第6章

1。Collectiveorcooperativeconsumptionoutsidethehomeorfamilyisofcourseincreasing。Notonlyhavewemunicipalsuppliesforpub1icuse，e。g。，schools，libraries，museums，parks，baths，lighting，etc。，butmanyformsofprivateexpenditureofincomeoneducational，recreative，philanthrophicandothercooperativemodesofconsumption。 2。ForthefullestandmostrecentexpositionofthistheoryseeMr。 J。M。Robertson\'sTheEvolutionofStates(Watts&；Co。)。CHAPTERX:CLASSSTANDARDSOF §；1。Wemaynowapplythesegeneralconsiderationsregardingtheevolutionofwantstoclassandindividualstandardsofconsumption。Inaconcreteclassstandardofconsumptionwemayconvenientlydistinguishthreedeterminantfactors:1st。Theprimaryorganicfactor，theelementsinconsumptionimposedbygeneralorparticularconditionsofphysicalenvironment，suchassoil，climate，inrelationtophysicalneeds。2nd。 Theindustrialfactor，themodificationsinorganicneedsduedirectlyorindirectlytoconditionsofwork。3rd。Theconventionalfactor，thoseelementsinastandardofconsumptionnotbaseddirectlyuponconsiderationsofphysicaloreconomicenvironmentbutimposedbysocialcustom。 Sofarasthefirstfactorisconcerned，weareforthemostpartintheregionofmaterialnecessariesinwhich，aswehavealreadyseen，theorganicsecuritiesforhumanutilityarestrongest。Whereanypopulationhasformanygenerationsbeensettledinalocality，itmustadaptitselfintwowaystothephysicalconditionsofthatlocality。Itschiefconstituentsoffood，clothing，shelter，etc。，mustbeaccommodatedtoallthemorepermanentandimportantconditionsofsoil，climate，situationandofthefloraandfaunaofthecountry。Atropicalpeoplecannotbegreatmeat-eatersoraddictedtostrongdrinks，thoughthematerialsforbothhabitsmaybeabundant。Anarcticpeople，ontheotherhand，mustfindinanimalfatsaprincipalfood，andintheskinsofanimalsaprincipalarticleofclothing。 Inacountrywhereearthquakesfrequentlyoccur，thematerialsandstructureofthehousesmustbelight。Inthesamecountrythepeopleofthemountains，thevalleys，theplains，thesea-shores，willbefoundwithnecessarydifferencesintheirfundamentalstandardofconsumption。Itis，indeed，self-evidentthatphysicalenvironmentmustexerciseanimportantselectiveandrejectivepowerrepresentedinthematerialstandardofconsumption。Sofarasmancanmodifyandalterthephysicalenvironment，asbydrainage，forestry，orthedestructionofnoxiousanimalsorbacteria，hemaytothatextentreleasehisstandardofconsumptionforthisregionalcontrol。 Primitiveman，again，andevenmostmenincomparativelyadvancedcivilisations，areconfinedforthechiefmaterialsoffood，shelterandothernecessaries，totheresourcesoftheircountryorlocality。Theymustaccommodatetheirdigestionsandtheirtastestothefoodsthatcanberaisedconvenientlyandinsufficientquantitiesintheneighbourhood:theymustbuildtheirhousesandmaketheirdomesticandotherutensilsoutofthematerialproductswithineasyreach。Theearlyevolutionofastandardofnecessaryconsumption，workingunderthiscloseeconomyoftrialanderror，appearstoguaranteeafree，natural，instinctiveselectionoforganicallysoundconsumables。 Theprimaryphysicalcharacteristicsofacountry，alsoofcourse，affectwithvaryingdegreesofurgencythoseelementsinastandardofconsumptionnotdirectlyendowedwithstrongsurvivalvalue，thosewhichwecallconveniences，comforts，luxuries。Themodesandmaterialsofbodilyadornment，thestylesofdomesticandotherarchitecture，religiousceremonies，formsofrecreation，willevidentlybedeterminedinadirectmannerbyclimaticandotherphysicalconsiderations。 Recentcivilisation，withitsrapidextensivespreadofcommunications，anditsequallyrapidandvariousexpansionoftheartsofindustry，hasbroughtaboutaninterferencewiththisnaturaleconomywhichhasdangersaswellasadvantages。Theswiftexpansionofcommercebringsgreatquantitiesoffoodsandotherconsumablesfromremotecountries，andplacesthematthedisposalofpopulationsunderconditionswhichgivenoadequatesecurityfororganicutilityofconsumption。Underaneconomyofnaturalselectionexoticsarebyrightsuspect，atanyrateuntiltimehastriedthem。Theincorporationofarticlessuchasteaandtobaccoinourpopularconsumptionhastakenplaceunderconditionswhichaffordnoproperguaranteeoftheirindividualutility，oragainstthebadreactionstheymaycauseinthewholecomplexstandardsofconsumption。 Thebackstrokeofthiscommercialexpansionisseeninsuchoccurrencesasthedeforestationofgreattractsofcountryandthealterationoftheclimaticcharacter，withitseffectsuponthelivesoftheinhabitants。 Butthoughcertainerrorsandwastesattendtheseprocessesofcommercialismandindustrialism，theymustnotbeexaggerated。Thereisnoreasontoholdthatmankindingeneralhasbeensodeeplyandfirmlyspecialisedinneedsandsatisfactionsbylocalphysicalconditionsthathecannotadvantageouslyavailhimselfofthematerialproductsofawiderenvironment。 Thoughthedigestiveandassimilativeapparatusmaynotbesoadaptableasthebrain，thereisnogroundforholdingthatconformityduringmanygenerationstoaparticularformofdietprecludestheeasyadoptionofexoticelementsoftencontainingbetterfood-propertiesinmoreassimilableforms。AChinesepopulation，habituatedtorice，canquicklyrespondinhigherphysicalefficiencytoawheatdiet，noristhefactthatbananasareatropicalfruitdetrimentaltotheirvalueasfoodforLondoners。 Howfarthepurelyempiricalwayinwhichfoodsandotherelementsinanecessarystandardhavebeenevolvedcanbeadvantageouslycorrectedorsupplementedbyscientifictests，isaquestionremainingfordiscussionaftertheotherfactorsinstandardsofconsumptionhavebeenbroughtunderinspection。 §；2。Industrialconditions，themselvesofcourselargelydeterminedbyphysicalenvironment，affectclassandindividualconsumptioninveryobviousways。Eachoccupationimposesontheworker，andindirectlyuponallthemembersofhisfamily，certainmethodsofliving。Physiologicallawsprescribemanyofthosemethods。Aparticularsortofoutputofmuscularornervousenergydemandsaparticularsortofdiettoreplacetheexpenditure。 Theproperdietofanagriculturallabourer，amilloperativeandaminer，willhavecertainrecogniseddifferences。Muscularandmental，activeandsedentary，monotonousandinterestingwork，willinvolvedifferentamountsandsortsofnourishment，anddifferentexpendituresforleisureoccupations。 Thesedifferenceswillextendbothtothenecessariesandthehigherelementsinstandardsofconsumption。Industrialrequirementswillstampthemselveswithmoreorlessforceandexactitudeuponeachoccupation。Ananalysisofbudgetswouldshowthatthestandardoftheclergymanwasnotthatofthemerchantorevenofthedoctor，andthatthesamefamilyincomewouldbedifferentlyapplied。Thestockbrokerwillnotlivelikethemill-owner，northejournalistliketheshopkeeper。Sorightthroughthevariousgradesofworkers。Theskilledmechanic，thefactoryhand，therailwayman，theclerk，theshop-assistant，thelabourer，willallhavetheirrespectivestandards，mouldedormodifiedbytheconditionsoftheirwork:theirneedsandtastesforfood，clothing，recreation，etc。，willbeaffectedinsubtlewaysbythatwork。 \'Productive\'consumptionisthetermgivenbyclassicalpoliticaleconomytothatportionofconsumptionappliedsoastomaintainorimprovetheefficiencyoflabour-powerintheworkerandhisfamily。Necessariesalonewereheldabsolutelyproductive，conveniencesandcomfortsweredubious，luxurieswereunproductive。Regardedevenfromthecommercialstandpoint，itwasashallowanalysis，confinedtoapresentutilisationofimmediatelyusefulcommodities，andignoringthereactionsuponfutureproductivityofariseineducationandrefinement。Itbelongedtoanagebeforetheeconomyofhighwagesorthemoralstimuliofhopeandanintelligentoutlookuponlifehadwonanyconsiderablerecognitionas\'productive\'stimuli。 Butfromthestandpointofouranalysisthedefectofthistreatmentisadeeperone。Forusthedistinctionbetweenproductiveandunproductiveconsumptionisasfundamentalasintheoldereconomictheory。Thedifferenceliesintheconceptionofthe\'product\'thatistogiveameaningto\'productive\'。 Productiveconsumption，accordingtotheoldereconomictheory，wasmeasuredbytheyieldofeconomicproductivity，accordingtoourtheorybytheyieldofvitalwelfare。Thetwonotmerelyarenotidentical，theymayoftenbeconflictingvalues。 Adietproductiveofgreatmuscularenergyforanavvy，foundrymanordrayman，mayproduceacoarsetypeofanimalismwhichprecludestheformationofahighernervousstructureandthefinerqualitiesofcharacterthatareitsspiritualcounterpart。Theindustrialconditionsofmanyproductiveemploymentsarenotoriouslysuchastoimpairthephysiqueandthemuscleoftheworkersengagedinthem，andthereisnogroundforassumingthatthehabitsofconsumption，conducingtoincreasedproductivityinsuchtrades，carryanynetfreightofhumanutility。 Norisitonlyinmanuallabourthattheindustrialinfluencesmouldingastandardofconsumptionmaydamageitshumanquality。Muchsedentaryintellectualworkinvolvessimilarlyinjuriousreactionsuponmodesofliving。Thephysicalabusesofathleticism，stimulantsanddrugs，areveryprevalentresultsofdisorderedcompetitioninintellectualemployments。 But，asbadelementsinstandardsofexpenditure，theintellectualexcesses，thefatuousordegradingformsofliterature，drama，art，music，whichthislifegenerates，areperhapsevenmoreinjurious。Oneoftheheaviesthumancostsofanover-intellectuallifetodayisits\'culture\'。 §；3。Whenwecometo\'conventional\'elementsinstandardsofcomfort，weenteraregionwhichappearstoadmitanindefiniteamountofwasteanderror。 Theveryterm\'conventional\'，setasitisinoppositionto\'natural\'，indeed，suggestsanabsenceoforganicutility。Wehearof\'conventionalnecessaries\'eveninthelowestlevelsofworking-classexpenditure。I presumethattheexpenditureinbeer，tobacco，uponspreesorfunerals，orupondecorativeclothing，wouldbeplacedinthiscategory。 Fromthepurelyeconomicstandpointsuchexpenditurehasbeenaccountedeitherwaste，or，evenworse，\'disutility\'。 Itisoftenarguedthatalabouringfamilyon21s。perweekcouldbekeptinphysicalefficiency，ifeverypennywereexpendedeconomicallyinobtaining\'organicvalue\'。Thisistheidealofacertainorderofadvocatesofthriftandtemperance。Wholegenerationsofeconomistshaveaccumulatedeasyvirtuebypreachingthisrigorouseconomyfortheworking-classes。 Ithasalwaysseemedpossibletosqueezeoutofthestandardofanyworking-classenoughoftheconventionalorsuperfluoustojustifytheopinionthatmostofthemiseryofthepooristheirownfault，inthesensethat，iftheymadeacompletelyrationaluseoftheirwages，theycouldsupportthemselvesindecency。Theamountspentbytheworkersondrinkalonewould，itisoftencontended，makeampleprovisionagainstmostoftheworstemergenciesofworking-classlife。 Nowthereareseveralcommentstobemadeonthisattitudetowardsconventionalexpenditure。1。Asoneascendsabovetheprimaryorganicneeds，theevolutionofdesiresbecomeslessreliableandmorecomplicated:theelementofwillandchoiceandthereforeofchoosingbadly，becomeslarger。 