Therewerebrilliantexcursionsintothedomainoflabour，distinguishingthenoblerandthebasersorts，thosewhicharetruly\'recreative\'andthosewhichdegradeandimpoverishlife。Therewasthefamousdistinctionbetween\'wealth\'and\'illth，\'accordingtotheessentialqualitiesofthegoodsandthesortsofpersonsintowhosehandstheypassforconsumption。 Inthemostsystematicofhisworks，MuneraPulveris，he，indeed，appearsattheoutsettohavehismindcloselysetupontheexactperformanceoftherequiredanalysis。For，definingthescopeofhiswork，hesays，\'Theessentialworkofthepoliticaleconomististodeterminewhatareinrealityusefulorlife-givingthings，andbywhatdegreesandkindoflabourtheyareattainableanddistributable。\'4Thenfollowsaclearandlogicaldistinctionbetweenvalueandcost。 Valueisthelife-givingpowerofanything；costthequantityoflabourrequiredtoproduceit。\'Hadheproceededtoestimate\'Wealth\'withequalregardtoitsvalueanditslabour-cost，thelatterexpressedinvitalterms，thescientificcharacterofhisanalysiswouldhavebeenpreserved。Butunfortunatelyheallowedhimselftobeoverweightedbyasenseofvaluewhichstresses\'humanutility\'ofconsumption，sothat，whilethe\'utility\'sideoftheequationisworkedoutwithadmirableskill，the\'cost\'orlaboursideisslighted，andtheorganicrelationbetweenthetwoislostsightof。TheconfusionwroughtinthemindsofreadersbythefailuretofindinanyofhisworksafullapplicationofhisprinciplehasbeenresponsibleforanunjustdisparagementofthetrulyscientificservicerenderedbyRuskintowardsthefoundationofsocial-economics。 FromaPisgahheighthismind\'seyesweptinquickpenetrativeglancesoverthepromisedland，buthedidnotoccupyit，orfurnishanyclearsurvey。 §；6。OurpurposehereisinparttoperformthetaskindicatedbyRuskin，viz。toapplytoindustrythevitalstandardofvaluation，oratanyratetoimprovetheinstrumentsofvitalsurvey。Butonly，inpart。 ForourtaskisinscopelesscomprehensivethanthattowhichRuskinappliedhimself。Thoughhisteachingsprangoriginallyfromtworelatedrootsofemotionalvaluationdistinctivelyeconomicintheirbearings，theloveofthefinersortsofhumanworkcalledArt，andthereprobationofthedegradingconditionsoftheworkmostofhiscountrymenwerecalledupontodo，itexpandedintoawidermeaningof\'economy\'whichincludednotmerelyeconomicactivitiesandeconomicgoods，butallsortsofvitalactivitiesandgoods。AcriticismofcurrentPoliticalEconomy，onthegroundthatitdidnottreatitsacceptedsubject-matterinavitalmanner，thusdevelopedintoaconstructivePoliticalEconomywhichnotmerelyhumanisedthemethodbutexpandedtheareaofthescienceandart，soastomakeitineffectacomprehensivescienceandartofhumanwelfare。 NowithasalwaysbeenanopenquestionwhetherthemakersofPoliticalEconomywereintellectuallyjustifiedinseveringmarketablefromnon-marketablegoodsandservices，andframingaseparatescienceuponstudiesoftheformer。Thatmarketablegoodsarenotalwaysseparablefromnon-marketable，andthattheeconomicactivitiesofmanarealwaysinter-relatedwithnon-economicactivities，areacceptedtruths。Ruskin\'sperceptionoftheintimacyoftheserelationsbetweencommercialandnon-commercialfunctionsandproductsledhimtobreakdown。thebarrierssetupbyEconomicScience，inthefurtheranceofanartwhichshouldsetupasitsgoal\'themultiplicationofhumanlifeatitshigheststandard。\' Nowthisenlargementmaybequitelegitimate。ButitwasevidentlyresponsibleinlargemeasureforthefailureofRuskintodrivehomethecriticismdirectedagainstthecurrenteconomicteaching。ItwasonethingtoattackPoliticalEconomistsforfailingtotakedueaccountofhumanvaluesintheirtreatmentofprocessesrelatingtomarketablewealth。Itwas，however，quiteanothertoinsistthatthebarrierbetweenPoliticalEconomyandothersocialsciencesandartsshouldbetorndown，andthatallphenomenaofvitalimportshouldbecometheobjectsofitsstudy。HadRuskinbeenabletokeeptothenarrowerscope，doubtlesshewouldnothavebeenRuskin，buthisattackoncurrenteconomictheoryandpracticewouldhavebeenvastlymoreeffective。 ThisbriefexcursionintoRuskin\'sworkhasbeennecessary，firstinordertomakeproperacknowledgementofthesoundscientificinstinctofthisgreatpioneerofsocialthought，and，secondly，tomakeitclearthat，whileacceptinghisstandardofvaluation，wedonotproposeapplyingitoutsidetherangeofeconomicphenomenaintheordinaryacceptationofthatterm。Whileadmittingtheoverlappingandinteractionofeconomicandotherhumanfunctions，weshallaccepttheordinarydefinitionoftheboundariesofeconomicstudies，andshallseektomakeourhumansurveyandapplyourhumanvaluationwithintheselimits。Theextra-economicimplicationswhichtheunityoflifewilldisclosecannot，indeed，beignored，buttheywillbetreatedassupplementarytothemainpurpose，thatofvaluingtheprocessesdirectlyconnectedwiththegettingandspendingofmoneyincomes。 §；7。Insettingupavitalstandardofvaluation，wearelikelytobemetwiththeobjectionsthatlifeistoovague，toochanging，tooincomprehensibleforanystandard，andthatlifeisnotvaluableinitselfbutbecauseofcertainqualitieswhichitmaypossess。Ourstandardmustbeconceivedintermsofalifethatisgoodordesirable。Thisconsiderationmightevidentlyleadusfarafield。Ifwearetoundertakeavaluationoflifeasapreliminarytovaluingindustry，itislikelythatwemayneverapproachthesecondundertaking。Thebestescapefromthispredicamentistostartfromsomegenerallyacceptedconceptwhichindicates，evenifitdoesnotexpressfully，thedesirableinlife。SuchatermItaketobe\'organicwelfare。\'Thoughinformameresynonymforgoodlife，itisbyusagebothmorerestrictedandmoreprecise。Itperhapsappearstothrustintotheforefrontofconsiderationthephysicalbasisoflife。 Buttheorganicconcept，whenliberallyinterpretedandapplied，carriesnosuchrestrictiveimplication，anditsdistinctivelybiologicalassociationshouldnotruleitoutfromtheworkofwidervaluationhererequired。 Asaprovisionalstatementofourstandardofvaluation，\'organicwelfare\' hastwoadvantages。