第3章

Sinceeffectiveaccesstolargemarketsimpliesafairlylargebusiness，theeconomyofriskbecomesoneoftheeconomiesofcapitalism，anditscalculationachiefbranchoftheemployer\'sskill。Thewatchingofthemarketsoastoreducethewasteofmisdirectedproductionisthemostdelicateoftheintellectualactivitiesofmostmanagers。Ittakeshimoutsidethescopeofhisownbusinessandthepresentprocessofproduction，toconsiderthewholeconditionofthetradeinthepresentandtheprobablefuture。Thesecalculationsandactsofjudgmentissuingfromthebrainofbusinessmanagersarethepsychicalaspectofthewholestructureofmarketsandofthetradeandtrafficarrangementswhichgivesuchunityandorderasarevisibleinwhatistermedtheindustrialsystem。 Thus，notmerelyonthefinancialbutonthecommercialside，industryisperceivedtobeagreatfabricofbeliefsanddesires。Though，asweshallrecognise，indealingwithlabour，andwithsaving，risk-takingisbynomeansconfinedtoemployersandentrepreneurs，itswideroperationsbelongtothespeculativeskillwhichcomesunderthegeneralheadofabilityofmanagement。Inthepsychologicalinterpretationofindustrythisfunctionoftheentrepreneurisofquitecrucialsignificance，cooperatingeverywherewiththemoreabstractcalculationsoffinanciersindirectingtheamounts，kinds，anddirections，ofthevariouscurrentsofindustrialenergywhichmoveinthebusinessworld。Sinceitinvolvesaconstantuseoftheconstructiveimaginationintheinterpretationoftheplayofchangingmotivesinmanyminds，andtheforecastingoffutureconditionswhichcanneverbeamererepetitionofthepast，the\'creative\'facultyobtainshereitshighestexpression。Itisnotfornothingthatthegreatmodernmastereitheroffinanceorindustryisaccreditedwithsomequalityofimaginativepowerakintothatoftheartist。This，however，mustinnotafewinstancesimply，notmerelythegeniusoftheprophet，butthatoftheskilledmanipulatorofeconomicmaterialandopportunity，whohelpstosecuretheduefulfilmentofthepropheciesuponwhichhestakeshisfaith。 CHAPTERV:THEHUMANCOSTSOF LABOUR §；1。TheclassicalPoliticalEconomyofthiscountrygavetoLabouraroleofsupremeimportanceintheproductionofwealth。FromAdamSmith，Ricardo，andotherauthoritativeexponentsofthenew\'science\'manypassagescanbecitedtosupportthethesisthatlabourersaretheonlyproducers。 NordoesitappearthatintheseutterancesLabourwasusuallyintendedtoincludetheservicesoforganisationandmanagementorotherintellectualactivities。WealthisbaldlyattributedtoLabourinthesensethatthemanuallabour，whichextractsrawmaterialsfromtheearth，shapesandcomposesthem，andcarriesthemfromoneplacetoanother，alonecountsasacostofproduction。ItisnaturalenoughthatthescientificsocialismofEuropeshouldhaveacceptedandenforcedthisdoctrine。Thoughthemoreintelligentsocialistsand\'labourmen\'admitthenecessaryworkofsuperintendenceandothermentalworkasusefulandproductive，thematerialismprevalentinthebusinessworldtendstorelegatetoaquitesecondaryplaceallthehigherformsofintellectualandmoralactivity。 Itwasuponthewhole，indeed，asoundinstinctwhichthusledtheearlytheoriststouselanguagewhichattributedtomanuallabourtherealburdenofthe\'costs\'ofproduction。Forcloserinvestigationatteststheforceofthedistinctionbetweentheproductiveenergygivenoutbytheintellectual，thedirecting，andadministrativeclassesontheonehand，andbythelabouring-classesontheother。Moreover，thesocialaswellastheeconomiccleavageissodistinctiveafeatureofourlifethatitwouldbeinconvenienttoignoreit。Thecleavagewillbefoundtocorrespondprettyaccuratelytothedistinctionbetweenthecreativeandtheimitativefunctionswhichweprovisionallyadoptedforastartingpointinouranalysis。 Formostoftheproductiveenergygivenoutbytheartistic，inventive，professional，official，andmanagerialclasses，whichhavepassedunderoursurvey，isseentobeinlargemeasurecreative，varied，interesting，andpleasurable。 Nowinthelabourofthewage-earningclassesthesequalitiesaregenerallylacking。Alikeinmotivesandinmethods，thecontrastisclearlymarked。 Themindoftheartistortheinventor，evenoftheprofessionalmanortheadministrator，isoccupiedwiththeworkinhand，asanobjectofinterestandofdesirableachievement。Thenatureoftheworkandtheconditionsofremunerationconducetofixhisimmediatethoughtsandfeelingsontheperformanceofhiswork。Withthelaboureritisdifferent。Theconditionsofmostlabouraresuchthatthelabourerfindslittlescopeforthoughtandemotionalinterestintheworkitself。Itsdueperformanceishardlyanendtohim，butonlyameanstoalivelihoodconsistingintheconsumablecommoditiesgotinpaymentforhislabour。 Butthevitaldistinctionisinthenatureandmethodoftheworkdone。 Whereastheartisticorinventive，oreventheprofessionalman，isconstantlydoingsomethingnew，thelabourercontinuallyrepeatsthesameactorsetofacts，inordertoproduceanumberofsimilarproducts。