第7章

Regardedasascientificstudy，whichitrightlyclaimstobe，thisbookhastwoconsiderabledefects，oneofmanner，oneofmatter。Itsanalysisisconductedwithahalf-humorousparadeofpompousterminologyapttowearuponthetemperofthereader。Itsexaggeratedstressuponasinglestrainofpersonality，asadominantinfluenceintheformationofhabitsandthedirectionofconduct，isamoreseriousblemishinaworkofprofoundandpenetratingpower。Butforourpresentpurpose，thatofdiscoveringtheelementsofwasteinnationalconsumption，itisoffirst-rateimportance。 Mr。Veblen\'smainlineofargumentmaybesummarisedasfollows。Inprimitivesocietywarandthechasewillbethechiefmeansbywhichmenmaysatisfythatcravingforpersonaldistinctionandimportancewhichisthemostenduringandimportunateofpsychicaldesires。Personalprocess，mainlyphysical，displayedinfightorhunt，willsecureleadershiporascendencyintriballife。Sothosetrophieswhichattestsuchprowess，theskullsorscalpsofenemies，theskinsofslainanimals，orthelivepossessionoftameanimals，willbethemosthighly-prizedformsofproperty。 Whenthecaptureandenslavementofenemieshastakentheplaceofpromiscuousslaughter，thesizeandvarietyofhisretinueofslavesforpersonalservice，concubinage，ormerelydecorativeshow，attestthegreatnessofthewarrior-chief。 Whentheindustrialartsaresufficientlydeveloped，slaveswillbesettoproducesuchotherformsofproperty，enlargedhousing，quantitiesofshowygarments，cultivatedfields，herdsofcattle，asaffordconspicuousevidenceofthepersonalprowessofthechief。Glory，farmorethanutilityorcomfort，continuestobethedominantmotive。 Ascivilisationbeginstomakeway，thenotionofwhatconstitutespersonalprocessbeginstobemodified。Thoughphysicalforcemaystillremainachiefingredient，skillandcunning，wisdomincounsel，capacityforcommandandlaw-making，cometoberecognisedasalsogivingprestige。 Asnotonlythestrongmanbyhisstrength，butthecunningmanbyhiscunning，cangetthatwealthorpropertywhicharetheinsigniaofprowess，propertywillhoweverstillbevaluedbyitsownermainlyfortheprestigeitaffordshimamonghisfellows。Itwillstillforthemostparttakeshapeinexternalformsofadornmentormagnificence。Asitdevelopsintotheculminatingformoftheorientalcourt，theelementofdisplaywillremaintheparamountconsideration，towhicheventhesense-enjoymentsoftheownerwillbesecondary。 Theeffectofthisearlylinkingofpropertytopersonalprowesswillbethatinthegeneralmindofmanthepossessionofpropertyishonorific。 Itsecuresforitsownerapresumptionofpersonalgreatness。Therefore，itspossessionmustbekeptinfullandconstantevidence，especiallywhereinheritancedestroysthedirectpresumptionofthepersonalprowessoftheactualowner。Hencethetwoessentialfeaturesofthemodeoflivingofthedominantclassorcaste，ostentatiouswasteandconspicuousleisure。 Forthustheprestigeofpropertyisbestenforced。Gorgeouspalaceswithluxuriousgrounds，magnificentbanquetsandentertainments，extravagantrefinementsofsensualluxury，adornmentsoffabrics，jewelsandarticlesoflaboriousskill，magnificenttombsandothermonuments——theelaborateparadeofwaste，inordertofastenonthecommonimaginationthesenseofwonderandofadmirationofthepersonwhocouldaffordsolavishawaste!Thefamilyoftherichmanischieflyvaluedasaninstrumentformakingthisdisplayeffective。Hiswifeorwivesmustdonowork，notevencopyhisparasiticactivities；theymuststandasopenmonumentsofconspicuousleisure，theirpersonaladornments，theirretinuesofservants，theentireelaborateritualoftheirfutilelives，mustbedevotedtoshowinghowmuchtheirpossessorcanaffordtocaste。