Somecondimentsareusefulforassistingthedigestionofprimaryfoods，butitiseasiertomakemistakesincondimentsthaninstaplefoods。Sowithallthehigherandmorecomplexwants。Asonerisesabovetheprimerequisitesandconveniences，organicinstincts，ortastesdirectlydependentonthem，playadiminishingpartasfaithfuldirectorsofconsumption。 Thisnaturalguidancedoesnotindeeddisappear。Theevolutionofahumanbeingwithfinernervousstructure，andwithhigherintellectualandmoralneedsanddesiresrelatedtothatstructure，isafairlycontinuousprocess。 Thefinestandbest-balancednaturesthuscarryintotheirmorecomplexmodesofsatisfactionatruepsycho-physicalstandardofutility。Butitisalreadyadmittedthattheliabilitytogowrongisfargreaterinthosemodesofexpenditurewhicharenotdirectlycontributorytosurvival。Thisisthecase，whetherindividualtastesorsomeacceptedconventiondeterminestheexpenditure。 Thisissogenerallyrecognisedthatitislikelythattheorganicutilityofpersonaltastesontheonehand，customandconventionontheother，hasbeenundulydisparaged。Thetemperofeconomistsinassessingvalueshasbeentooshort-sightedandtooinelastic。Agooddealofpersonalexpenditurethatiswastefulorworsewhentakenonitsseparatemeritsmaybejustifiedasarudeexperimentalprocessbywhichapersonlearnswisdomandfindshissoul。Whatistrueofcertainfreakishpersonalconductisprobablytruealsoofthoseconventionalpractices，inwhichwholesocietiesorclassesconducttheircollectiveexperimentsintheartofliving。 Atoorigorouseconomy，whetherdirectedbyinstinctorreason，whichshouldrulewithminuteexactitudetheexpenditureofindividualsorsocieties，inordertoextractfromallexpenditureofincomethemaximumofseenutilities，wouldbeboundtosinagainstthatlawofprogresswhichdemandsanadequateprovisionfortheseexperimentalprocessesinlifewhich，takenbythemselves，appearsowasteful。 Socialpsychologybringsamoreliberalandsympatheticunderstandingtobearuponsomeofthepracticeswhichtoashortsightedeconomistappearmerewastefulextravagance，destituteofutilityanddisplacingsomeimmediatelyserviceableconsumption。Letmetakesomenotableexamplesfromcurrentworking-classexpenditure。Thelavishexpenditureuponbank-holidays，inwhichlargeclassesofwage-earners\'blow\'alargeproportionofanysurplustheypossessbeyondthesubsistencewage，isthesubjectofcausticcriticismbythriftymiddle-classfolk。Butmaynotthisholidayspirit，withacertainabandonitcontains，beregardedasa\'natural\'andevenwholesomereactionagainstthecrampingpressureofroutineindustrialismandthenormalrigourofaclosedomesticeconomy？Itmaynot，indeed，beanideallygoodmodeofreaction，mayevencontainelementsofpositivedetriment，andyetmaybetheventforvaluableorganicinstinctsseekingafterthosequalitiesoffreedom，joyandpersonaldistinctionthatareessentialtoalifeworthliving。1 Ortakethegravestofalldefectsofworking-classexpenditure，thedrink-bill。Thiscraving，hostileasitistothephysicalandmorallifeofman，isnotunderstood，andthereforecannotbeeffectivelyeradicated，unlessdueaccountistakenofcertainemotionalimplications。Theyieldingtodrinkisnotmerebrutality。Brutesdonotdrink。Itisinsomeparttheresponsetoaninstincttoescapefromtheimprisonmentinanarrowcrampingenvironmentwhichaffordsnoscopeforaspirationandachievement。 Itmayindeedbesaidthatthedrinkerdoesnotaspireanddoesnotachieve。 Heisdoubtlessthevictimofanillusion。Butitisacertaindimsenseofahigherfreerlifethatlureshimon。\'Elevation\'iswhatissought。 \'KingsmaybeblessedbutTamwasgloriousO\'era\'theillso\'lifevictorious。\' Ortakestillanotheritemofworking-classexpenditurefrequentlycondemnedasatypicalexampleofextravagance，therelativelylargeexpenseoffunerals。 Isthistobedismissedoffhandasmerewantonwaste？Amorehumaninterpretationwillfindinitotherelementsofmeaning。Intheordinarylifeof\'thecommonpeople\'thereislittlescopeforthatpersonaldistinctionwhichamongtheupperclassesfindsexpressioninsomanyways。Thequietworking-manorwomanhasneverforabriefhourthroughalonglifetimestoodoutamonghisfellows，orgatheredroundhimthesympatheticattentionofhisneighbours。 Isitwhollyunintelligibleorregrettablethatthosewhocareforhimshouldwishtogivethisnarrow，thwarted，obscurepersonalityamomentofdignityandglory？Thesumoflifeisaddedupinthispompofreckoning，andthefamilyisgatheredintoafocusofneighbourlyattentionandgood-feeling，theoutwardemblemsofhonouraredisplayed，andawholerangeofhumanemotionsfindsexpression。Suchexcessasexistsmustbeunderstoodasanaturalfruitofthoseaspiringqualitiesofpersonalitywhich，thwartedintheirnaturalandhealthygrowthbynarrownessofopportunity，cravethistraditionaloutlet。 Infact，themorecloselywestudytheconventionalfactorsinconsumption，thelessareweabletodismissthemoutofhandasmereextravaganceorwaste。Someorganicimpulse，halfphysical，halfpsychical，nearlyalwaysentersintoeventheleastdesirableelements。Amarginofexpenditure，eitherconventionalorexpressingindividualcaprice，2whichservestoevokepleasure，tostirinterest，andabovealltosatisfyasenseofpersonaldignity，eventhoughattheexpenseofsomemoreobviousandimmediateutilities，maybejustifiedbyconsiderationsofindividualandsocialprogress。 §；4。Suchconsiderationsmustnot，however，bepressedveryfarinthedefenceevenofthemostfirmly-rootedelementsofconventionalconsumption。For，thoughthedeeperorganicforceswhichworkthrough\'naturalselection\'musteliminatetheworstormostinjuriousmodesofexpenditurefromthepermanentstandardofaraceorclass，itmayleaveelementsfraughtwithgravedanger。