Thesuccessofmostlabourconsistsintheexactitudeandpacewithwhichthisrepetitioncanbecarriedon。Themachine-tenderisthetypicalinstance。Tofeedthesamemachinerywiththesamequantityofthesamematerialatthesamepace，soastoturnoutanendlessnumberofpreciselysimilararticles，istheabsoluteantithesisofart。Itisoftensaidthatthemanwhofeedssuchamachinetendstobecomeasautomaticasthemachineitself。This，however，isbutahalf-truth。Ifthetendercouldbecomeasautomaticasthemachinehetended，ifhecouldcompletelymechanisealittlesectionofhisfaculties，itmightgoeasierwithhim。Butthemaintrendoflifeinthemanfightsagainstthemechanisingtendencyofhiswork，andthisstruggleentailsaheavycost。Forhismachineimposesarepetitionofthesamemuscularandnervousactionuponabeingwhosemusclesandnervousresourcesarecontinuallychanging。Themachine，fedconstantlywiththesamesupplyoffuel，geareduptoasingleconstantpaceofmovement，forcedbyunchangingstructuretotheperformanceofthesameoperation，frictionanderrorreducedtoanalmostnegligibleminimum，worksthroughthelongestdaywithauniformexpenditureofpower。Themachine-tenderisanorganism，fedatsomewhatirregularintervalswithdifferentamountsandsortsoffood，theassimilationofwhichisalsodiscontinuous，andincapableofmaintainingintactandconstantinitsquantitythemuscularandnervoustissueandtheaccompanyingcontractionswhichconstitutethephysicalsupplyof\'work\'。Thisorganismhasalsomanyotherstructuresandfunctions，physicalandmental，whoseactivitiesandneedsgetinthewayoftheautomaticactivityofmachine-tending。Thustheworkercannotsucceedinbecomingaltogetheramachine-tendingautomaton。Hewillnotalwaysexactlyrepeathimself，andhisattempttodosoinvolvestwosetsoforganiccostsorwastes，duetothefactthat，thoughhislabourtriestomakehimaspecialisedmechanism，heremainsageneralisedorganism。 Sofaraslabourconsistsinspecialisedroutine，absorbingthemaincurrentofproductiveenergy，itistheenemyoforganichealth。Itishostileintwoways，first，indenyingtomanopportunityfortheexerciseofhisotherproductivefaculties，secondly，inovertaxinganddegradingbyservilerepetitionthesinglefacultythatisemployed。 Astheartistpresentsthesupremeexampleofcreativework，withaminimumofhumancostsandamaximumofhumanutility，sothemachine-tenderpresentsthesupremeexampleofimitativework，withamaximumofhumancostsandaminimumofhumanutility。 §；2。Someparticularconsiderationofthesecostsofmachine-tendingwillbethebestapproachtoamoregeneralsurveyofthehumancostsoflabour。 TheindictmentofthedominionofmachinerybyRuskin，Morris，andotherhumanistreformers，wasprimarilybaseduponthedegradationoftheworker\'smanhoodbydenyinghimtheconditionsofgoodwork。\'Itisasadaccount，\'saidRuskin，\'foramantogiveofhimselfthathehasspenthislifeinopeningavalve，andnevermadeanythingbuttheeighteenthpartofapin。\'But，importantasisthischargeofdegradedandjoylesswork，wemustbeginouranalysisofthecostsofmechanicalorfactorylabouratalowerlevel。 Fromthegreatbodyofthefactorylabourwhichgoestotheprovisionofournationalincome，thefirstgreathumancostthatemergesistheburdenofinjuriousfatiguewhichresultsfrommuscularornervousoverstrain，andfromtheotherphysicalandmoralinjurieswhicharethenaturalaccompanimentsofthisoverstrain。 Modernphysiologyandpathologyhavedonemuchtogiveplainmeaningstothesecosts。Physicalfatigueisnotofnecessityaninjurytothebody，norisallfeelingoffatigueapain。Theideallycorrectconductoftheorganismmay，indeed，appeartopreserveanexactandacontinuousbalancebetweentheanabolicandthecatabolic，thenutritionofcelllifeandtheexpenditureinfunction。SirMichaelFostergivesthefollowingclassicaldescriptionofthisprocess。1 \'Didwepossesssomeopticaidwhichshouldovercomethegrossnessofourvision，sothatwemightwatchthedanceofatomsinthisdoubleprocessofmakingandunmakinginthehumanbody，weshouldseethecommonplacelivingthingswhicharebroughtbytheblood，andwhichwecallthefood，caughtupintoandmadepartofthemolecularwhorlsofthelivingmuscle，linkedtogetherforawhileintheintricatefiguresofthedanceoflife； andthenweshouldseehow，loosinghands，theyslippedbackintotheblood，asdead，inert，used-upmatter。Ineverytinyblockofmusclethereisapartwhichisreallyalive，therearepartswhicharebecomingalive，therearepartswhichhavebeenalivebutarenowdyingordead；thereisanupwardrushfromthelifelesstotheliving，adownwardrushfromthelivingtothedead。Thisisalwaysgoingon，whetherthemusclebequietandatrest，orwhetheritbeactiveandmoving。Someofthecapitaloflivingmaterialisalwaysbeingspent，changedintodeadwaste，someofthenewfoodisalwaysbeingraisedintolivingcapital。 \'Thusnutritivematerialsarecarriedbythebloodtothetissues，andthedeadmaterialsofused-upandbroken-uptissuesarecarriedawayfordestructionorejection。