Suchwasthelifeofthearistocracyinoldenandmedievaldays! Ithaspassedinmostessentials，bytraditionandimitation，tothelifeoftheupperclassinmoderncivilisednations。Themodesandconceptionsofpersonalprowessandprestigehaveindeedshifted。Themanofbusinesshasdethronedthewarriororthepoliticalchieftain。Thetypicalgreatmanofourtimeisthegreatentrepreneur，thefinancierwhodirectstheflowofcapitalandrulespricesonchange，therailwayorshippingmagnatewhoplansacombine，theableandastutemerchant，whocontrolsamarket，themanufacturerwhoconductsagreatproductivebusiness，theorganiserofasuccessfuldepartmentalstore。Thepersonalqualitiesandactivitiesinvolvedinthesetasksareverydifferentfromthosepossessedbybarbarianchieftainsororientaldespots。 Addtosuchmenthesurvivinglandedaristocracyofrentreceivers，andaconsiderablenumberoffamiliesthatliveondividends，takingnorealpartintheadministrationofindustry，andwehaveasynopsisoftheclasswhichtodaywieldsprestige。Thoughtheelaborationofmodernartsofpleasuredirectsagreatpartoftheexpenditureofthis，ourupperclass，thetraditionalhabitsofostentatiouswasteandconspicuousleisureasmodesofgloryarestillparamountmotives。Mostrichpeoplevaluericheslessforthepleasurestheyaffordthanforthesocialconsideration，thepersonaldistinction，theyprocure。Thecravingtorealisesuperiorityoverothers，asattestedbytheirservilityorimitation，thepowerofmoneytomakeothersdoyourwill，thesenseoffreedomtorealiseeverypassingcaprice，theseremainthechiefvalueofriches，andmouldthevaluationsoflifeforthebulkofthewell-to-do。 Sucharetheinevitableeffectsofeasily-gottenandexcessivewealthuponthepossessors。Sofarastheyoperate，theyinducefutileextravaganceinexpenditure。Insteadofmakingforutility，theymakefordisutilityofconsumption。Suchisthegistofthisanalysisoftheleisuredlife。 §；11。Expenditurewhichistobeeffectivelyostentatious，soastoimpressitsmagnificenceuponthelargestnumberofotherpeople，cannotbedirectedtothesatisfactionofarealpersonalwant，evenabadwant。 Futilityisofitsessence。Theverytypeofthisexpenditureisadisplayoffireworks:thereisnootherwayofconsumingsolargeaquantityofwealthinsoshortatimewithsuchsensationalpublicityandwithnoenduringeffectwhatever。Thisprivateextravagancemayperhapsbeparalleledinpublicexpenditurebythesquanderingofmillionsuponwar-shipswhicharenotneeded，willneverbeused，andwillbeobsoletewithinafewyearsoftheirconstruction。 Thedefectswhicheverysanesocialcriticfindsinthemodesoflivingoftherich，theirfrivolity，trivialityandfutility，areillustrationsofMr。Veblen\'sthesis。Perhapsthelargestcomplexofformsoffutilewaste，wasteofmoneyandoftime，iscontainedintheperformanceofwhat，withcuriousaptnessofphrase，aretermed\'socialduties\'，theidleroundofvisits，entertainmentsandfunctionswhichconstitutesthe\'societylife\'。Ispeakoftheaptnessoftheterm\'socialduties\'。Thisisnoparadox，butmerelythefinestinstanceofthatperversionofvaluesandvaluationswhichisinherentinthesituation。Foritisessentialtotheaccuracyofthisanalysisthattherichmembersofsocietyshouldregardtheirmostfutileactivitiesas\'duties\'，andtheirsmallsectionofhumanityas\'society\'。 Oftheexpenditurewhichislaidoutonthesatisfactionofmaterialwants，thewasteordisutilitywilloftenbeconsiderable。