Forneithertheanimalnorthespiritualnatureofmanisequippedwithaselectiveapparatusfortestingaccuratelyforpurposesoforganicwelfaretheinnumerablefreshapplicantsfor\'consumption\'whichappearastheevolutionofwants，ontheonehand，andofindustriesupontheother，becomesmorecomplexandmorerapid。 Anextremeinstancewillenforcemymeaning。TotakeaRedIndianoraBantufromanaturalandsocialenvironmentrelativelysimpleandstaple，andtoplungehimsuddenlyintotheswirlofamodernWesterncitylifeistocourtphysicalandmoraldisaster。Why？Becausethepressuresofanimaldesiresortheemotionsofprideandcuriosity，whichwererelatedbyeffective\'taboos\'intheprimitivelifefromwhichheisdrawn，nowworktheirwillunchecked。Forthe\'taboos\'ofcivilisedsocietyarebothill-adaptedtotheemotionaltextureofhisnature，andintheirnoveltyandcomplexityarenotadequatelycomprehended。Butevenforthosebornandbredintheenvironmentofarapidlychangingcivilisationthereareevidentlygreathazards。Notonlyindividualbutwidelycollectiveexperimentsinnoveltiesofconsumptionwilloftenbeinjurious。Thismaybeexplainedinthefirstinstanceasduetotheperversionordefectiveworkingofthe\'instincts\'originallydesignedtoprotectandpromotethelifeoftheindividualandthespecies。 Ananimallivinguponwhatmaybetermedunmodifiednatureispossessedofinstinctswhichmakepoisonousplantsoranimalsrepellenttoitstaste。 Amanlivinginahighlymodifiedenvironmentfindssuchshredsofinstinctivetastesashepossessesinadequatetotheriskofrejectingthefabricatedfoodsbroughtfromremotequartersoftheearthtotempthisappetite。 Ifthisholdsofarticlesoffood，whereerrorsmaybemortalandwheresomeprotection，howeverinsufficient，isstillfurnishedbythepalateandthestomach，stillmoredoesitholdofthe\'higher\'tastescomparativelyrecentlyimplantedincivilisedman。\'Badtastes\'thusmayintroducetheuseofbooksorartthatdisturbthemindwithoutinformingit，recreationsthatdistractanddissipateourpowerswithoutrecreatingandrestoringthem。Nordoesthe\'socialorganism\'furnishreliablecheckswhichshallstopthespreadofindividualerrorsintoconventionalconsumption。 §；5。Thequestionofindividualerrorsandwastesintheprocessofevolvingstandardsofconsumptionmustnotdetainus。Forthoughitrightlyfallswithinthescopeofafullyelaboratedvaluationofconsumption，itmustnotbeallowedtointrudeintoourmoremodestendeavourtodiscusstheseveralgradesofwantswhichcompriseaclassstandardofconsumption。 Therelativesizeofthewastesordefectsoftheconventionalfactorsinaclassstandardwillnotindeeddependuponthemereadditionoftheperversionoftheseparatechoicesofitsindividuals。Foraconventionisnotproducedbyamerecoincidenceofseparateactionsofindividualdesire。 Itmaybewellheretoreverttothedistinctionwhichwefoundconvenienttoemployinouranalysisofthehumanvalueofdifferentformsofwork，viz。，thedistinctionbetweencreationandimitation。Hereitwilltakeshapeinanenquiryastothewaysinwhichnewwantsarediscoveredandpassintoconventionaluse。Letustakeforanexamplethecaseofamedicinewhichhasbecomearecognisedremedyforadisease。Amonganimalsor\'primitive\' manthehabitofeatingacurativeherbmayberegardedasduetoanorganicinstinctcommontoeachmemberoftheherdorgroup。Suchconsumption，however，wouldnotreallyfallwithinthecategoryofour\'conventionalconsumption\'。Itwouldineffectbeconfinedtoalimitednumberofarticlescontainingstrongelementsof\'survivalvalue\'，inapre-economicperiod，though，assoonastribalsocietybegantoevolvethemedicineman，hisprescriptionswouldaddmanyelementsofwasteanderror。Buttheconsumableswhoseoriginwearenowconsideringmustberegardedasinvolvinginventionordiscovery，andconsciousimitationoradoptionbythegroup。Unlesswesupposethatthechewingofcinchonabarkhadabackingofinstinctiveadaptation，andsopassedbytraditionintolateragesofIndianlife，wemustholdthatthefirstbeginningsoftheuseofquinineasacureforintermittentfeversinSouthAmericaweredueeithertochanceortoearlyempiricismintreatment。 Someperson，probablyenjoyingdistinctioninhistribe，triedcinchonabarkandrecoveredofhisfever，otherstriedituponthisexampleandgotbenefit，andsothefameoftheremedyspreadfirstfromasinglecentre，andafterwardsfromanumberofotherpersonalcentresbyconsciousimitation。Or，similarly，taketheadoptionofsomearticleofdiet，suchassugarortobacco，whichisanelementnotofprimephysicalutilitybutofcomfortorpleasure。Thefirstmenwhochewedthesugar-cane，ortriedthefumesoftheherbanicotina，mustbedeemedtohavedoneso\'byaccident\'。Likingtheresult，theyrepeatedtheexperimentbydesign，andthispersonalhabitbecomethecustomaryhabitofthegroup，mouldedbyatraditioncontinuouslysupportedbyarepetitionofthefeelingwhichattendedthefirstchanceexperience。 Suchaccretionstoastandardofconsumptionmayberegardedaspossessingguaranteesofutilityorsafeguardsagainststrongpositivedisutilityintheirmethodofadoption。Theyhavegrownintotheconventionalstandard\'ontheirmerits\'。Those\'merits\'mayindeedbevariouslyestimatedfromthe\'organic\'standpoint。Quininehasahighorganicvirtue，sugarperhapsanevenwiderbutlessvitalvirtue，whilethevirtueoftobaccomaybepurelysuperficialandcompensatedbyconsiderableorganicdemerits。Butbothdiscoveryandpropagationhavebeeninallthesecases\'natural\'and\'reasonable\'processes，intheplainordinaryacceptationoftheseterms。 