Undernormalconditionsofhealthyactivitythismetabolicbalanceispreservedbythealternationofworkandrepose，thetissueandenergybuiltupoutoffoodduringperiodsofrestformingafundforexpenditureduringperiodsofwork，whilethesameperiodsofrestenablethedestructiveandevacuativeprocessestogetridofanyaccumulationofdeadtissueduetothepreviousperiodofwork。Abnormallyintenseorundulyprolongedactivityofanyportionofthebodyusesuptissuesofastthatitsdeadmaterialcannotbegotridofattheproperpace。Itaccumulatesinthebloodorinthekidneys，liverorlungs，andoperatesasapoisonthroughoutthewholesystem。Over-fatiguethusmeanspoisoningtheorganism。 \'Thepoisonsaremoreandmoreheaped-up，poisoningthemuscles，poisoningthebrain，poisoningtheheart，poisoningatlasttheblooditself，startingintheintricatemachineryofthebodynewpoisonsinadditiontothemselves。 Thehuntedhare，runtodeath，diesnotbecauseheischokedforwantofbreath，norbecausehisheartstandsstill，itsstoreofenergyhavinggivenout，butbecauseapoisonedbloodpoisonshisbrain，poisonshiswholebody。\'2 TheItalianbiologistMossohasdemonstratedthatthedepressingeffectoffatigueisnotconfinedtothelocalcentrewhereitisproduced，butiscarriedtoallpartsofthebody。Whenthebloodofadogfatiguedbycontinuedrunningisinjectedintothevesselsofasounddog，thelatterexhibitsallthesignsoffatigue。Theinabilityofthesystemtodisposeoftheused-uptissue，whichthusaccumulatesandpoisonsthesystem，isoneinjuriousfactorinfatigue。Anotheristheunduedepletionofthestoresofglycogenandoxygen，whichtheorganismprovidesfortheoutputofmuscularactivity。Glycogenisacompoundofcarbon，hydrogen，andoxygenmadebymuscletissueoutofthesugarordextrinesuppliedtoitbytheblood。\'Thestoredglycogenofthemuscleskeepsunitingchemicallywiththeoxygenoftheblood。Theglycogenisbrokendownintoasimplerchemicalform，givingoffthegascarbondioxideandotheracidwastes，andreleasingheatandmechanicalenergyintheprocess。Withthereleasedenergycontractionofthemusclestakesplaceandhenceultimatelytheindustriallabourwhichisourspecialtheme。\'3 \'Glycogenis，asitwere，storedforuse。Itisalwaysbeingreplenished，alwaysbeingdepleted……Butwhenthemuscleisactiveandcontractsenergetically，thereisarunuponourglycogen。Itisusedupfasterthanitisbuiltinmuscle。Theglycogenisspentsorapidlythatthereisnottimefortheblood-streamtobringbacktothetissuethepotentialmaterialforitsrepair。\'4Thoughtheliverfurnishesanextrastoreofglycogen，thistoomaybedepletedbyunduemuscularactivity。 \'Thuswehavereachedtheotherfundamentalfactorinfatigue——theconsumptionoftheenergy-yieldingsubstanceitself。Notonlydoestissuemanufacturepoisonforitselfintheveryactofliving，castingoffchemicalwastesintothecirclingbloodstream；notonlyarethesewastespouredintothebloodfasterwithincreasedexertion，cloggingthemusclemoreandmorewithitsownnoxiousproducts；but，finally，thereisadepletionoftheverymaterialfromwhichenergyisobtained。Thecatabolicprocessisinexcessoftheanabolic。Inexhaustion，theorganismisforcedliterallyto\"useitselfup。\"\'5 §；3。Somuchforthephysiologicalmeaningofmuscularfatigue。 Closelyassociatedwithmuscularfatigueisnervousfatigue。Foreveryvoluntarymuscularactionreceivesitsstimulusfromanervouscentre。 Thoughthenatureofthisnervousenergy，accumulatedinthecentralnervoussystemanddistributedinstimuli，isnotwellunderstood，itseconomyisgravelydisturbedbyconductinvolvingheavymuscularfatigue，aswellasbyworkofamentalkindinvolvingheavydrainsonitsresources。A processofbuildingup，storage，anddissipationofnervetissueandenergy-yieldingmaterial，correspondingtothatwhichwehavetracedformuscletissue，mustbeacceptedastakingplace。Fatigueofthenervoussystemwillthusbeattendedbyasimilaraccumulationofpoisonouswasteproducts，andanexcessiveconsumptionofsubstancesneededforthemaintenanceofnervousactivity。 Thoughphysiologistsarenotagreedastohowandwhenfatigueactsonthenervouscells，thereisnoquestionoftherealityandoftheimportanceofthisinjuryofexcessiveworkto\'theadministrativeinstrumentoftheindividual\'which\'directs\'controlsandharmonisestheworkofthepartsoftheorganicmachineandgivesunitytothewhole。\' Stillconfiningourattentiontopurelyphysicalconditions，welearnthatworkdoneinastateofmuscularfatigueinvolvesanincreaseofnervouseffort。 \'Mossoshowedthatamuchstrongerelectricstimulusisrequiredtomakeaweariedmusclecontractthanonewhichisrested。Hedevisedanapparatus，theponometer，whichrecordsthecurveofnervouseffortrequiredtoaccomplishmuscularactionasfatigueincreases。Heshowedthatthenervecentresarecompelledtosupplyaneverstrongerstimulustofatiguedmuscles。\'6 ProfessorTrevesatTurinthrowsfurtherlightupontherelationsbetweenthemuscularandthenervouseconomy。Itiswellknownthatinmuscularactivitythereisanopeningperiodduringwhichefficiency，orpracticalresponsetonervousstimulus，increases。