Inthefirstplace，itsuppliesanadmittedlysoundmethodofestimatingthosephysicalcostsandutilitieswithwhichthemajorpartofindustryandofitsproductisassociated。Eveninthemostadvancedcivilisationofto-day，economicprocessesareprimarilyphysicalintheeffortstheyevokeandintheneedstheysatisfy；theexpenditureandrecoupmentofphysicalenergyconstitutethefirstandmostprominentaspectofindustry。Intracingtheoriginsofhumanindustry，weshallfindthisrootedinwhatappearashalf-instinctiveanimalfunctionsforthesatisfactionof\'organic\'needs，individualorracial。Theprimitivedirectionofproductiveeffortisevidently\'organic。\' Again，the\'organic\'pointofviewavoidstwograveerrorscommontothemoremechanicaltreatmentofaneconomicsciencewhichhassubordinatedmantocommercialwealth。Itinsistsuponregardingtheproductiveeffortwhichgoesintoanyworkofproductionandthesatisfactionwhichproceedsfromtheconsumptionofanyproduct，notasaseparatecostandaseparateutility，butintheirtotalbearinguponthelifeoftheproducerorconsumer。 Themechanicalseparatismoftheordinaryeconomicviewfollowsfromatreatmentinwhichthelabourbestowedonaproductisonlya\'cost\'inthesamesenseastherawmaterialsandtoolsemployedinmakingit，allalikepurchasedasseparatecommoditiesatamarketinwhichtheyfigureasfractionsofaSupply。Similarlywiththeordinaryeconomictreatmentofconsumption。Eachconsumableisregardedasyieldingaqualityofutilityorsatisfactionvaluedonitsownaccount，whereasinrealityitsconsumablevaluedependsuponthewaysinwhichitaffectstheentireorganicprocessofconsumption。Everyspeeding-upofamachine-process，oreveryreductionofthehoursoflabour，affectsforgoodorevilboththeeconomicandthehumanefficiencyofthewholeman:everyriseorfallofremunerationforhislaboursimilarlyreactsuponthestandardoflife。Noristhisall。Currenteconomicsciencehasnotonlytreatedeachcostandeachutilityasaseparateitemorunitofeconomicpower，ithastreatedeachmanastwomen producerandconsumer。Theacquiescenceintheeconomictendencytowardsaconstantlyincreasingspecialisationofmanasproducer，aconstantlyincreasinggeneralisationofmanasconsumer，isonlyintelligibleuponthesuppositionthattheartsofproductionandconsumptionhavenorelationtooneanother。5Thestandpointoforganicwelfarereducestoitsnaturallimitsthisusefuldistinctionofproducerandconsumer，andenablesustotracethetrueinteractionsofthetwoprocesses。Inaword，itobligesustovalueeveryactofproductionorconsumptionwithregardtoitsaggregateeffectuponthelifeandcharacteroftheagent。 §；8。Finally，a\'social\'interpretationofindustryisnotpossibleexceptbytreatingsocietyasanorganicstructure。Whethersocietyberegardedasan\'organism\'withalifeconceivedascomprisingandregulatingthelifeofitsindividuals，inthesamemannerasabiologicalorganismthatofitscells，orasan\'organisation\'contrivedbyindividualsentirelyforthefurtheranceoftheirprivateends，itmustbetreatedasavitalstructurecapableofworkingwellorworkingill。Isayvitalstructure，notspiritualstructure，forIholdthetendencytointerpretsocialorganisationexclusivelyintermsofethicalends，andasexistingsimplyfor\'therealisationofanethicalorder，\'tobeunwarranted。ThemenwhoformorconstituteaSociety，orwhoenteranysortofsocialorganisation，enterbodyandsoul，theycarryintoittheinseparablecharacteroftheorganiclife，withallthephysicalandspiritualactivitiesandpurposesitcontains。 Particularmodesofsocialorganisation，as，forexample，aChurch，maybetreatedasdirectedprimarilytospiritualends，thougheventheretheseparationisnotfinallyvalid。Butsocietyinthebroadersense，eventhoughconceivednotasan\'organism\'butmerelyasanorganisation，mustberegardedasexistingforvarioussortsofhumanpurposes。Fortheimpulsestoformsocietiesarerootedinbroadinstinctsofgregariousnessandofsexualandracialfeeling，whicharebestdescribedasorganic，and，thoughtheseinstinctsbecomespiritualisedandrationalisedwiththeprogressofthehumanmind，theyneverceasetocarryabiologicalimport。 Eventhoughonetakes，therefore，theextremelyindividualisticviewofSociety，regardingitasnothingmorethanasetofarrangementsforfurtheringthelifeofindividualmenandwomen，entirelyameansorinstrumentforachievingtheendsof\'personality，\'ourhumanvaluationofindustrywillrequireconsiderationofitsreactionsuponthestructureandworkingofthesesocialarrangements。 ButthisorganictreatmentofSocietyis，ofcourse，stillmoreessential，ifweconsidersocietynotmerelyasanumberofmenandwomenwithsocialinstinctsandsocialaspectsoftheirindividuallives，butasagroup-lifewithacollectivebody，acollectiveconsciousnessandwill，andcapableofrealisingacollectivevitalend。Thedispositiontoconvertsociologyintoastudy，ontheonehand，ofsocialfeelingsintheindividualman，ontheotherofsocialinstitutionsthatareonlyformsthroughwhichthesefeelingsexpressthemselves，istomymindawhollyinadequateconceptionofthescienceofSociety。Thestudyofthesocialvalueofindividualmennomoreconstitutessociologythanthestudyofcelllifeconstituteshumanphysiology。ArecognitionoftheindependentvalueofthegoodlifeofasocietyisessentialtoanyscienceorartofSociety。 ToaGreekoraRoman，theideathatthecityexistedmerelyfortheproductionofgoodcitizens，andwithoutanendorself ofitsown，wouldneverhaveseemedplausible。 NortoanyChristian，familiarwiththeideaandthesentimentoftheChurchasasocietyofreligiousmenandwomen，woulditoccurthatsuchSocietyhadnolifeorpurposeotherthanthatcontainedinitsindividualmembers。Societymustthenbeconceived，notasasetofsocialrelations，butasacollectiveorganism，withlife，will，purpose，meaningofitsown，asdistinguishedfromthelife，will，purpose，meaning，oftheindividualmembersofit。Tothosewhoboggleattheextensionofthebiologicalterm\'organism\'tosociety，askingawkwardquestionsastothewhereaboutsofthesocialsensorium，andtheintegumentofasociety，Orwhetherapolitical，areligious，anindustrialSocietydonotconflictandoverlap，Iwouldreplythatthesedifficultiesaresuchasarisewheneveranextensionofboundariesoccursintheintellectualworld。