ButNatureisstrongenoughtoenforcesomesenseandmoderationinthesatisfactionofprimaryorganicdesires。While，therefore，thereismuchluxuryandwasteinthematerialstandardofcomfortoftherich，wedoquitewrongtofindinfoodandclothingandothermaterialconsumptionourchiefinstancesofluxuryandwaste。Itisinthenon-materialexpenditurethattheproportionofwasteordisutilityislargest。Thegreatmorallaw，corruptiooptimipessima，requiresthatthisbeso。Ifweseekthelargestsourcesofinjuriouswasteinthestandardofthewell-to-doclasses，weshallfindthemintheexpenditureuponrecreation，educationandcharity。 NOTES: 1。OnthesideofConsumptionasofProductionaprogressivesocietythathasnotabandoneditselftoexcessiverationalismwillrecognisethedesirabilityofkeepingascopefor\'bonnechance\'and\'hazard\'。CfTarde。 I。，p。130。 2。Thoughtheterm\'conventional\'appearsformallytoprecludetheplayofindividualtasteorjudgment，itisinfactonlyinsuchexpendituresthatthesequalitiesobtainscopeforexpression。Forthoughconventionprescribesthegeneralmodeofsuchexpenditure，itleavesafarlargerscopeforpersonalchoiceandcapriciousvariationthaninthemorenecessaryelementsofexpenditure。CHAPTERXI:SPORT，CULTUREAND CHARITY §；1。Itisnomerechancethatmakessportthespecialfieldfortheattainmentanddisplayofpersonalprestigeamongthewell-to-doclasses。 Primitivemaninhisearlystruggleforlifehadtoputallhispowersofbodyandmind，allhisstrengthandcunning，intothequick，sure，anddistantdiscoveryofbeastsorothermenwhowoulddestroyhim。Hemustpursueandkillthem，orsuccessfullyavoidthem。Hemustseekoutanimalorvegetablefoods，trackingthembysignsandsnares，rapidoffoot，keenofeyeandscent，quick，strong，andaccurateofgrasp。Torunandspring，toclimbandswimandstrikeandthrowwerenecessaryhumanaccomplishments。 Theyhadahighsurvivalvalue。Naturehadtoevolveandmaintainamanwhohadthecapacitytodothesethingswell，andwhowaswillingtoundergothenecessarytoilandpainofacquiringandexercisingtheseartsandcrafts。Toride，toshoot，tomanageboats，wereoccupationsofprimeutility。 Successfulmatingwasalsonecessaryforsurvival，andsotheartsofcourtship，dancing，music，decoration，andvariousdisplaysofgraceandvigourwereevolved。Thesimpleactivitiesthatwereelaboratedintotheseartsofhunting，fighting，mating，wereinstinctive，andstrongfeelingsofpleasurewereattachedtothem，asNature\'slure。Whenreason，orconsciouscunning，cametocooperatewithinstinct，complicatingandrefiningtheusefularts，thespecificpleasuresofinstinctivesatisfactionwereaccompaniedbyageneralsenseofpersonalelationorpride。Now，inman，asinotheranimals，practicewasneededforthesuccessfulperformanceoftheseusefulactivities。Thispracticetakestheformofplay，amoreorlessrealisticsimulationofthepracticesoffighting，hunting，courtship，inwhich，however，considerablescopeexistsforvariationsandsurprises，thesurvivalvalueofwhichisreal，thoughindirect。Sincetheseformsofplayappealtoandexercisethesameactivitiesasareinvolvedintheseriousaffairsoflife，thesamesortsofsatisfactionareattachedtothem。Thenaturalmeaningofplayisthatitisapreparationforwork，i。e。，forthearduous，painful，andoftendangeroustasksinvolvedin\'thestruggleoflife，\' andthepleasureofplayistheinducementtotheacquisitionofthisusefulskill。 §；2。Ifthisbeso，itmaybepossibleforsomementosuckthepleasurefromtheplaywithoutperformingtheusefulworkforwhichitisapreparation。