Beforefatiguebeginstosetin，themuscleappearstogainstrength，itsworkingpowerbeingactuallyaugmented。 Thisperiodofmaximumefficiencycontinuesforanappreciabletime，thenfatigueadvancesmoreandmoreuntilmuscularcontractionrefusesanylongertorespondtoevenaheightenednervousstimulus。This，ofcourse，isalsoanepitomeofthecourseoforganiclifeitself，itsrisetowardsmaturity，itslevelofmaximumpoweranditsdecline。 Nowtrainingorpracticecannotoriouslyaffectthisnaturaleconomy。 Themuscularsystem，orsomepartofit，canbypracticeaccommodateitselftoincreasingquantitiesoffatigue-poisons，andcandrawfromthegeneralorganicfundalargerquantityofmaterialforrepairoflocalmusculartissueandenergy。Butithaslongbeenrecognisedthatsomerealdangersattachtothisexcessivespecialisationofmuscularactivities。Thepathologicalnatureofover-traininginathleticshasitsplaincounterpartinindustry。 This，accordingtoProfessorTreves，liesinthefailureofthesupplyofnervousenergytoriseinproportiontotherequirementsforthishigherpressureuponthemusculartissues。 \'Accordingtomyexperience，ithasnotbeenfoundthattraininghasasfavourableaneffectupon[nervous]energyasuponmuscularstrength…… Thisfactexplainswhymusculartrainingcannotgobeyondcertainlimitsandwhyathletesareoftenbrokendownbytheconsequencesofover-exertion。 Andthisfactteachesalsothepracticalnecessityofpreventingwomen，children，andevenadultmenfrombecomingsubjectedtolabour，which，indeed，agradualmusculartrainingmaymakepossible，butatthepriceofanexcessivelossofnervousenergywhichisnotbetrayedbyanyobviousorimmediatesymptoms，eitherobjectiveorsubjective。\'7 Aseriesofexperimentshasbeendirectedtothemoredetailedstudyoftherelationsbetweenactivityandrepose。Theirgeneralresultistoprovethatmuscularwork，doneafterfatiguehassetin，notonlycostsmorenervouseffortbutaccomplisheslesswork。Theergograph，aninstrumentformeasuringwork，yieldsampletestimonytotherecuperativeeffectofresttakenbeforeexhaustionisreached，ontheonehand，andtherapidrateofdeclineinachievementwhenactivityiscontinuedafterthefatiguepointhasbeenreached。 §；4。Tothisaccountofthephysicalcostsofexcessiveworkinmuscularandnervouswastemustbeaddedthegreaterliabilitytoaccidentsandthegreatersusceptibilitytoindustrialandnon-industrialdiseaseswhichfatigueentails。 Thestatisticsofindustryinvariouscountriesprovethatfatigueisaveryimportantfactorinindustrialaccidents。Thoughfatigueisnotalwaysproportionatetodurationofwork，thenumberofhoursworkedwithoutintermissionisusuallyavalidindexoffatigue。Afteralongstuntofworktheattentionoftheworkerandhismuscularcontrolarebothweakened。 Wefind，therefore，amarkedsimilarityinthecurvesrelatingaccidentstohoursoflabour，accidentsincreasingprogressivelyuptotheendofthemorning\'swork，andagaininthelateafternoonastheday\'sworkdrawstoitsclose。RecentGermanstatisticsshowthatthehighestrateofaccidentsisduringthefourthandfifthhoursofmorningwork。 Thatover-fatigueconnectedwithindustryisresponsibleforlargenumbersofnervousdisordersis，ofcourse，generallyadmitted。Thegrowingprevalenceofcardiacneurosisandofneurastheniaingeneralamongworking-peopleisattestedbymanymedicalauthorities，especiallyinoccupationswherelongstrainsofattentionareinvolved。Butthegeneralenfeeblementandlossofresistancepowertodiseasegermsofallkindsareevenmoreinjuriousconsequencesofover-exertion。Manyexperimentsattestthefactthatfatiguereducesthepowerofthebloodtoresistbacteriaandtheirtoxicproducts。 §；5。SofarIhavedweltexclusivelyuponthephysiologicalnatureandeffectsoffatigueascostsoflabour。Butdueaccountmustalsobetakenofthepsychicalorconsciouscosts。Muchworkinitsinitialstagecontainselementsofpleasurableexerciseofsomehumanorganorfaculty，andevenwhenthispleasurehaswornoffaconsiderableperiodofindifferencemayensue。Thoughboredommaysetinbeforeanystrainoffatigue，theearlierperiodofennuimaynotentailaheavycost。But，whenfatigueadvances，theirksomenessbringsagrowingfeelingofpainfuleffort，andalongboutoffatigueproducesasitsconcomitantaperiodofgraveconsciousirritationofnerveswithasubsequentperiodofpainfulcollapse。Wheretheconditionsofworkaresuchastoinvolveadailyrepetitionofthispain，itsaccumulativeeffectconstitutesoneoftheheaviestofhumancosts，aloweringofmentalityandofmoralresistancecloselycorrespondingtothedeclineofphysicalresistance。Drinkandothersensationalexcessesarethenormalreactionsofthisloweredmorale。Thusfatigueranksasamaindeterminantofthe\'character\'oftheworking-classesandhasasocialsignificanceinitsbearinguponorderandprogressnotlessimportantthanitsinfluenceupontheindividualorganism。 §；6。Ihavedweltinsomedetailuponthesephenomenaoffatigue，becausetheyexhibitmostclearlythedefectsoftheworkinglifewhichcarryheaviesthumancosts。