Theconcept\'organism\'asappliedtothelifeofanimalsandvegetables，isnotwhollyappropriatetodescribethelifeofasociety，butitismoreappropriatethananyotherconcept，andsomeconceptmustbeapplied。 Ifsomequalificationisdesired，noobjectioncanberaisedagainstthetermsuper-organismexceptitslength。Whatisnecessaryisthatsometermshouldbeusedtoassistthemindinrealisingclearlythatalllifeproceedsbythecooperationofunitsworking，noteachforitsseparateself，butforawhole，andattainingtheirseparatewell-beingintheproperfunctioningofthatwhole。Asthestructureoftheorganiccell，theorgan，andtheorganismillustratethiscooperativeandcompositelife，sowiththelargergroupingswhichwecallsocieties。Ananimalorganismisasocietyofcells。 §；9。Sofarasthedifficultyarisingfromthenarrowlybiologicaluseofthetermorganismisconcerned，thatisrapidlydisappearingbeforetheadvanceofpsychology。Formodernbiologyiscomingmoreandmoretorealiseitsearlyerrorinseekingtoconfineitselftothestudyoflifeasamerelyphysicalphenomenon。Biologyandpsychologyareconstantlydrawingintocloserrelations，withtheresultthatanewscienceofpsycho-biologyisalreadycomingintobeing。Inbuilding，thusfar，uponafoundationoforganicconcepts，oneisnolongerproperlyexposedtothesuspicionofignoringordisparagingthepsychicalphenomenawhichconstituteman\'sspiritualnature。 Asbiology，thustreatingtheentireorganicnatureofman，becomesanindividualpsycho-physics，somustsociology，treatingthewiderorganicnatureofman，becomeacollectivepsychophysics。Whilethentherespectiveimportanceofthewelfareoftheindividualandofsocietymaystillbedifficulttodefine，theadmissionofsocietyasapsycho-physicalstructure，withhumanendsofitsown，willinvolveitsproperrecognitionintheappraisementofeverysortofhumanvalue。Ourtask，thatofdevisingamethodofvaluationofindustry，willevidentlydemandthateconomicprocessesshallbeconsidered，notonlyintheirbearinguponindividuallives，butintheirbearinguponthewelfareofsociety。Indeed，itisdifficulttoseehowanyreasonablepersoncanconfrontthegravepracticalproblemspresentedbytheindustrialsocietiesofto-day，suchasthosecontainedinindividual，class，sex，nationaldifferentiationofeconomicfunctions，withoutrealisingthatthehypothesisofhumanityasitselfacollectiveorganismcanalonefurnishanyhopeoftheirrationalsolution。 Thesignificanceoftheorganicconceptioninanyhumanvaluationofindustrialactsorproductsisevident。Itrequiresustovalueeachactorproductbothfromthestandpointoftheindividualandofthesocietytowhichhebelongs，anditfurnishesaharmonyofthetwoareasofinterest。 Thebafflingproblemseverywherepresentedtothoughtbytheapparentcontradictionoftheunityandthediversityofnature，thewholeandtheparts，thegeneralandtheparticular，findtheirclearestpracticalsolutioninthefactandconsciousnessofman\'ssocialnature，hisrecognitionthatinfeelingandinactionheisbothanindividualandamemberofanumberofsocialgroups，expandinginaseriesofconcentriccirclesfromfamilyandcitytohumanity，andindimmeroutlinetosomelargercosmicorganism。 Foroureconomicvaluation，theharmonyofthisnarrowerandwidertreatmentofhumannatureisofprofoundandobviousimportance。Itwillrequireus，inconsideringthevitalcostsandsatisfactionsinvolvedintheproductionandconsumptionofgoods，tohaveregardtotheireffects，notonlyupontheindividualswhoproduceandconsumethegoods，butuponthecity，nation，orothersocietytowhichtheybelong。Humanwelfarewillbenotmerelythewelfareofhumanbeingstakenasanaggregate，butofsocietyregardedasanorganicunity。 Themostdelicateeconomicandspiritualissuesofadjustmentwillbefoundtorelatetotheprovisionsforharmonisingtheorderandthegrowthofthenarrowerandthewiderorganisms。While，then，biologyhasinthepastbeentooarrogantinpressingdistinctivelyphysicalimplicationsoftheterm\'organism\'intothedawningscienceofsociology，andindistortingthetrueconceptionofsocialevolutionbyenforcingnarrowinterpretationsofselectionandsurvival，thisisnogroundforrefusingtoutilisetheterminologywhich，betterthananyother，expressestherelationsofpartstowholesineverysortoflivingsubstance。 ThecontradictionsofProductionandConsumption，CostandUtility，PhysicalandSpiritualWelfare，IndividualandSocialWelfare，allfindtheirlikeliestmodeofreconcilementandofharmonyinthetreatmentofsocietyasanorganism。 NOTES: 1。Labouremployedinproductiveworkofindustryisusuallyexcludedfromthecategoryofnational\'wealth，\'thoughitissometimesregardedas\'personalwealth\'。 Butthereisnosufficientreasonforthisexclusion。Anyincreaseoftheefficiencyofthelabourofanationisevidentlyasmuchanincreaseofitstotalvendibleresourcesasanincreaseinitsinstrumentalcapitalwouldbe。 2。Exchangeissimplyanordinarybranchofproduction，mainlyconsistingofwholesaleandretailtrade。Distributionhas，ofcourse，anotherandanimportanteconomicsignification，beingappliedtothelawsdeterminingtheapportionmentoftheproduct。 3。TheCommon-senseofPoliticalEconomy。 4。MuneraPulveris，§；XL。 5。Howpotentasourceofintellectualconfusionthisseparationofproducerandconsumeris，maybebestillustratedfromthecommonlyacceptedtreatmentofthetheoryoftaxation，whichregards\'consumers\'asadifferentclassofbeingsfrom\'producers\'forpurposesofincidenceoftaxes。 NOTE。Therearedoubtlessthosewhowillremaindissatisfiedwiththisinsistenceupontheextensionoforganismandtheconceptionofthehumanlydesirableintermsof\'organic\'welfare。Theywouldinsistthattheconsciouspersonalityofanindividualorofasocietytranscendsorganism，asthelatterdoesmechanism，andthatourstandardandmeasureofwelfareshouldbeexpressedinpsychicaltermsofpersonality。ThispointofviewhasrecentlybeenconciselyandpowerfullyrestatedbyDr。Haldane(Mechanism，LifeandPersonality)。Butthoughthereismuchtosayfortreatingpersonalityastheintrinsicqualityofourhumaniststandard，Idecidedagainstthecourseonabalanceofintellectualexpediency，preferringtoretaintheclearnessandforceoftheorganicconceptwhilespiritualisingittomeettherequirementsofascendinglife。