Theplayinstinctscanbemadetoyieldadesirablelifeofinterestandpleasuretoanyclassofmenwhoareenabledtogetotherstoperformtheirshareofusefulwork，andthustoprovidethemwiththetime，energyandmaterialmeansfortheelaborationoftheplaysideoflife。Suchisthephysicalexplanationofthesportsman。TheplaywhichNaturedesignedasmeanstolife，hetakesasanend，andlives\'asportinglife\'。Someofhissportsbearonthesurfacefewsignsofbiologicalplayaboutthem。Themanualandmentaldexterityofsuchindoorgamesasbridgeandbilliards，appearquiteunrelatedtothearduouspursuitsofmountaineeringorbig-gamehunting。Betweenthesetwoliethegreatmajorityofactivesports，suchasshooting，racing，andthevariousgamesofball。 Noonewhoanalysescarefullythefeelingsofpleasuregotfromaboundaryhit，arunwiththeball，aneck-to-neckrace，oranyotherathleticachievement，candoubttheirnature。 Fighting，hunting，fishing，climbing，exploring，reducedtosports，containjustasmuch\'realism\'asisneededtoevokethepleasurableexcitementwhichsustainedtheseskilfuleffortswhentheybelongedtothestruggleforlife。Someoftheimitationsmaybesoclosetorealityastorecallinalmostitsfullintensitytheprimalthrill，asintiger-stalking，inboxing，orrockclimbing。Inball-gamesthefictitiouscircumstancescallformoreimagination，thoughthepleasureoftheactualstrokeischieflyaracememoryofablowstruckatanenemyorofablowwardedoff。Noonecandoubtthenatureofthefiercepleasureofthefootballscrimmagewithitsmortalmake-believe。 Althoughinmanysportssomeelementofphysicalriskisneededtosustaintherealism，itisusuallyreducedtotriflingdimensions。Thisisalsotrueofthepainfulenduranceincidentaltotheprimitivestruggle。 Themodernsportsmanorexplorercommonlydeviseswaysofeconomisingbothhispersonalriskandhispersonaleffort。Beatersfindtheanimalorbirdforhimtoshoot；nativeportersandguidescarryfoodforhim，andeasehispath。Hisobjectistosecurethemaximumpleasureofachievementwiththeminimumriskandeffort。Perhapsthemosthighly-elaboratedexampleistheplayfulrevivalofthemigratoryandexploringinstincts，fromthepicnictotheworld-tour，withthecomplexapparatusofpleasure-travelwhichoccupiessolargeapartinthelifeofthewell-to-doclasses。Theluxuriouslifeoftravelinwhichthemotor-car，thetraindeluxe，ortheyachtcarriesmenandwomenfromthegorgeoushotelofonebeautyspottothatofanother，ismadepleasurableortolerablebywakingupthedimshadowofsomewanderingancestor，whosehuntingorpastoralhabitsrequiredsomesatisfactiontoevokethelife-preservingeffort。Camping-outandcaravanningaresomewhatmorerealisticreproductions，bringinginmoreofthegregariousorcorporateinstinctofthetribe。 Howsubtlearetheartificesbywhichhumancunningseekstoexploitthepastisbestillustrated，however，inthepurelyspectatorialorsympatheticsurroundingsofsport。Toplayfootballisoneremovefrombattle，towatchthegameistworemoves，towatchthe\"tape\"orfollowthescoresinthenewspapersisthreeremoves。Yetmillionsoflittlethrillsofsatisfactionaregotfromthissimulationofasimulatedfight。Blendedinvariousdegreeswithotherzests，ofhazard，ofpettycunning，andavarice，wherebettingentersintosport，thesportinginterestrankshighestofallinthescaleofvaluesamongtheable-bodiedmalesofallclassesinEnglish-speakingpeoples。 Addedtothepleasurefromtheoutputofstrengthorskillinsportisthegeneralsentimentofexultation，thesenseofglory。Towhatmustthatbeattributed？Nottothemagnitudeofthestrengthorskill。