Thesedefectsareexcessivedurationoflabour，excessivespecialisation，excessiverepetition，excessivestrainandexcessivespeed。Thoughseparateforpurposesofanalysis，thesefactorscloselyinteract。Meredurationoflabourdoesnotnecessarilyinvolvefatigue，provideditcarriestheelementsofinterest，variety，andachievement。 Thedegreeofspecialisationorsubdivisionoflabourcountsonthewholemoreheavily。Butevenahighdegreeofspecialisationisalleviated，whereitcontainsmanylittlechangesofactionorposition，andaffordsscopeforthesatisfactionattendingexpertskill。Itistheconstantrepetitionofanidenticalactionataprescribedpacethatbringstheheaviestburdenofmonotony。 Itisuponthiscombinationofconditionsthatthefirstcountagainstthedominionofmachineryisbased。Thebriefphysiologicalconsiderationwehavebroughttobearupontheproblemoffatiguegivesclearersignificancetomonotonyasa\'cost\'。Itimplies，notmerelyadullanddistastefuloccupation，butonewhich，taxingcontinuallythesamemusclesandthesamenerve-centres，increasesthepoisonoffatigue。Handlabourofanarroworder，ormachine-tendinghoweverlight，entailsthisheavycost，ifmaintainedoveralongperiodoftime。 Butwheremonotonousrepetitioniscloselydirectedbytheactionofamachine，asregardsitsmanneranditspace，thereisaspecialnervouscost。Forahand-worker，howeverdullorheavyisthework，retainssomeslightpowerofvaryingthepaceandperhapsofchanginghispositionormodeofwork。Aworkerwhoeitherfeedsamachineoradjustshismovementsinobediencetothoseofamachine，asforinstanceacutterintheclothingtradeorinshoemaking，hasnosuchliberty。Thespecialcosthereentailedisthatoftryingtomakeanorganismconforminitsmovementstoamechanism。 Nowahumanbeing，oranyotherorganism，hascertainnaturalrhythmsofmovementforwork，relatedtotherhythmsofheartandlungsandotherorganicprocesses，andtherearenaturallimitsalsotothepaceatwhichheCanefficiently，orevenpossibly，continueworking。Amachinealsohasrhythmsandamaximumefficiencypace。Buttherhythmsofamachinearedeterminedbyitsmechanicalconstructionandtheapparatuswhichfurnishesitspower:theyarecontinuouslyuniform，andarecapableofbeingspeededupbeyondthecapacityofthehumantender。 Ahumanrhythmisreallylabour-saving，inasmuchasiteasesthestraintoworkinaccordancewithanaturalswing。Tosetamantofollowtherhythmofamachinenotonlylosesthiseconomy，butentailsanextraeffortofconformity。Thetendencytospeedupamachine，soastogetthemostoutofit，isliabletotakeoutofthemachine-tenderevenmorethanheiscapableofrecognisinginthewayofnervousstrain。Whereconsiderablemuscularactivityisalsorequiredinfollowingahighpacesetbyamachine，anappallingburdenofhumancostsmaybeaccumulatedinafactoryday。 Whentosuchdirecthumancostsoflabourareaddedtherisksofindustrialaccidentorofindustrialdiseases，thephysicalinjuriesinvolvedinbadatmosphere，heat，noiseandotherincidentalpainsandinconvenienceswhichbesetmanybranchesofindustry，webegintorealisewithmoredistinctnessthemeaningof\'costsoflabour\'inthehumanasdistinguishedfromtheeconomicsense。 Lateronweshallturntoconsiderhowfartheeconomicormonetary\'costs\'correspondwiththesehumancosts。 Ourpresenttask，however，istoconductabriefsurveyofgeneralindustryinordertoformsomeideaofthemagnitudeofthesehumancostsintheleadingbranchesofproduction，andtoconsiderhowfartheyareoffsetorqualifiedbyfactorsofhumaninterestorutility，suchaswefoundwidelyprevalentintheworkoftheartistic，official，andadministrativeclasses。 §；1。Ifitweretruethatallthelabourofthewage-earningclasseswhichwenttoproducetherealnationalincomewere，ortendedtobecome，monotonousandhighlyspecialisedmachinetending，theworkersconstantlyengagedincloserepetitionofsomesinglenarrowautomaticprocess，contributingtosomefinalcompositeproductwhoseformandutilityhadnorealmeaningforthem，thetaleofhumancostswouldbeappalling。 Fortunatelythisisnotthewholetruthaboutlabour。Eventhechargeagainstmachineryofmechanisingtheworkerisfrequentlyoverstated。Theonlyproductiveworkthatisentirelyautomaticisdonebymachines。Forthemaintrendofthedevelopmentofindustrialmachineryhasbeentosetnon-humantoolsandpowertoundertakeworkwhichmancouldnotexecutewiththerequiredregularity，exactitude，orpace，byreasonofcertainorganicdeficiencies。While，then，thesub-dividedlabourinmoststapleindustriesismostlyofanarrowlyprescribedandroutinecharacter，itishardlyeversocompletelyuniformandrepetitiveasthatdonebyamachine。 Purelyroutinework，demandingnohumanskillorjudgmentisnearlyalwaysundertakenbymachinery，exceptwherehumanlabourcanbeboughtsocheapthatitdoesnotpaytoinventandapplymachinerysoastosecuresomeslightlyincreasedregularityorpaceofoutput。Where，then，asinmostmodernfactories，humanlabourcooperateswith，tendsandfeedsmachinery，thishumanlabourisofalesspurelyrepetitivecharacterthantheworkdonebythemachines。