CHAPTERII:THEHUMANORIGINSOF INDUSTRY §；1。Althoughitisnopartofmypurposetoendeavourtosetforththefactsandlawsofthehistoricalevolutionofmodernindustry，itwillbeusefultomakesomebriefallusiontotheoriginsofindustryandproperty，soastogiveconcretemeaningtothestresslaiduponorganicprocessesinourinterpretation。Forjustinproportionasitisrealisedthatindustryhasallitsearliestrootsintheprimaryorganicneedsofman，willassentmoreeasilybegiventotheproposaltoadheretotheorganicconceptionofwelfareinvaluingmoderneconomicprocesses。 Itisnoteasytoascertainwheretheactivitieswhichwetermindustrialfirstemergeintheevolutionoforganiclife。Everyorganismselects，appropriates，andassimilatesmatterfromitsenvironment，inordertoprovideforgrowthorwasteoftissueandenergygivenoutinthegeneralcourseofitsvitalprocesses，includingtheactivitiesofprocuringfood，protectionagainstorganicorinorganicdangers，andthegeneration，rearing，andprotectionofoffspring。Nutritionandfunctionarethetermsusuallyappliedtodescribetheprimarybalanceofthevitalprocessesofintakingandoutputtingenergy。Theorganismfeedsitselfinordertowork。Itseemsatfirstasifwehadherelaiddownintheoriginsoforganiclifeanaturaleconomyofproductionandconsumption。Butdotheorganicprocessesoffeeding，choosing，appropriating，andassimilatingfood，constituteconsumption，anddotheotheractivitiesforwhichfoodisutilisedconstituteproduction？ Reflectionwillshowthatthereisverylittleintellectualserviceinpressingsharplythisdistinction。Theactivelifeofanorganismconsistsinaroundofnutritive，protective，generativeprocesses，eachofwhich，fromthestandpointofindividualandspecies，mayberegardedalikeasproductiveandconsumptive。Aplantdrivesitssuckersintothesoilinsearchofthefoodsitneeds，disposesitsleavestoutilisethelightandairorforprotectionagainstthewind，assimilatesitsorganicfoodbytheuseofitsstockofchlorophyl，distributesitthroughoutitssystemformaintenanceandgrowth，anddirectsthatgrowthsoastosafeguarditsownexistenceandtoprovideitselfwithfavourableopportunitiesoffertilisationbyinsectorotheragencies。Ifdueaccountbetakenbothofthecellularlifewithintheindividualandofthespecificlifeofthisplantorganism，thewholeoftheprocessesoractivitiesappearstobenutritive，eachactofnutritionbeingassociatedwithsomeotherfunctionintheevolutionofthecell，theorganism，thespecies。Itwouldbeasplausibletoassertthateveryotherfunction，protective，generative，orother，wasundertakenforthenutritionoftheindividualorthespecies，astoasserttheopposite。But，withoutenteringintothedelicatemetaphysicsofthisquestion，wemayconfidentlyaffirmthatinthiselementaryorganiclifenutritionandfunctioncannotberegardedasmutuallyexclusiveprocesses，whiletheeconomiccontrastsofproductionandconsumption，workandenjoyment，costandutility，havenoclearapplication。Ifweapproachastagenearertohumanlife，webegintofind，inthelifeofeitherthelowerorhigheranimals，someorganicactivitiestowhichthetermindustryappearsapplicable。 Thelong，arduous，complexandpainfuloutputofenergy，consciouslyputforthbymanyanimalsinthesearchforfood，sometimesinthestorageoffood，intheprovisionofshelter，insomeinstancesintheuseoftoolsorweapons，inprocessesofcooperationanddivisionoflabourformigration，protection，orcombat，certainlyapproacheswhatwerecogniseasindustry。 Itinvolvesapainstakinginterferencewiththematerialenvironmentforthepurposiveattainmentofsomedistinctobjectconsciouslyregardedasdesirable，whichisoftheessenceofindustry。Itmay，however，beobjectedthatsuchprocesses，thoughresemblinghumanindustryintheintricacyandtechnicalskillinvolved，arenotreallypurposiveintherationalsense，butaremerelyinstinctive，andthat，assuch，theyoughttobedistinguishedfromtherationalconductofhumanindustry。Thus，itiscontendedthat，thoughtheeffortsgivenoutbymanyanimalsinprocuringfood，protectionagainstenemies，orprovisionofshelter，formallycorrespondwithfamiliarprocessesofhumanindustry，thedirectionofinstinctmakestheapplicationofthistermimproper。But，asweproceedfurtherintoourpsychologicalanalysisofhumanwork，weshallfindsolargeanelementofadmittedinstinctinmanyformsofitastoprecludeusfromadmittingthat\'rational\'directionisessentialtoindustry。Itis，therefore，permissibleforustogiveaprovisionalrecognitiontosuchanimalactivitiesascontainingsome，atanyrate，oftheessentialcharacteristicsof\'work\'or\'industry\'。 Indeed，theevidentresemblanceoftheseregularactivitiesofanimalsinseekingfood，shelterandprotection，totheactivitiesofprimitivemanappliedtothesamedefinitelyorganicsatisfactions，wouldprecludeusfromdenyingtotheloweranimalswhatwemustadmitinthecaseofmen。For，eveninprimitivemen，possessingacertainuseoftoolsandweapons，andahigherdegreeofcunningindealingwiththeirenvironment，thedriveanddirectionoforganicinstinctsandimpulses，asdistinguishedfromreflectionandreason，appeartobehardlylessdominantthanintheiranimalkindred。Unlesswearbitrarilyreservetheconceptsworkandindustryforahigherstageofsocialevolution，inwhichsomemeasureofsettledlifewithtribalandpersonalpropertyandcalculatedprovisionforfuturewantshaveemerged，itwillbewelltoseektherootsoftheelaboratedindustrialsystemwhichwewishtointerpretintheserudimentaryandmainlyinstinctiveactivitiesofanimalsandsavagemen。 §；2。Inexaminingtheseorganicactivitieslyingatthebasisofhumanindustry，weshalllightattheoutsetupononefactofextremesignificance，viz。thattoeachoftheseorganicallyusefuleffortsNaturehasattachedsomedefinitephysical，orpsycho-physical，enjoyment。Hunting，fighting，mating，thecareandprotectionoftheyoung，indeedallactionswhichpossesswhatiscalled\'survivalvalue\'orbiologicalutility，areendowedwithapleasurebonusasabribefortheirperformance。Natureendowsmostorganicallyusefuleffortswithconcurrentenjoyment。 