Anavvymaydisplaygreaterstrengthorenduranceinhiswork，atrapperoracommonfishermanafinerskillincatchinghisprey。Butthetruegloryofsportsmanshipisdeniedthem。Why？Becausetheirworkisuseful，andtheyaredoingitforaliving。Thegloryofthesuccessfulsportsmanisduetothefactthathisdeedsarefutile。Andthisconspicuousfutilityisattherootofthematter。Thefactthathecangivetime，energy，andmoneytosporttestifiestohispossessionofindependentmeans。Hecanaffordtobeanidler，andthemoreobviouslyuselessandexpensivethesport，thehighertheprestigeattachingtoit。 Hispersonalgloryofstrength，endurance，orskillissetinthisaureoleofparasitism。Thecrucialtestofthisinterpretationisverysimple。LetitturnoutthataMarathonwinner，whoseemedtobeagentleman，wasreallyaprofessional，whatadropinhispersonalprestige!Theprofessionalisamanwhohastoearnaliving，hisreputationasasportsmanisdamagedbythatfact。Cantherebeanymoreconvincingproofthatthehighprestigeofsportisduetotheevidenceoffinancialprowesswhichitaffords？ Thehuntingandthefightinginstinctsevidentlyunderliethepleasureofnearlyalltheexclusivelymalesports。Doubtlessotherinstinctivesatisfactionsenterin，suchasthegregariousinstinctwithitsconsciouselaborationofespritdecorps。Wheneveranygameorsportbringsthesexesintorelationwithoneanother，thematinginstinctsareevidentlyinvolved。 Thecrossingofwarwithsexinthetheoryandpracticeofchivalrywasaconsciousandartisticblendingofthesepleasuremotives。 Butthistreatmentofsportasafrivolouspursuitofpleasureignoresoneimportantaspect。Sport，itwillbeurged，afterallhashealthforitspermanentutility。Itisexerciseforthebodyanddiversionforthemind。Itwardsoffthenaturalconsequencesofthepurelyparasiticlife，whichaprivateincomerenderspossible，byprovidingwork-substitutes。 Theprimallaw，\'inthesweatofthyfaceshaltthoueatbread，\'isgracefullyevadedbygamesthatincludeagentleperspiration。Golfmaytaketheplaceofspade-labourtowinappetiteanddigestion；bridgewillsavethebrainfromabsolutestagnation。SoNature\'sself-protectivecunningelaboratesthesemodesofsham-work。 §；3。Thesocialcondemnationofasporting-lifeistwo-fold。Inthefirstplace，itdivertsintolowerformsofactivitythezestsandinterestsintendedtopromotealifeofworkandart。Thesporting-lifeandstandardschokethefinerarts。Thesportsmanandthegamesterarebaserartistschoosingthelowerinsteadofthehighermodesofself-realisationinmanualandintellectualskill。Thismaintenanceofbarbarianstandardsofvaluesbytheclassespossessingsocialprestigeisagreatobstacletothedevelopmentofscience，art，andliterature。Inthesecondplace，sportspoilsthespontaneityandlibertyofplay，whichisanecessityofeveryhealthylife。Itspoilsitforthesportsmanbyreasonofitsartificialityanditsexcess。Forthesporting-lifedoesnotsatisfythosewhopractiseit。ItcarriestheNemesisofboredom。Thesenseoftrivialityandoffutilitygraduallyeatsthrough，andthemake-believerealism，whenconfrontedwiththeseriousvaluesoflife，showsitsemptiness。 Aheaviersocialdamageistheeconomiccostwhichtheexpensivefutilityimposes。 Forsportinvolvesthelargestdiversionofunearnedincomeintounproductiveexpenditure。Notonlydoesitdedicatetoextravagantwastealargershareoftheland，thelabour，andtheenterpriseofmenthananyotherhumanerror，unlessitbewaritself，butitstealstheplay-timeofthemanytomaketheover-leisureofthefew。Iftheparasiticpowerwhichsustainsthesporting-lifeweretakenaway，theworldwouldnotbedullerormoreserious。