Someactualutilityhasbeendiscoveredandrecognised，andnewarticlesthusincorporatedinastandardofconsumption，eitherforregularorspecialuse，haveatanyratesatisfiedapreliminarytestoforganicwelfare。 Ifallnewhabitsofconsumptionaroseinthisfashion，andthepreliminarytestcouldbeconsideredthoroughlyreliable，theeconomyoftheevolutionofstandardsofconsumptionwouldbeasafeandsoundone。Thishypothesisinitsveryformindicatestheseverallinesoferrordiscernibleintheactualevolutionofclassstandards。Afalsificationofthestandard，involvingtheadmissionofwastefulorpositivelynoxiousconsumables，mayarise，eitherintheinitialstageofinvention，orintheprocessofimitativeadoption。Thiswilloccurwherevertheinitialortheimitativeprocessisvitiatedbyanextraneousmotive。Averysmallproportionofmedicinesincustomaryuseamongprimitivepeopleshavetheorganicvalidityofquinine。 Mostofthemare\'charms\'，inventedbymedicinemen，notastheresulteitherofachanceorplannedexperiment，butastheworkofanimaginationoperatinguponthelinesofanempiricalpsychology，inwhichtherelationoftheactualorknownpropertiesofthemedicinetowardsthediseaseplaynoappreciablepart。 Soawholemagicalpharmacopoeiawillbeerecteduponabasisoftotemistandanimistbeliefs，mingledwithcircumstantialmisconceptionsandgratuitousfabrications，andcontainingnoorganicutility。Eachadditionorvariantwillbeginasanartificialinventionandwillbeadoptedforreasonsofprestige，authorityorfear，carryingnoneofthatorganicconfirmationwhichsecureditspositionforquinine。Thelimitoferrorinsuchcaseswillbethatthemedicinemustnotfrequentlycauseaseriousandimmediateaggravationofthesufferingofthepatient。Thepatentor\'conventional\' medicinesamongcivilisedpeoplesmustbeconsideredinthemainascontainingafalsificationofstandardofthesamekind，thoughdifferentindegree。 Astheprimitivemedicineman，calledupontocureafeveroradrought，isprimarilymotivedbythedesiretomaintainorenhancehispersonalorcasteprestige，whiletheadoptionofhisspecificintoaconventionisduetoawhollyirrationalauthorityortoawhollyaccidentalsuccess，soisitwithalargeproportionofmodernremedies。Evenintheorthodoxbranchesofthemedicalprofessiontheprocessofconvertingvagueempiricismintoscientificexperimenthasgonesuchalittlewayastofurnishnoguaranteeforthefullorganicefficacyofmanyofthetreatmentsuponwhichthepatientpublicspendsanincreasingshareofitsincome。Butasregardstheprofessionthereisatanyratesomebasisofconfidenceinthedisinterestedapplicationofsciencetothediscoveryofgenuineorganicutility。 Inthepatentmedicinetradethereisverylittle。Herewehaveaconditionverylittlebetterthanthatofthepowerofthewitch-doctorinprimitivesociety。Themaxim\'caveatemptor\'carriesvirtuallynosecurity，fortheguidanceofthepalateisruledout，whilethetestofexperience，exceptforpurgationorforsomeequallysimpleandimmediateresult，isnearlyworthless。 §；6。Whentheinventionandpropagationofamodeofconsumptionhavepassedintothehandsofatrade，theguaranteesoforganicutility，thechecksagainstorganicinjury，areattheirweakest。Forneitherprocessisdirected，eitherbyinstinctorreason，alongserviceablechannels。 Wherethecommercialmotivetakestheinitiative，therecanbenoadequatesecuritythatthearticleswhichpassasnewelementsintoastandardofconsumptionshallbewealth，notillth。Whereaninventionisstimulatedtomeetagenuinely\'long-feltneed\'，thegeneralityanddurationofthatneedmaybeafairguaranteeofutility。Butthisisnotthecasewherethesupplyprecedesandevokesthedemand，themoreusualcaseunderdevelopedcommercialism。Neitherintheactionoftheinventor，norinthespreadofthenewhabitofconsumption，isthereanysafegaugeofutility。Theinventor，orcommercialinitiator，isonlyconcernedwiththequestion，CanImakeandsellasufficientquantityofthisarticleataprofit？ Inordertodoso，itistrue，hemustpersuadeenoughbuyersthatthey\'want\'thearticleand\'want\'itmorethansomeotherarticlesonwhichtheyotherwisemightspendtheirmoney。Tounreflectingpersonsthis，nodoubt，appearsasufficienttestofutility。Butisit？Thepurchasermustbemadetofeelorthinkthatthearticleis\'good\'forhimatthetimewhenitisbroughtbeforehisnotice。Forthispurposeitmustbeendowedwithsomespeciouslyattractiveproperty，orrecommendedaspossessingsuchaproperty。Acheapmercerisedcottoncloth，manufacturedtosimulatesilk，sellsbyitsinherentsuperficialattraction。Anewlineindrapery\'pushed\'intousebytherepeatedstatement，falseatthebeginning，that\'itisworn\'，illustratesthesecondmethod。 Inaword，theartsofthemanufacturerandofthevendor，whichhavenodirectrelationwhatevertointrinsicutility，overcomeandsubjugatetheuncertain，untrainedor\'artificially\'pervertedtasteoftheconsumer。Thusitarisesthatinacommercialsocietyeverystandardofclasscomfortiscertaintocontainlargeingredientsofuselessornoxiousconsumption，articles，notonlybadinthemselves，butoftenpoisoningordistortingthewholestandard。 Theartsofadulterationandofadvertisingareofcourseresponsibleformanyoftheworstinstances。Askilledcombinationofthetwoprocesseshassucceededincancellingthehumanvalueofaverylargeproportionofthenewincrementsofmoneyincomeinthelowermiddleandtheworking-classes，whereagrowingsusceptibilitytonewdesiresisaccompaniedbynointelligentchecksupontheplayofinterestedsuggestionastothemodesofsatisfyingthesedesires。 