But，thoughinthese\'organicfunctions\'manyanimalsgiveoutagreatdealof\'laborious\'effort，commingledwithelementsofplayorofincipientart，asinthedancing，singinganddecorativeoperationsofbirds，tononeofthemistheword\'industry\'fullyapplicable。Wedonotseemtoenterthedefinitelyeconomicsphereuntilwefindanimalssufficientlyreasonabletointerfereinaconsciouswaywiththeirenvironment，fortolerablydistantends。For，thoughmuchindustrialproductionandconsumptionwillcontinuetobeeitherinstinctiveorautomaticintheiroperation，agrowingelementofconsciouspurposewillbecomeessentialtotheorderedconductofallindustrialprocesses。Theconsciousconceptionofmoredistantendsandthegrowingwillingnesstomakepresentsacrificesfortheirattainmentaretheplainestbadgesofthisindustrialprogress。Whenabeingisawareofthesepurposeshehasenteredarationaleconomy。 Asthismorerationaleconomyproceeds，themarkswhichdistinguishitfromapurelyinstinctiveorganiceconomybecomeevident。Theinstinctiveeconomyallowslittlescopeforindividualityoflife，thedominantdriveofits\'implicit\'purposeisspecific，i。e。，subservingthemaintenanceandevolutionofthespecies。Thespiritofthehiveinbee-lifeisthefullestexpressionofthissubservienceoftheindividuallifetothecorporatelifeandofthepresentgenerationtotheseriesofgenerationsconstitutingthespecificlife。Buteverywherethedominionofinstinctimpliestheabsorptionoftheindividuallifeinpromotingtheendsofthespecies: successfulparenthoodistheprimaryworkoftheindividual。 Itmightalmostbesaidthatthedawnofreasonisthedawnofselfishness。 Forrationaleconomyinvolvesaconsciousrealisationoftheindividualself，withendsofitsowntobesecuredandwithopportunitiesforsecuringthem。Theearliestconceptionofthisseparateselfanditsendswillnaturallytendtobeintermsofmerelyormainlyphysicalsatisfaction。Thusthedisplacementoftheinstinctivebytherationaleconomyisevidentlyacriticalera，attendedwithgraverisksduetothetendencytowardsanover-assertionoftheindividualselfandaconsequentweakeningoftheforcesmakingforspecificlife。Man，thenewlyconsciousindividual，mayperverselychoosetosquanderorganicresources\'intended\'bynaturefortheraceuponhisownpersonalpleasuresandneeds。Hemayrefusetomakeasamatterofrationalchoicethosepersonaleffortsandsacrificesforfamilyandracewhichnoanimal，subjecttothedriveofinstinct，isableto\'think\'ofrefusing。Suchmaybeaneffectofthereleasefromthelifeoforganicinstincts。Theincreasingsupplyoffoodsandothersourcesofphysicalsatisfactionhemayapplytobuildupforhimselfalifeofsuper-brutalhedonism。1For，whenreasonfirstbeginstoassertsupremacy，itisapttobecomethralltothepurelyanimalself。Onlyasthisanimalselfbecomesspiritualisedandsocialised，doesthesocialrace-lifereassertitsswayuponthehigherplaneofhumanconsciousness。 §；3。Butitisofimportancetorealisethatafirsteffectofreason，operatingtodirectthepurposiveactivities，istoliberatethe\'self\'fromthedominionofthespecificlife，andtoenableittoseekandobtainseparatepersonalsatisfactions。Forwiththispowercomesthefactandthesenseof\'personalproperty\'whichplaysolargeapartinindustry。 Earlyindustryandearlypropertyarelargelydirectedbytherequirementsofthisdawningsenseofpersonality。Thoughtheoriginsofindustryaredoubtlessfoundinthepromptingsoforganicutility，theyarenotofanarrowly\'utilitarian\'character。Wedonotfindtheearliestindustriesofmancloselyconfinedtothesatisfactionofwhatmightseemthemosturgentofhisorganicneeds，food，shelter，protectionagainstenemies。 Theelementsofplayandornamentaresoprevalentinearlyindustriesastosuggestthetheory，whichsomeanthropologistspressfar，thatadornmentforpersonalgloryisthedominantoriginofindustryandproperty。So，forexample，Bü；cher2contendsthattheearliestreallyindustrialactivitieswereapaintingandtatooingofthebody，andamanufactureofclothingandofotherpersonalapparatusforpurelyornamentalpurposes。 Eventhetamingofdomesticanimalswas，heheld，firstundertakenforamusementorfortheworshipofthegods。Thestrongattractionofmostsavageorbackwardpeoplesinourdaytowardsarticlesofornamentandplaywhichaffordexpressiontonaivepersonalpride，appearstosupportthisview。Primitivemancertainlydoesnotevolvetowardsindustrialcivilisationbyalogicallysaneeconomyofsatisfyingfirsthismostvitallyimportantmaterialneeds，andthenbuildingonthisfoundationasuperstructureofconveniences，comfortsandluxuries，withthevariousindustriesappertainingthereto。Thiseconomicmanisnowherefound。Actualman，asmanyanthropologistsdepicthim，appearstobeginwiththeluxuriesanddispenseswiththeconveniences。 Thisnon-utilitarianviewoftheoriginsofindustryhas，however，beendriventoexcess。Thereremainsalargeelementoftruthintheproverb\'Necessityisthemotherofinvention。\'Theearliestweaponsandtools，adaptedfromsticksandstonesandotherrawmaterial，wereprobablyforcedonthedawningintelligenceofmanbythehardfactsofhisstrugglewithhostilenatureandhissearchforfood。Fighting，hunting，mating，werepresumablyhisfirstpursuitsandtheearlyartsorindustries，atanyrateonthemaleside，wouldbesubsidiarytothesepursuits。Anyorganisedprocessorhandlingofmatterwhichwouldmakehimabetterfighter，hunter，suitor，wouldbelikelytoemergeasacraftorindustry。Thisexplainstheapparentblendofutilitarianandnon-utilitarianorigins。Inpointoffact，mostoftheso-calledornamentalactivitiesandproductshavetheirevidentbiologicaluses。Theyarenotmereplaythings。Theadornmentofthehumanbody，theuseoftatoosandmasks，drumsandgongsandotherplay-products，arepartly，nodoubt，formeregloryofself-assertion，itselfaninstinctivecraving，butalsoforcourtship，forrecognitionandforfrighteningenemies。While，then，itremainstruethatthesportiveandartisticimpulsesareconspicuousintheearlycrafts，itisamistaketodisparagetheorganicutilityoftheseprocesses。Aftermanhasmadeprovisionforthepresentnecessitiesofthebody，hissuperfluousenergynaturallytends，eithertopreparatoryplay，thepracticeorimitationofbiologicallyusefulactions，orelsetoexplorative，constructive，anddecorativeworkinhandlingsuchmaterialsaspresentthemselves。