Onthecontrary，playwouldbemoreabundant，freer，morevaried，andlessartificialinitsmodes。 Theidentificationofasportsmanwithagentlemanhascarriedgreatweightintheunconscioussettlingofsocialvalues，andinEnglandhasbeensubtlyserviceableasasentimentalsafeguardagainsttheattacksupontheeconomicsupportsnotonlyoflandlordismbutofotherwealthwhichhascovereditselfwiththetrappingsofsport。 Therelativeprestigeofotheroccupationsisdeterminedtoaconsiderableextentbytheirassociationwiththesporting-lifeorwiththeoriginalactivitieswhichsportreproduces。Notonlytheidlelandowner，buttheyeoman，andinalessdegreethetenantfarmer，enjoyasocialconsiderationbeyondthemeasureoftheirpecuniarystanding，byvirtueoftheopportunitiesforhuntingandothersportwhichtheyenjoy。Partofthereputationofthemilitaryandthenavalservicesisexplainedbythesurvivalofthebarbarianfeelingthatalifeofhazardandrapinecontainsfineropportunitiesforphysicalprowessthanalifeofproductiveactivity。Thoughagooddealofthisprestigebelongstothegloryof\'command\'andextendseventoagreatemployeroflabour，theglamourofthesoldier\'s，hunter\'s，sportsman\'slifehangsinalessdegreeaboutallwhoseoccupations，howeverservile，keeptheminclosecontactwiththesebarbarianactivities。A publican，aprofessionalcricketer，astud-groom，agamekeeper，enjoyamongtheircompanionsadignityderivedfromtheirassociationwiththesporting-life。 §；4。Ifphysicalrecreationsthuscarryprestige，soinalessdegreeandincertaingradesofsocietydointellectualrecreations。Onceasportsmanalonehadaclaimtoberegardedasagentleman。Onlyincomparativelymoderntimesdidtheassociationof\'ascholarandagentleman\'seemplausible。 Evennowprowessofthemindcanseldomcompeteinglorywithprowessofthebody。Thevaluationofachievementscurrentinourpublic-schoolspersists，thoughwithsomeabatement，amongallsortsandconditionsofmen。Butasmentalskillbecomesmoreandmorethemeansofattainingthatfinancialpowerwhichisthemoderninstrumentofpersonalglory，itrisesinsocialesteem。Asmanners，address，mentalabilityandknowledgemoreandmoredeterminepersonalsuccess，intellectualstudiesbecomeincreasinglyreputable。 Itmightappearatthefirstsightthatthehighestreputationwouldattachtothoseabilitiesandstudieswhichhadthehighestmediateutilityformoney-making。Butherethebarbarianstandardretainsadeflectinginfluence。Topossessmoneywhichyouhavenotmadestillcontinuestobefarmorehonorificthantomakemoney。Formoney-making，unlessitbebylootorgambling，involvesaddictiontoabusinesslifeinsteadofthelifeofaleisuredgentleman。Soitcomestopassthatstudiesarevaluedmorehighlyasdecorativeaccomplishmentsthanasutilities。Amanwhocanhaveaffordedtoexpendlongyearsinacquiringskillorknowledgewhichhasnopracticaluse，therebyannouncesmostdramaticallyhispossession，orhisfather\'spossession，ofanincomeenablinghimtoleadthelifeofanindependentgentleman。Thescaleofculture-valuesislargelydirectedbythisconsideration。Thusnotonlythechoiceofsubjectsbutthemodeoftreatmentintheeducationofthechildrenofthewell-to-dois，generallyspeaking，ininverseratiototheirpresumedutility。Theplaceofhonouraccordedtodeadlanguagesis，ofcourse，themostpatentexample。GreatasthemeritsofGreekandLatinmaybeforpurposesofintellectualandemotionaltraining，theirpredominanceisnotmainlydeterminedbytheirmerits，butbythetraditionalreputewhichhasmadethemthechoseninstrumentsforaparadeof\'useless\'culture。 