Someportionsofthelabour，atanyrate，containelementsofskillorjudgment，andarenotentirelyuniform。 Wecaninfactdistinguishmanykindsandgradesofhumancooperationwithmachinery。Insomeofthemmanisthehabitualservant，inothersthehabitualmasterofthemachine；inothers，again，therelationismoreindirectorincidental。Thoughanincreasingnumberoftheprocessesinthemakingandmovingofmostformsofmaterialgoodsinvolvestheuseofmachineryandpower，theydonotinvolve，asissometimessupposed，theemploymentofagrowingproportionoftheworkersinthemerelyroutinelabouroftendingthemachines。Suchasupposition，indeed，isinconsistentwiththeprimaryeconomyofmachinery，theso-calledlabour-savingproperty。 Itmight，indeed，bethecasethatthemachineeconomywasaccompaniedbysovastanincreaseofdemandformachine-madegoods，thatthequantityoflabourrequiredfortendingthemachineswasgreaterthanthatformerlyrequiredformakingbyhandthesmallerquantity。Insometradesthisisnodoubtso，asforinstanceintheprintingtrade，andinsomebranchesoftextileindustrywherethehomemarketislargelysupplementedbyexporttrade。Butthedisplacementofmachine-tendersbyautomaticmachinesisadvancinginmanyofthehighly-developedmachineindustries。Themodernflourorpapermill，forinstance，performsnearlyallitsfeedingprocessesbymechanicalmeanswhileinthetextiletradeautomaticspindlesandloomshavereducedthenumberandchangedthecharacteroftheworkofminders。 Moreandmoreofthisworkmeansbringinghumanelementsofskillandjudgmentandresponsibilitytobearinadjustingorcorrectingtheirregularitiesorerrorsintheoperationsofmachinery。Machinesareliabletorundown，becomeclogged，break，orotherwise\'gowrong\'。Theseerrorstheycanoftenbemadetoannouncebyautomaticsignals，buthumancareisneededfortheircorrection。Thiswork，howevermonotonousandfatiguingtomusclesornerves，isnotandcannotbeentirelyrepetitive。 Inmanyotherprocesseswherethemachineissaidtodothework，humanskillandpracticearerequiredtosetandtoregulatetheoperationsofthemachine。Theuseofautomaticlathesisaninstanceofcooperationinwhichsomescopeforhumanjudgmentremains。Themetalandengineeringtradesarefullofsuchinstances。Thoughmachineryisanexceedinglyimportantandinmanyprocessesagoverningfactor，itcannotbesaidtoreducethelabourthatworkswithittoitsownautomaticlevel。Onthecontrary，itmaybetakenasgenerallytruethat，intheprocesseswheremachineryhasreacheditsmostcomplexdevelopment，anincreasedshareofthelabouremployedincloseconnectionwiththemachineryisthatoftheskilledengineerorfitterratherthanofthemeretender。Theheaviestandthemostcostlylabourinthesetradesisusuallyfoundintheprocesseswhereithasnotbeenfoundpracticableoreconomicaltoapplymachinery。Indeed，thegeneraltendency，especiallynoticedinAmerica，inthemetaltrades，hasbeentosubstituteforalargeemploymentofskilledhandlabourofanarrowlyspecialisedorder，asmallemploymentofmoreskilledandresponsiblesupervisorsofmachineryandalargeemploymentoflow-skilledmanuallabourinthelessmechanicaldepartments，suchasfurnaceworkandotheroperationspreparatorytothemachineprocesses。 §；2。Thoughaccuratestatisticsarenotavailable，itappearsthatinthiscountrytheproportionoftheworkingpopulationemployedinmanufacturesisnotincreasing，anditismorethanprobablethatanexactanalysisofthenatureoftheworkofourfactoriesandworkshopswouldshowthattheproportionengagedindirectattendanceonmachinerywassteadilyfalling。 Foreveninmanufacture，thedepartmentofindustrywheremachineprocesseshavemademostadvance，therearemanyprocesseswherehandlabourisstillrequired，insortingandpreparingmaterialsformachinery，inperformingminorprocessesoftrimmingordecoration，inputtingtogetherpartsorinpacking，etc。Wherefemalelabourisemployed，averylargeproportionofitwillbefoundtobeengagedinsuchprocessesoutsidethedirectdominionofmachinery。Thoughmostofthedistinctivelyhuman\'costs\'ofmachineprocesses，thelonghours，highpace，monotonyofmusclesandnervestrain，areusuallypresentinsuchwork，itisnotabsolutelymechanical，someslightelementsofskillandvolitionaldirectionbeingpresent。 Thereareotherrestrictionsuponthepurelyrepetitiveorroutinecharacterofmanufacture。Thereismuchworkwhichnomachinecanbeinventedtodobecauseofcertaininherentelementsofirregularity。Mostofthesearerelatedtotheorganicnatureofsomeofthematerialsused。Whereexpensiveanimalorvegetableproductsrequiretreatment，theirnaturalinequalitiesoftenrenderapurelymechanicaloperationimpossibleorwasteful。 Thekilling，cutting，andcanningprocessesinthemeattrade，thepicking，preparationandpackingoffruit，manyprocessesinthetanningandleathertrade。thefinersortsofcabinetmaking，areexamplesofthisunadaptabilityoforganicmaterialstopurelymechanicaltreatment。Whereveryvaluableinorganicmaterialsareusedinmakinghigh-gradeproducts，similarlimitationsinthemachineeconomyexist。