Thiscuriosityabouthissurroundings，andtheinstinctivedesiretoconstructandarrangethemforhisconvenience，orforthedawningaestheticsatisfactionofhissenses，ortoimpressthefemaleofhisrace，theseinstinctsundeniablycoalescewiththedriveofphysicalnecessitytoforcemantoapplyhismindtothediscoveryandpracticeoftheearlyartsandcrafts。 But，thoughthesedistinctivelymalemodesofmanipulatingtheenvironmentthuspossessautilitarianaspect，theydonotfurnishthebeginningsofthechiefindustrieswhichfigureincivilisedlife。Thebeginningsofmanufactureandofagriculture，asregularoccupations，arecommonlyascribedtowomenandtoslaves。Thosewhoconceiveoftheearliesthumansocietiesasmatriarchalorgynaecocentric，thewomenformingfixedcentresoforderinthehomeandvillage，owningthechildrenandthepropertyattachedtothehome，regardwomenbothastheinventorsandthepractitionersoftheearlyhandicrafts，includingthecultivationofthesoil。Thebeginningsoftheartsofpottery，basket-making，building，clothes-making，aswellasdigging，planting，millingandotherprocessesofpreparingfood，weredoubtlesswomen\'sworkinthefirstinstance，thoughtheywereprobablyraisedtothepositionofregularindustrieswhenslaverybecamecommon。 Itis，however，noteworthythat，eveninthoseearlyhandicraftsdevotedtothemostpracticalneedsoflife，thedecorativeinstinctgenerallyfindsexpression。Notonlytheweaponsofthemen，butthepotsandpansandotherdomesticutensilsofthewomen，carrycarvingsormouldings，whichtestifytotheplayorartimpulses。Leisureandpleasurethusappearasingredientsintheearliestindustries。 Towhateversource，then，wetracetheoriginsofindustry，totheuseofweapons，snaresandothermaleapparatusforthefightandhunt，totheinstinctsofplay，imitationandadornmentasmodesofself-expressionandofpride，ortothemoredistinctivelyutilitarianworkofwomenandofslavesaroundthehome，wefindplayorpleasuremingledwiththework。 Thisprofoundlyinterestingtruthisattestedbythelongsurvivingpresenceofthesongandotherrhythmicactivitiesinmanyformsofassociatedlabour，aswellasinthedancingwhichinprimitivesocietieswasanalmostinvariableaccompanimentofallimportantenterprises，war，huntingandharvesting，andwhichstillsurvivesamongusintheHarvesthome。Thoughinslaveindustriesthislighterelementdoubtlessdwindledverylow，itseldomdiedoutentirely，asthesongofthegalley-rowers，oroftheSouthernnegroesinthecotton-fields，testifies。WherethehandicraftsthroveamongfreemeninEurope，everywherethemotivesofplay，personalprideandprowess，findliberalexpressioninindustry。 §；4。Thisslightandnecessarilyspeculativesketchoftheoriginofindustryisdesignedtoenforcetwofacts。Inthefirstplace，wecantraceineveryrudimentaryindustrythepromptingsofvitalutility，layingthefoundationsofaneconomyofeffortsandsatisfactionswhichfurtherstheorganicdevelopmentoftheindividualandtherace。Inthesecondplace，weeverywherefindwhatwecalldistinctivelyeconomicmotivesandactivitiesalmostinextricablyintertwined，orevenfused，withothermotivesandactivities，sportive，artistic，religious，socialandpolitical。Totracethehistoryoftheprocessbywhichinmoderncivilisationeconomicorindustrialactivitieshaveseparatedthemselvesfromotheractivities，assumingmoreandmoredominance，untiltheindustrialSystemandtheBusinessManhavebecomethemostpotentfactsoflife，wouldliebeyondourscope。 Norisitatallnecessary。Whatisimportantforustorealise，however，isthatthisprocessofindustrialisation，throughwhichthecivilisedpeopleshavebeenpassing，isbeyondallquestionthemostpowerfulinstrumentofeducation。Itappearstohavedonemoretorationaliseandtosocialisementhanallthehigherandmorespiritualinstitutionsofman，sofarassuchcomparisonsarepossible。Ithasrationalisedmanchieflybycompellinghimtoexerciseforesightandforethought，tosubduehiswillandtrainhisactivefacultiestotheperformanceoflongandintrinsicallydisagreeabletasks，inordertorealisesomemoreandmoredistantobjectofdesire，andbyobliginghimtorecognisetherigorouslawsofcausationinhiscalculations。Ithassocialisedhimbyweavinganevermoreelaboratetissueofcommoninterestsbetweenhimandagrowingnumberofhisfellowmen，andbycompellinghimtoengageincloserco-operationwiththemfortheattainmentofhisends。Thoughthissocialisationisfarmoreadvancedinobjectivefactthaninthoughtandfeeling，itremainstruethatthedirectandindirectassociationoflargerandmorevariousbodiesormeninmodernindustryandcommerceisthefirstconditionandthestrongeststimulustotheexpansionandintensificationofthesocialwill。 Itisthisorderlyrationalsystemofindustry，employing，asitdoes，theorganicpowersofmanforthesatisfactionofhisorganicneeds，thatweseektosubmittovaluation。 Theimmensevarietyandcomplexityoftheartsandcraftsofwhichsuchasystemofhumanindustryconsists，thelongintervaloftimewhichoftenintervenesbetweenactsofproductionandofconsumption，thedifferencesofpersonalitybetweenthosewhoperformtheeffortsofproductionandthosewhoutiliseorenjoythefruitsofthoseeffortsinconsumption，immenselyremoteastheyappearfromthesimpleorganiceconomyofprimitiveman，donotescapeanultimatedependenceuponorganiclawsandconditions。 Ahumanvaluation，therefore，mustinsistuponexpressingthemintermsoforganicwelfare，individualandsocial。Ashumanactivitiesandenjoymentsascendintheprocesswetermcivilisation，weshallexpecttofindthisorganiclifebecomingmorepsychical，inthesensethattheirmodesaremore\'reasonable\'andtheemotionsthatattachtothemaremorespiritual，i。e。，lessdirectlydrivenbyanimalinstincts。Sotooweshallexpectindustrialprogresstocontributetoagrowingadjustmentbetweentheindividualandthesocialeconomy，restoringundertheformofreasonablesocialservicetothemorehighlyindividualisedmembersofamodernsocietyanincreasingmeasureofthatsubserviencetotheorganicwelfareofmankindwhichinstinctwasabletosecureuponalowerplaneofconsciouslife。 