Wherespeciousfabricationandstrongskilledsuggestioncooperatetoplantnewingredientsinastandardofconsumption，thereisthusnosecurityastotheamountofutilityordisutilityattachingtothe\'realincome\'representedbythese\'goods\'。Butthisvitiationofstandardsisnotequallyapplicabletoallgradesofconsumption，ortoallclassesofconsumers。Somekindsofgoodswillbeeasiertofalsifyortoadulteratethanothers，someclassesofconsumerswillbeeasierto\'imposeupon\' thanothers。Theseconsiderationswillsetlimitsupontheamountofwasteand\'illth\'containedinthegoodsandserviceswhichcompriseourrealincome。 First，astotheartsoffalsification。Severallawsoflimitationhereemerge。Somematerials，suchasgoldandrubber，havenoeasilyprocurableandcheapersubstitutesforcertainuses。Othergoodsareinsomeconsiderabledegreeprotectedfromimitationandadulterationbythesurvivalofreliabletestsandtastes，touchandsight，inlargenumbersofconsumers。Thisappliestosimplersortsofgoodswhoseconsumptionisdeepestinthestandardandhasastrongbasisofvitalutility。Itwillbemoredifficulttoadulteratebreadorplainsugartoanylargeextentthansaucesorsweets。Itwillbeeasiertofakephotographsthantopassoffplaiceforsoles。Butitcannotbeassertedasageneraltruththatthenecessariesarebetterdefendedagainstencroachmentsofadulterationandothermodesofdeceptionthanconveniences，andconveniencesthanluxuries。Indeed，therearetwoconsiderationsthattelltheotherway。 Amanufacturerormerchantwhocanpalmoffacheapersubstituteforsomecommonnecessaryoflife，orsomewell-establishedconvenience，hasadoubletemptationtodoso。For，inthefirstplace，themagnitudeandreliabilityofthedemandmakethefalsificationunusuallyprofitable。Inthesecondplace，sofarasalargeproportionofarticlesareconcerned，hecanrelyuponthefactthatmostconsumptionofnecessariesliesbelowthemarginofclearattentionandcriticism。Exceptinthecaseofcertainprimearticlesofdiet，itisprobablethataconsumerismorelikelytodetectsomechangeofqualityinthelatestluxuryaddedtohisstandardthaninthehabitualarticlesofdailyuse，suchashisshoe-leatherorhissoap。Infact，sowellrecognisedisthisprotectionaffordedtothesellerbytheunconsciousnesswhichhabitbringstotheconsumer，that，incateringforquitenewhabits，suchascerealbreakfastfoodsorcigarettes，themanufacturerwaitsuntiltheoriginalattractionsofhisgoodshavestampedthemselvesfirmlyincustomaryuse，beforehedarestolowerthequalityorreducethequantity。 Theseconsiderationsmakeitunlikelythatwecandiscoveraclearlawexpressingtheinjuryofcommercialismintermsofthegreaterorlessorganicurgencyofthewantsministeredtobythedifferentordersofcommodities。 Itwillevenbedifficulttoascertainwhethertheartsofadulterationorfalsesubstitutionplaymorehavocamongthenecessariesthanamongtheluxuriesoflife。Inneitheristhereanyadequatesafeguardfortheorganicworthofthearticlesboughtandsold，thoughinboththeremustbeheldtobeacertainpresumptionfavourabletosomeorganicsatisfactionattendingtheimmediateactofconsumption。Ifa\'law\'offalsificationcanbefoundatall，itismorelikelytoemergefromacomparativestudynotofnecessaries，conveniences，comfortsandluxuries，inaclassstandard，butofthevarioussortsofsatisfactionsclassifiedinrelationtotheneedswhichunderliethem。Wheregoodsareconsumedassoonastheyarebought，andbysomeprocessinvolvingastrongappealtothesenses，thereislesschanceforvulgarfraudthanwhereconsumptionisgradualorpostponed，andisnotattendedbyanymomentofvividrealisation。Otherthingsequal，onemightexpectmoreeasilytosellshoddyclothingthansimilarlydamagedfood:theadulterationofajerry-builthouseislesseasilydetected，orlessadequatelyreprobated，thanthatofajerry-builtsuitofclothes。 Alongsimilarlineswemight，inconsideringnon-materialconsumption，urgethattherearemoresafeguardsforutilityintheexpenditureuponbooksormusic-hallperformancesthanuponeducationorchurchmembership。 Andinasensethisistrue。IfIbuyabookorattendaconcert，IamsurertogetwhatIregardasaquidproquoformyexpenditurethaninthecaseofaprolongedprocessinvolvingmanysmallconsecutiveacts。 Sofarasthisistrue，itmeansthatrelicsoforganicguidancearemoretrulyoperativeinsomekindsofsatisfactionthaninothers，andfurnishsomebettercheckuponthedeceptionwhichcommercialismmayseektopractise。But，ofcourse，ourvaluationofsuchcheckswilldependuponhowfarwecanacceptthemasreliabletests，notofsomeshort-rangeimmediatesatisfaction，butofthewiderindividualandsocialwelfare。Thefactthatsomanynotoriouslybadhabitscanbeacquiredbyreasonofanimmediate\'organic\'attractivenessthatisafalsecluetothelargerwelfare，mustputusonourguardagainstacceptinganyeasylawbasedonthetestof\'natural\'tastes。 §；7。But，inconsideringthedegradationofstandardsofconsumption，itiswelltobringsomecloseranalysistobearupontheprocessesofsuggestionandadoptionthatarecomprisedin\'imitation\'。Inanalysingtheformsofwealth，thegoodsandservices，whicharetherealincomeofthenation，intermsoftheirproduction，werecognisedthat，otherthingsequal，thehumancostofanybodyofthatwealthvarieddirectlywiththeamountofroutineorpurelyimitativeworkputintoit，andinverselywiththeamountofcreativeorindividualwork。Thatjudgment，however，wefeltboundtoqualifybytheconsiderationthatacertainproportionofroutinework，thoughinitselfperhapsdistastefulanduninteresting，hadanorganicvaluebothfortheindividualandforsociety。 HowfarcanweapplyananalogousjudgmenttothesamebodyofWealthonitsconsumptionside？