Thefinestjewelleryandwatch-makingstillrequiretheskillandjudgmentofthepractisedhumanhandandeye。Someoftheirregularitiesinsuchprocessesare，indeed，sosmallandsouninterestingastoaffordlittle，ifany，abatementofhumancosts；buttheyremovethelabourfromthedirectcontrolofamachine。 Amoreimportantirregularitywhichrestrictsmachineryinmanufactureexistswherethepersonalneedsortasteoftheconsumerhelptodeterminethenatureoftheprocessandtheproduct。Hereagainweareconfrontedbytheantagonismofmechanismandorganism。Forthetruedemandofconsumersisthehighestexpressionoftheuniquenesswhichdistinguishestheorganic。 Asnotwoconsumersareexactlyidenticalinsize，shape，physicalormentalcapacities，tastesandneeds，thegoodsrequiredfortheirconsumptionshouldexhibitsimilardifferences。Machineeconomycannotproperlymeetthisrequirement。Itcanonlydealwithconsumerssofarastheirhumannatureiscommon:itcannotsupplytheneedsoftheirindividuality。Sofarastheyarewillingtosinktheirdifferences，consentingtoconsumelargequantitiesofgoodsofidenticalshapes，sizesandqualities，themachinecansupplythem。Butsincenotwoconsumersarereallyidenticalinneedsandtastes，orremainquiteconstantintheirneedsandtastes，thefundamentalassumptionofroutine-economyisopposedtothehumanfacts。 Consumerswhorefusetosinktheirindividualityandare\'particular\' inthesortofclothestheywear，thesortofhousesandfurnitureandothergoodstheywillconsenttobuy，exerciseapowerantagonistictoroutinelabour。Theydemandthatproducersshallputoutthetechnicalskill，thecare，tasteandjudgmentrequiredtosatisfytheirfeelingsasconsumers。Thatistosay，theydemandthelabournotoftheroutine-workerbutofthecraftsman，workwhich，thoughnotcreativeinthefullfreeartisticsense，containsdistinctelementsofhumaninterestandinitiative。 §；3。Thepresenceandthepossibilitiesofthisindividualityoflabour，flowingfromtheeducatedindividualityofconsumers，areamostimportantinfluenceinthelighteningofthehumancostsoflabour。Atpresentnodoubtaverysmallproportionofthematerialgoodsturnedoutbytheindustrialsystemcontainsanyappreciableelementofthisindividualityofworkmanship。Itmay，indeed，wellappearthatourrecentcourseduringthedevelopmentofthemachineeconomyhasbeenaretrogradeone。Inthebeginningsofindustryitappearedasifthereweremorescopefortheproducer\'sself-expression，morejoyofwork，moreinterestintheproduct，eventhoughdestinedforthecommonestuses。TheguildsintheMiddleAgespreservednotalittleofthishappierspiritofcraftsmanship。Tothosewhobrooduponthesevisionsofthepast，ourmodernindustrialdevelopmenthasoftenseemedacrudesubstitutionofquantityofgoodsforquality，thecharacteroflabourdeterioratingintheprocess。Withtheelementoftruthinsuchajudgmentismingledmuchfalsehood。Therehasneverbeenanageoracountrywherethegreatbulkoflabourwasnottoilsome，painful，monotonous，anduninteresting，oftendegradinginitsconditions。 Badasthingsare，whenregardedfromthestandpointofahumanideal，theyarebetterforthemajorityoftheworkersinthisandinotheradvancedindustrialcountriesthaneverinthepast，sofaraswecanreconstructandunderstandthatpast。Machineryhasrenderedagreathumanservicebytakingoverlargemassesofheavy，dull，anddegradingwork。Whenfullydevelopedandharnessedtothesocialserviceofman，itshouldprovetobethegreatliberatorofhisfreeproductivetastesandfaculties，performingforhimtheroutineprocessesofindustrysothathemayhavetimeandenergytodevotehimselftoactivitiesmoreinterestingandvaried。 Theuniquenessoftheindividualconsumerhasonlybeguntomakeitsimpressionuponindustry。Foritneedslibertyandeducationforamantorecognisethispropertyoforganicuniquenessandtoinsistonrealisingit。Thefirstmovementsofconscioustastesinanationoraclassarelargelyimitative，takingshapeinfashionssufficientlywide-spreadanduniformtolendthemselvestoroutinemechanicalproduction。Theself-assertionoftheindividualisaslowerfruitofculture。But，asitgrows，itwillofferacontinuallystrongeroppositiontothedominionofmechanicalproduction。 Itwilldothisintwoways。Inthefirstplace，itwillcausealargerproportionofdemandtobedirectedtotheclassesofproducts，suchasintellectual，aesthetic，andpersonalservices，whicharebytheirnaturelesssusceptibleofmechanicalproduction。Inthesecondplace，weakeningthetraditionalandtheimitativefactorsintasteanddemand，itwillcauseconsumption，evenofthehigherformsofmaterialcommodities，tobeamoreaccurateexpressionofthechangingneedsandtastesoftheindividual，stampingupontheprocessesofproductionthesameimpressofindividuality。 Butthoughthedirectcontrolofmachineryoverhumanlabourisobstructedintheearlierextractiveprocessesbytherefractoryunevennatureofmaterials，andinthefinalprocessesbythenatureandparticularrequirementsofconsumers，itsinfluenceextendsfarbeyondthemiddleprocessesofmanufacturewhereitsprominenceisgreatest。 