NOTES: 1。\'Einwenigbesserwü；rderlebenHä；ttstduihmnichtdenScheindesHimmelsLichtgegebenErnennt\'sVernunftundbraucht\'salleinNurthierischeralsjedesThierzusein。\' 2。IndustrialEvolution(Bell&；Co。)。CHAPTERIII:REALINCOME:COSTANDUTILITY §；1。Approachingonitsconcretesidetheeconomicsystemthehumanvaluesofwhichweseektoascertain，wefindittoconsistinaseriesofproductiveprocessesbringingvariousgoodsandservicesintomarketableshape，accompaniedbyaseriesofconsumptiveprocessesinwhichthesegoodsandservicesareused，wasted，orotherwisedisposedofbythosewhobuythemforpersonaluses。Theformersetofprocesses，aswehaverecognised，occupyaplaceofsomuchgreaterprominenceandpublicityasvirtuallytoabsorbthescienceofindustryor\'economics\'，leavingtotheprocessesofconsumptionanobscureandentirelysubordinateposition。 Ourorganicorhumanvaluationstartswithaprotestagainstthisassumptionofinequalityintheartsofproductionandconsumption。Itsinterpretationofeconomicprocesseswillbedisposedtolayasmuchstressuponthehistoryofthevariouscommoditiesaftertheyleavetheshop-counterandpassintothepossessionofconsumersasbefore。Thehumangoodandevilassociatedwitheconomic\'wealth\'must，viewedfromtheorganicstandpoint，dependasmuchuponthenatureofitsconsumptionasuponthenatureofitsproduction。 Thisconsiderationwilldetermineourmethodofapplyingthehumanstandardofvalues。Acceptingattheoutsettheconvenientdistinctionbetweentheprocessesofproductionandconsumption，weshallapproachtheeconomicsystematthepointwherethetwoprocessesmeet，thatistosaywherewealthemergesfromtheproductiveprocessesasincome，inordertopassassuchintothepossessionofpersonsentitledtoconsumeit。 Tomaketheenquirysimplerandmoreeasilyintelligible，wewillignoreforthepresentalltheextra-nationalorcosmopolitanconditionsofmodernindustry，andassumethatwearedealingwithaclosednationalsystemproducing，distributing，andconsumingthetwothousandmillionpounds\' worthofgoodsandservicesroughlyestimatedtoconstitutethecurrentannualincomeoftheBritishnation。 §；2。Nowthehabitofregardingwealthandincomeintermsofmoneyissodeep-seatedandpersistentastomakeitdifficultforordinary\'business\' mentorealisethesewordsinanyotherthanamonetarysense。Theordinarymindhastobreakthroughacertainbarrierofthoughtandfeelinginordereventopresenttoitselfthesignificanceof\'real\'wagesor\'real\'income，asdistinguishedfrommoneywagesandmoneyincome。Thisdominionofthemonetarystandardisillustratedbythealmostinstinctivethrillofelationthatisfeltwhenweareinformedthattheincomeofthenationhasrisenfromabout£；1，200，000，000in1870to£；2，000，000，000in1912。1 Soaccustomedarewetoregardmoneyasthemeasureofthedesirable，thatwefeelthatthisriseofmoneyincomemustimplyacorrespondingriseinnationalwelfare。Itrequiressomeeffortofmindtorealiseeventhetwoobviouslyimportantfactorsoftheincreaseofpopulationandtheshiftofprices，which，whenoncerealised，soevidentlyaffectthebearingofthemoneyincomeuponthenationalwelfare。Yearafteryeartradereportsandotherofficialdocuments，incomparingtherelativeeconomicpositionofthevariousnationsorthefluctuationsoftradewithinasinglenation，habituallyencouragethismisleadinginfluenceofthefinancialstandardbypublishingcrude，uncorrectedmonetaryvaluesasiftheywereindicativeofindustrialfacts，andstatesmentakesuchfiguresasvalidevidenceonwhichtobaseapolicy。 Asregardstheparticularobjectofourenquiry，thisobsessionofthegeneralindbythemonetarystandardmakesitimpossibleforuseventoassumethatallourleadersattachaclearandconsistentmeaningtotheterm\'real\'income。Itisnotquiteeasyatfirsttograspthecentralandessentialfactthateveryreceiptofanysortofincome，whetheraswages，rent，salary，interest，profit，feesorotherwise，involvesthecomingintobeingofabitof\'real\'incomeintheshapeofsomematerialgoodsorsomesaleableservice。2Thisfactoncegrasped，however，itbecomesevidentthatthe£；2，000，000，000，saidtobethenation\'sincome，ismerelythemonetaryrepresentativeofgoodsandserviceswhicharethenetproductoftheeconomicactivityoftheyear，thequantityofwealthproducedoverandabovethatwhichhasgonetomaintaintheexistingmaterialfabricofindustry。Theaggregateamountof\'wealthproduced\'is，ofcourse，considerablygreater，foralargequantityoftheproductivepowermustcontinuallybeemployedinrepairingthewearandtearsustainedbythematerialinstrumentsofproduction，theland，buildings，machineryandtoolsandotherformsof\'fixed\'capital，andinreplacingtherawmaterialsandotherformsof\'circulating\'capitalwhichhavepassedoutoftheproductiveprocessesintoconsumablegoods。Thenet\'real\'incomeconsistsofthegoodsandservicesproducedoverandabovethisprovisionforthemaintenanceofthematerialstructureofthesystem。 Thereis，however，animportantqualificationtothismodeofreckoningthenetrealincomeofthenationwhichneedsmention。Whiletheportionofthecurrentproductwhichgoestoreplacethiswearandtearoflandandcapitalisnotincludedinthegoodsandservicesrepresentedbythe£；2，000，000，000andclassedasrealnetincome，thewearandtearormaintenancefundoflabourisincludedinit。Whenconsiderationistakenofthedistributionofwhatisoftentermedthenationaldividendbetweentherespectiveownersofthefactorsofproduction，thisanomalyisseldomborneinmind。Inestimatingtheincomeoflabourthereplacementfundiscounted；inestimatingtheincomeoflandandcapitalitisnotcounted。But，illogicalasthisdiscriminationis，usagehassouniversallyaccepteditthatitwillbebestforusinaworknotchieflyconcernedwiththeproblemsofobjectivedistributiontogiveaprovisionalacceptancetoit。 Therealnetincome，ornationaldividend，correspondingtothe£；2，000，000，000，consistsofthegoodsandservicesatthedisposaloftherecipientsofthismoneyincome。Byapplyingeachsovereignastheyreceiveditinrent，wages，interest，profit，fees，etc。，topurchaseconsumablegoodsorservices，theymightconsumethewholeofitduringthecurrentyear。