Canweassumethattheutilityofconsumptionofanygivenbodyofwealthvariesdirectlywiththeamountoffreepersonalexpressionwhichitsuseconnotes，andinverselywiththeroutineorconventionalcharacteritbears？Evidentlynot。Thesameanalysisdoesnotapply。Thechiefreasonforthedifferencehasalreadybeenindicated，bypointingoutthat，inamodernindustrialsociety，eachman，asproducer，ishighlyspecialised，asconsumerhighlygeneralised。Thehighhumancostsofroutineworkwere，wesaw，adirectresultofthisspecialisingprocess。Alittleroutineworkofseveralsorts，regularlypractised，wouldinvolvenoorganiccost，andmightindeedyieldafundofpositiveutilityasawholesomeré；gimeofexercise，provideditwasnotcarriedsofarastoencroachuponthefundofenergyneededfortheperformanceofotherspecialwork，creativeandinteresting。 Indeed，theusualeconomicjustificationoftheexcessivedivisionoflabourexistingatpresentinadvancedindustrialsocietiesisthatitisessentialtoyieldthatlargebodyofobjectivewealthwhich，byitsdistribution，enrichesandgivesvarietytotheconsumptionofallmembersofthesociety。Theproducerissacrificedtotheconsumer，thedamagedonetoeachmaninhisformercapacitybeingmorethancompensatedbythebenefitsconferreduponhiminhislattercapacity。 Thefullvalidityofthisdoctrinewillbeconsideredwhenwegathertogetherthetwosidesofouranalysisandconsidertheinter-relationsbetweenproductionandconsumptionasanaspectoftheproblemofhumanvalues。 Atpresentwemaybeginbyacceptingvarietyofconsumptionasaconditioninitselffavourabletothemaximisationofhumanwelfare。 Thisassumptionisnot，however，quiteself-evident。Theroutinefactorsinastandardofconsumption(andastandardquastandardconsistsofroutine)，sofarastheyarelaiddownunderthedirectionofaninstinctiveorarationalevolutionofwants，mustberegardedascontainingaminimumofwasteordisutility。Sincetheyarealsothefoundationandtheindispensableconditionforallthe\'higher\'formsofmaterialornon-materialconsumptioninwhichtheconsciouspersonalityofindividualsfindsexpression，theymaybeheldtocontainperunitamaximumofhumanvalue。Fromthisstandpointtherewouldseemtoemergealawoftheeconomyofconsumption，totheeffectthatthemaximumofsocialwelfarewouldbegotfromadistributionofwealthwhichabsorbedtheentireproductinthisroutinesatisfactionofthecommonneedsoflife。Thiseconomyneednotbeconceivedmerelyintermsofauniformstandardofmaterialsatisfactions。Awiderinterpretationoflifeandofnecessariesmightextenditsoastocovermanyhighergradesofsatisfaction，allthe\'joysthatareinwidestcommonaltyspread。\'Thenaturalevolutionofsuchaneconomyofconsumptionmight，itisarguable，yieldthegreatestquantityofsocialwelfare。 §；8。Butahighuniformlevelofwelfarethroughoutsocietydoesnotexhaustthedemandsofhumanwelfare。Itevidentlyoverstressesthelifeofthesocialasagainsttheindividualorganism，imposingaregimenofequalitywhichabsorbsthemanyintotheone。Now，desiroustoholdthebalancefairbetweentheclaimsofindividualpersonalityandofsociety，wecannotacquiesceinanidealofeconomicalconsumptionwhichmakesnodirectprovisionfortheformer。Sofar，however，astheconsumptionofanindividualisofaroutinecharacter，expressingonlytheneedsofahumannatureheldincommonwithhisfellows，itdoesnotreallyexpresshisindividualityatall。Therealisationoftheuniquevaluesofhispersonality，andtheconscioussatisfactionthatproceedsfromthisindividualexpression，canonlybegotbyactivitieswhichliebeyondthescopeofcustomandconvention。Thoughthisissuehasmostimportantbearingsthatareoutsidetheeconomicfield，itisalsovitallyconnectedwiththeuseofeconomicgoods。For，unlessadueproportionofthegeneralincome(theaggregateofgoodsandservices)isplacedatthefreedisposalofindividualsinsuchformsastonourishandstimulatethewholesomeandjoyousexpansionoftheirpowers，thatsocialprogresswhichfirstmanifestsitselfinthefreeexperimentalandcreativeactionsofindividualswhosenaturesvaryinsomefineandserviceablewayfromthecommonlife，willbethwarted。 Thisbringsustoabetterunderstandingofthenatureandoriginofthehumaninjuryandwastecontainedinlargesectionsofthatconventionalconsumptionwhichplayssolargeandsodepressingapartineveryclassstandardofcomfort。 Wheretheproductionofaneconomicsocietyhasgrownsofarastoyieldaconsiderableandagrowingsurplusbeyondthatrequiredforsurvivalpurposes，thissurplusisliabletoseveralabuses。Insteadofbeingappliedasfoodandstimulustothephysicalandspiritualgrowthofindividualandsociallife，itmaybesquandered，eitheruponexcessivesatisfactionofexistingroutinewantsinanyclassorclasses，orinthestimulationandsatisfactionofmoreroutinewantsandtheevolutionofacomplexconventionalstandardofconsumption，containinginitsnewfactorsadiminishingamountofhumanutilityorevenanincreasingamountofhumancosts。Iftheindustrialstructureissuchthatparticulargroupsofbusinessmencanmakeprivategainsbystimulatingnewwastefulmodesofconventionalconsumption，thisprocess，aswehaveseen，isgreatlyfacilitated。 But，afterall，thebusinessmotiveisnotinitselfanadequateexplanation。 Businessfirmssuggestnewwants，butthesusceptibilitytosuchsuggestions，theactiveimitationbywhichanewarticlepassesintotheconventionalconsumptionofagrouporclass，requirescloserconsideration。Falsificationofastandardcanseldombeunderstoodasamereperversionofthefreechoiceofindividuals。Aconventionisnotproducedbyamerecoincidenceofseparatechoices。Imitationplaysanimportantpartinthecontagionandinfectionofexample。