Thoughsomeattemptismadeinrecenttimestoextractfromtheteachingofthe\'classics\'thefinerqualitiesofthe\'humanities\'whichtheycontain，thishasinvolvedarevoltagainstthepure\'scholarship\'whichsoughttoexcludeevensuchrefinedutilitiesandtoconfinethestudyoftheclassicstoagraceful，skilfulhandlingoflinguisticformsandapurelysuperficialtreatmentofthethoughtandknowledgecontainedinthechosenliterature。Itissignificantthatevento-day\'culture\'primarilycontinuestoimplyknowledgeoflanguagesandliteratureasaccomplishments，andthat，thoughmathematicsandnaturalsciencesentermorelargelyintotheacademiccurriculum，theycontinuetoranklowerasstudiesintheeducationofourwealthyclasses。 MostconvincinginitstestimonytotheformationofintellectualvaluesisthetreatmentofhistoryandmodernEnglishliterature。Althoughforallpurposesofcultureandutility，itmighthavebeensupposedthatthestudyofthethought，art，andeventsofourownnationandourowntimes，wouldbeofprimeimportance，virtuallynoplaceisgiventothesesubjects。 Historyandliterature，sofarastheyfigureatall，aretreatednotinrelationtothelifeoftoday，butasdeadmatter。Othersubjectsofstrictlyvitalutility，suchasphysiologyandhygiene，psychologyandsociology，findnoplacewhateverinthegeneraleducationofourschoolsanduniversities，occupyingatimidpositionas\'special\'subjectsincertainprofessionalcourses。 Pedagoguessometimespretendthatthisexclusionof\'utility\'testsforthesubjectsandthetreatmentinoursystemofeducationrestsuponsoundeducationalprinciples，inthat，ignoringtheshort-rangeutilitieswhichacommercialorother\'practical\'trainingdesiderates，theycontributetoadeeperandapurertrainingoftheintellectualfaculties。Buthavingregardtothepartplayedbytraditionandecclesiasticalauthorityintheestablishmentofpresent-dayeducationalsystems，itcannotbeadmittedthattheyhavemadeaseriouscasefortheappraisementofstudiesaccordingtotheirhumanvalues。Probablyourhighereducation，properlytested，wouldbefoundtocontainafarlargerwasteofintellectual\'efficiency\' thanourfactorysystemofeconomicefficiency。Andthiswasteisprimarilyduetotheacceptanceandsurvivalofbarbarianstandardsofculture，imperfectlyadjustedtothemodernconditionsoflife，andchieflysustainedbythedesiretoemploythemindfordecorativeandrecreative，ratherthanforproductiveorcreativepurposes。Art，literatureandsciencesufferimmeasurablelossesfromthismisgovernmentofintellectuallife。 Thenetresultisthatthevastmajorityofthesonsanddaughtersevenofourwell-to-doclassesgrowupwithanexceedinglyfaultyequipmentofusefulknowledge，notrainedabilitytousetheirintellectsorjudgmentsfreelyandeffectively，andwithnostrongdesiretoattempttodoso。Theythusremainorbecomethedupesofshallowtraditions，orequallyshallownovelties，undertheguiseofscientific，philosophic，economicorpoliticalprincipleswhichtheyhaveneithertheenergyofmindnorthedesiretotest，butwhichtheypermittodirecttheirlivesandconductinmattersofsupremeimportancetothemselvesandothers。 Aseducationiscomingtotakealargerplaceasanorganisedoccupation，andmoretime，moneyandenergyareclaimedforit，thenecessityofarevaluationofintellectualvaluesonasanebasisofhumanismbecomesmoreexigentthanever。Forthereisadangerofanewbastardculturespringingup，theproductofablendingofthebarbarianculture，descendingbyimitationoftheupperclasses，withatoonarrowlyutilitarianstandardimprovisedtoconvertworking-classchildrenintocheapclerksandshopmen。 