Inthatevent，thoughprovisionwouldhavebeenmadeforthebareupkeepofcapital，noprovisionwouldhavebeenmadeforitsenlargementorimprovementwithaviewtothefutureincreaseofproduction。Inpointoffact，thatprovisionismadebyapplyingaconsiderableportionofthenetmoneyincome，say£；300，000，000，todemand，notconsumablegoodsorservices，butmoreinstrumentsandmaterialsofproduction。Asthisprocessgoesoncontinuously，itimpliesthatsome3/20ofthetotalindustrialactivityofthenationisengagedinmakingnotconsumablebutnewcapitalgoods。3Thissavingprocesshasanimportantpsychologyofitsowntowhichweshallgivesomeattentionlateron。Atpresentitneedonlybeconsideredasareductioninthenetincomeofconsumablegoodsandservicesatthedisposalofaprogressivecommunityforcurrentuseandenjoyment。Thiswealth，actuallyavailableforcurrentuse，thefood，clothing，shelterandotherdomesticnecessariesandconveniences，thetravel，information，education，recreation，professional，officialanddomesticservices，thevarioussortsofmaterialandnon-materialcomfortsandluxuries，constitutingthecurrentnetrealincomeofconsumer\'sgoods，istheprimaryobjectofourvaluation。Thenewmachines，tools，buildings，materialsandotherformsofcapital，expressingthe£；300，000，000ofsavings，thoughenteringouranalysisuponthecostssideequallywithgoodsusedforimmediateconsumption，donotfiguredirectlyontheconsumptionside，butonlyindirectlyinthefutureconsumableswhichtheyassisttoproduce。 §；3。Butasregardstheapplicationofouranalysis，itmakesnorealdifferencewhetherwetakethenarrowerconnotationofthenationaldividendwhichincludesonlyconsumablegoods，orthebroaderonewhichincludessavings。Itwillnodoubteasilybeadmittedthatamerelypecuniarystatementofthe\'value\'ofthisdividendconveysnoreliableinformationastothehumanorvitalwelfareitinvolves。Makingdueallowanceforalltemporalorlocalvariationsofprice，thestatementthatthenationalincomehasdoubledinthelastcentury，oreventhattheincomeperheadofthepopulationhasdoubled，affordsnopositiveproofthatanyincreasehasbeenmadeinthenationalwelfare，muchlesshowmuchincrease。Unless，however，weadoptanattitudeofgeneralscepticismtowardstheeconomicstructureof\'civilisation\'，wemayadmit，withProfessorPigou，4apresumptionthatagrowthofthenationaldividendfasterthanthegrowthofpopulationimpliessomeincreaseofwelfare。Buteventhatpresumptionmustbequalifiedbythereflectionthatitreallyrestsuponaviewofmarketablewealthwhichhasexclusiveregardtoitssupposedutilityinconsumptionwithoutanycorrespondingconsiderationofthecostofitsproduction。Apecuniarystatementofthenationaldividendwhichcontainednoinformationastothenatureofthegoodsandservicescomprisingit，mayberepudiatedoutofhandasuselessforourpurpose。Foruponsuchastatement£；1 \'worth\'of\'tradegin\'haspreciselythesamevalueas£；1\'worth\' of\'bestbooks\'orofwholesomebread，£；1worthofhandmadelacesweatedoutofpeasantwomenatthecostoftheireyesighthaspreciselythesameweightinthemoneyincomeofthenationas£；1worthofcarpentryorofmedicalattendance。 §；4。Ifwearetoestimatethehumanvalueofagivennationalincome，itisevidentthatwemustsecureanswerstothreequestions。Wemustfirstlearnwhattheconcretegoodsandservicesarewhichconstitutethe\'real\'income，andthenwemusttracetheseconcretegoodsandservicesbackwardsthroughtheprocessesoftheirproductionandforwardthroughtheprocessesoftheirconsumption，inordertolearnthehumancostsandutilitieswhichattachtoeach。Theamountofhumanwealthor\'illth\'whicheachoftheseconcrete\'goods\'containshas，strictlyspeaking，noassignablerelationtothemoneyticketputuponitwhenitissold。Thatsumofhumanvaluecanonlybeworkedoutintermsoftheactualprocessesofproductionandconsumptionthroughwhichthe\'goods\'pass。Somestudentsofcurrentpoliticaleconomymayperhapsbedisposedtocavilatthiscriticism，insistingthatontheaveragethingsmustbesoldinproportiontothepainfulorotherwisedistastefuleffortsofproducingthem，orinproportiontothepleasantorotherwiseserviceablemodesoftheirconsumption。Ontheaverage，theywillcontend，arationalcalculusofpleasureandpainunderliestheoperationsoftheeconomicsystem。Thisposition，however，Iclaimtounderminebyshowing，firstthatthis\'rational\'calculusrestsuponassumptionsoffreechoiceandcompetitionwhichareunwarrantable，andsecondly，thatthisrationalcalculusofcurrentpleasuresandpains，sofarasitisoperative，isnotavalidcriterionofhumanwelfareasconceivedinthetermsoforganicwelfare。Ourtask，itmustberealised，isnotthatofreducingmonetaryvalues，ortheconcretegoodstowhichtheyrefer，totermsofaveragecurrentdesirability，buttotermsofthatdesirabilitycorrectedsoastoconformtothebest-approvedstandardofthedesirable。 Inaword，thedefectsofaveragecurrentestimatesanddesires，inpartcauses，inparteffectsofadefectiveindustrialeconomy，mustthemselvesbevaluedanddiscountedintermsofourhumanidealsofindividualandsociallife。 §；5。Withthisorganicstandard，thenatureandvalidityofwhichwillbecomeclearerwithuse，letussetaboutourtaskoffindingmethodsforassessingintermsofhumanvaluethestocksofconcretegoodsandserviceswhicharetherealnetincomeofthenation。Thehuman，asdistinguishedfromthemoneyandthe\'real\'dividend，willconsistoftheamountofvitalororganicwelfareconveyedintheproducingandconsumingprocessesforwhichthisconcreteincomestands。Whatwerequirethenistoapplysomesortofcalculusofhumancostandhumanutilitytotheseprocesses。Nowweareconfrontedattheoutsetbythepositionofaneconomicsciencewhichconceivesproductionentirelyintermsof\'cost\'，consumptionentirelyintermsof\'utility\'。Indeed，theeconomicdoctrineofvaluehingesalmostentirelyuponthisantithesis。Foritismainlyowingtoits\'costs\'thatalimitofscarcityissetoneach\'supply，\'whileitisthe\'utility\' accordedbyconsumersthatgiveseconomicforceandmeaningto\'demand\'。 Henceproductionisconceivedasaprocesswhichrollsupcostsintocommodities，consumptionasaprocessthatunrollsthemintoutilities。