Inendeavouringtoassessthehumanutilityoftheconsumptionofwealthweseetheplayofseveralimitativeforces。 CurrentPrestige，Tradition，Authority，Fashion，Respectabilitysupplementoroftendisplacetheplayofindividualtaste，goodorbad，inmouldingaclassandfamilystandardofconsumption。Thepsychologyandsociologyofthesedistinctivelyimitativeforceswhichformorchangestandardsareexceedinglyobscure。 Themerelygregariousinstinctmayleadtothespreadinaclassorgroupofanynoveltywhichattractsattentionandisnotoffensive。Wheresupportedbyanyelementofpersonalprestige，suchnovelty，irrespectiveofitsrealvirtuesoruses，mayspreadandbecomeembeddedinastandardofconsumption。Thebeginningsofeveryfashionlargelybelongtothisorderofimitation。Someprestigeisusuallyneededfairlytolaunchanewfashion；oncelauncheditspreadsmainlyby\'gregariousness\'，theinstincttobe，orlook，oract，likeotherpeople。Thelimitsoferror，disutilityorinconvenience，whichcanbesetuponanoveltyoffashion，appeartodependmainlyupontheinitialforceofprestige。TheKingmightintroduceintoLondonsocietyareallyinconvenienthighhat，thoughtheQueenperhapscouldnotcarryafullrevivalofthecrinoline。 Fashionschangebuttheyleavedepositsofconventionalexpenditurebehind。Whatisatfirstfashionableoftenremainsasrespectableandliveslongintheconventionalhabitsofaclass。Everyclassstandardisencrustedwithlittleelementsofdeadfashion。 §；9。ButthisformativeinfluenceofPrestigeitselfdemandsfullerconsideration。Foritnotmerelyimplantselementsofexpenditureinthestandardofconsumption，butinfectsthestandarditself。 Atruestandardwouldrestonabasisoforganicutility，expenditurebeingapportionedsoastopromotethesoundest，fullesthumanlife。Butallconventionalconsumptionisdeterminedlargelybyvaluationsimposedbytheclasspossessingmostprestige。Itis，ofcourse，acommonplacethatfashionsindress，andincertainexternalmodesofconsumption，descendbysnobbishimitationfromhighlifethroughthedifferentsocialstrata，eachclasscopyingtheclassabove。Itisamatteroffarmorevitalimportancethatreligion，ethics，art，literatureandthewholerangeofintellectualactivities，manners，amusements，taketheirshapesandvalueslargelybythesameprocessofinfiltrationfromabove。 Thisisnotthecaseeverywhere。Inmanynationsthedistinctionsofcaste，class，localityoroccupation，aresostrongastoprecludethepassageofhabitsofmaterialconsumption，manners，tastesandideas，fromonesocialstratumtoanother。Theexclusivepossessionofacodeoflife，oflanguage，thoughtandfeelingsbyacasteorclass，isitselfamatterofpride，andoftenoflegalprotection。ThisholdsnotonlyofmostAsiaticcivilisationsbut，thoughlessrigorously，ofthoseEuropeancountrieswhichhavenotbeenfullysubjectedtothedissolvingforcesofindustrialism。 ButinsuchcountriesasEnglandandtheUnitedStates，wheretheindustrialartsarerapidlyevolvingnewproductsandstimulatingnewtastes，andwhereatthesametimethesocialstratapresentacontinuousgradationwithmuchmovementfromonestratumtoanother，theprocessofStationbyprestigeisveryrapidandgeneral。 Theactualexpenditureoftheincomeofeveryclassinthesecountriesisverylargelydetermined，notbyorganicneeds，butbyimitationoftheconventionalconsumptionoftheclassimmediatelyaboveinincomeorinsocialesteem。Thatconventionalconsumptioninitsturnisformedbyimitationoftheclassabove。Thearistocracy，plutocracy，orclasswithmostpowerorprestige，thusmakesthestandardsfortheotherclasses。 Now，evenifitwerearealaristocracy，acompanyofthebest，itbynomeansfollowsthatastandardoflivinggoodforthemwouldbeequallygoodforothersocialgrades。Buttherewouldbeatleastastrongpresumptioninitsfavour。Tocopygoodexamples，evenifthecopyingisdefective，isanelevatingpractice，andinasmuchastheessentialsofhumanityarefoundalikeinall，thoughtlessimitationofone\'sbettersmightraiseone\'sownstandard。Ifinasocietythemenoflightandleadingoccupiedthisplacebecausetheyhaddiscoveredageniusfortheartofnobleliving，theswiftunconsciousimitationoftheirmodeoflife，themoralsandmannersofthisaristocracy，wouldsurelybethefinestschoolingforthewholepeople:themodelsofthegood，thetrue，thebeautiful，whichtheyafforded，wouldinformeachlowergrade，accordingtoitscapacity。 Butwherethewholeforcesofprestigeandimitationaresetonashamaristocracy，copyingascloselyaspossibletheirmodesofconsumption，theirwaysofthoughtandfeeling，theirvaluationsandideals，incalculabledamageandwastemayensue。Forthedefectsinthestandardoftheupperfewwill，byimitation，bemagnifiedaswellasmultipliedinthelowerstandardsofthemany。Letmeillustrate。 Ifgamblingisbadfortheupperclasses，itsimitationbecomesprogressivelyworseasitdescends，poisoningthelifeandconsumingalargerproportionofthediminishingmarginoftheincomeofeachclass。Iftheinconvenienceofdecorativedressisbadforrichwomen，wholivealifeofeaseandleisure，itsimitationbytheactivehousewivesofthemiddle，andthewomen-workersofthelowerclasses，inflictsagraverdisutility。Forthewasteofincomeismoreinjuriousandthephysicalimpedimentstolibertyofmovementaremoreonerous。Itistheimmeasurableimportanceofthisprestigeoftheupperclass，percolatingthroughalllowersocialgrades，andimposing，notmerelyelementsofconventionalconsumption，butstandardsandideasoflifewhichaffectthewholemodeofliving，thatrequiresustogivecloserconsiderationtothelifeoftheleisureclass。 §；10。HerewecanfindvaluableaidinaremarkablebookentitledTheTheoryoftheLeisureClass，byMr。Veblen，anAmericansociologist。