Power-drivenmachineryplaysalargerpartinagricultureeveryyear:miningisthefirstofmachineindustriesinthesensethatitemploysthelargestamountofhorsepowerperman；thetransporttradebyseaandlandismechanisedeveninitsminorlocalbranches；thegreatpublicservices，supplyinglight，water，andothercommonwants，areamongthelargestusersofpower-drivenmachinery； thegreatestofourmaterialindustrieswhichstilldependsmainlyuponhandlabour，thebuildingandroad-makinggroup，isconstantlyincreasingitsdependenceonmachineryforitsheaviercarryingworkandforthepreparationofthemetal，stoneandwoodworkitemploys。Whenweaddthegrowthofnewlargemanufactures，suchaschemicalsandelectricalapparatus，theenormousexpansionofthepaperandprintingtradesunderthenewmechanicalconditions，therecenttransferenceoftheprocessesofthepreparationoffoodsanddrinksandlaundryworkfromtheprivatehousetothefactory，weshallrecognisethatthenetinfluenceofmachinery，asdeterminingthecharacterofhumanlabour，isstilladvancingwithconsiderablerapidity。 §；4。Itisnoteasytoanswerthetworelatedquestions，\'Howfarismachinerythemaster，howfartheservant，oftheworkerswhocooperatewithit？\'\'Howfardoesmachineryaggravate，howfarlightenthehumancostsoflabour？\'Evenwhenwecomparetheworkoftheclassesmostsubservienttomachinery，thefeedersandtendersinourfactories，withthedomesticorearlierfactoryprocessesunderhandlabour，itisbynomeansself-evidentthatthenetburdenofthehumancostshasbeenenhanced。For，thoughthespinningandweavingworkbeforetheindustrialrevolutionhadcertainslightelementsoffreedomandvarietynowabsent，manyofthehygienicconditionswerefarworse，thehoursoflabourwereusuallylonger，andthelargeemploymentofoldfolkandtenderchildren，inworknearlyasunvariedasthatenjoinedbymodernmachinery，enslavedtheentirelifeofthehomeandfamilytothenarrowandprecariousconditionsofasmalllocaltrade。Thereallibertyoftheworker，asregardshiswork，oritsdisposalinthemarket，washardlygreaterthaninthemodernfactory。 Inmostofthegreatbranchesofproduction，machineryisratheranadjuncttolabourthanadirector。 Thelabourerinchargeofthemachinetendsmoretothetypeoftheengineerthantothatofthefeederormereminder。Thoughthemining，metal，chemical，paper，foodanddrinkmanufacturescontainlargequantitiesofmachinery，alargeproportionofthosewhohavetodealwiththemachinesareskilledmanuallabourers。Sointhetransporttrade，thoughthedisplacementoftheold-timesailorbytheengineerandstoker，ofthehorse-driverbytheengine-driverandthemotor-man，sometimesappearstoinvolveadegradationoflabour，theissueisadoubtfulone，ifalltheprosandconsaretakenintodueaccount。Asregardstheemploymentofmachineryinthebuildingandcontractingtrades，asinthemining，itsfirstandobviouseffecthasbeentorelievehumanlabourfrommuchoftheheaviestmusculartoil。Thoughmostofsuchlabourinvolvestooslightelementsofinterestorskillgreatlytoalleviatethephysicalfatigue，itcannotbesaidthatmachineryhasincreasedtheburden。CHAPTERVII:THEDISTRIBUTIONOF HUMANCOSTS §；1。Inendeavouringtoestimatethehumancostsoflabourintermsofphysicalwearandtearandtheconsciouspainsandpenaltiesentailedbytheconditionsunderwhichmanyindustrialprocessesarecarriedon，wehavehithertoconsideredthesecostsasbornebyworkers，irrespectiveofage，sex，orotherdiscriminations。Butitisself-evidentthatagivenstrainuponmusclesornervesoveraperiodoftimewillvarygreatly，bothintheorganiccostandintheconsciouspainwhichitentails，accordingtothestrengthandendurance，nervousstructure，physicalandmoralsensitiveness，ofthedifferentsortsofworkers。Indeed，agivenoutputofproductiveenergywillevidentlyentailadifferenthumancostineverypersoncalledupontogiveitout:foreverydifferenceofstrength，skill，capacityandcharactermusttosomeextentaffecttheorganicburdenofthetask。 Inendeavouring，therefore，torelatethehumantotheeconomiccostsofproductionofanyquantityofmaterialwealthorservices，itwouldbenecessarytoconsiderhowfartheconditionsofemploymenttendtoeconomisehumancostsbydistributingtheburdenproportionatelytothepowertobearit。Thehumanwastesorexcessivecosts，entailedbyconditionsofemploymentwhichimposeunequalburdensuponworkerswithequalcapacitytobearthem，orwhichdistributetheburdenunequallyintimeoverthesamesetofworkers，alternatingslackperiodswithperiodsofexcessiveover-time，areobvious。Unfortunatelytheoperationofourindustrialsystemhasnothithertotakentheseintosufficientaccount。 Thoughthephysical，moralandsocialinjuries，duetoalternatingperiodsofoverandunderwork，aregenerallyadmitted，thefullcostsofsuchirregularity，humanandeveneconomic，arefarfrombeingadequatelyrealised。Whilesomeattemptsat\'decasualisation\'arebeingmade，thelargerandmorewastefulirregularitiesofseasonalandcyclicalfluctuationsarestillregardedasirremediable。