Ourhigh-schoolsandlocaluniversitiesarealreadyvictimstothismé；salliancebetween\'culture\'and\'business\'，andthetreatmentofnotafewstudies，historyandeconomicsinparticular，issubjecttonovelrisks。 §；5。Dilettantismistheintellectualequivalentofsport。Whatisthemoralequivalent？Thesporting-lifehasanethicsofitsown，theessenceofwhichliesineschewingobligationswithlegalorothercompulsoryexternalsanctions，infavourofavoluntarycodeembodyingthemutualfeelingsofmembersofasuperiorcaste。Inanaristocracyoftruesportsmenhonestyandsexual\'morality\'aredespisedasbourgeoisvirtues，whilejusticeistoocompulsoryandtooequalitarianforacceptance。Honourtakestheplaceofhonesty，goodformofmorals，fair-playandcharityofjustice。 Itisthecodeofthebarbariansupermanorchieftain，qualified，softenedandcomplicatedtosuittheconditionsofthemodernplay-life。Courageandendurance，fidelity，generosityandmercyarehisvirtues:temperance，modesty，humility，gratitude，havenoproperplaceinsuchacode，whichisindeedbaseduponafreeexerciseofthephysicalfunctionsforpersonalpleasureandglory。 Thehazardbelongingtoasportinglifemakesforsuperstition。Nobodyismorecrudelysuperstitiousthanthegambler，andeverybodytowhomlifeisprimarilyagameconceivesofitasproceedingbyruleswhichmaybeevadedortamperedwith。Thisaspectofthesportingcharactergavethepriestlycasteitschiefopportunitytogetpower。Sopietismwasgraftedonthesportsmanandthefighting-man，andreligionkeptaholdontherulingandpossessingclasses，adaptingitsmoralteachingtohiscase。 ThewidedivergenceofBritishChristianityfromtheteachingofthegospelsfindsitschiefexplanationinthisnecessityofadaptation。Itsdoctrinesanditsdisciplinehadtobemouldedsoastofitthecharacterandconductofpowerfulmen，whonotonlywouldrepudiateitsinnerspiritualteaching，butwhoselust，pride，crueltyandtreachery，thenaturaloutcomeoftheiranimallife，wereconstantlyleadingthemtoviolatetheverycodeofhonourtheyprofessed。Asindustryandproperty，peaceandorder，becamemoresettledandwide-spread，therecameupfrombelowapowerfulcommercialclass，whoseeconomicandsocialrequirementsevolvedamoralityinwhichtheso-calledpuritanvirtuesofindustry，thrift，honesty，temperance，sexualpurity，prevailed，andaChristianitydesignedprimarilytoevokeandtosustainthem。 Justastheintellectualcultureofthearistocracycametoclashwiththeutilitarianeducationofthebourgeoisandtoproducetheconfusingcompromisewhichatpresentprevails，sowiththedifferingethicsofthesametwoclasses。Theincursionofthewealthytradesmaninto\'highlife\'andofthelandedgentryintothe\'city\'hasvisiblybrokendowntheolderstandardsbothofmoralsandofmanners。Theprestigeofthesportingvirtueshasplayedhavocwiththesimplicityandausterityofthepuritanmoralsandcreeds，thoughitmayfairlybemaintainedthatthesanerutilitiesofthelatterhavetemperedtoaperceptibledegreethemoralsandmannersofthesportsman。Luxuriesandfrivolitiesofamorevariedorderhavelargelydisplacedtheoldersporting-life，introducingintoitsomeelementsofmoreintellectualskillandinterest，thoughitremainsprimarilydevotedtothepursuitofpleasurablesensuousfutilities。 But，thoughthemodesoftheleisurelifeareshifting，thedefinitelyparasiticattitudeandcareerwhichitembodiesremainunchanged。Thesenseofjusticeandofhumanityamongitsmembersisasdefectiveasever。Thistruthissometimesconcealedbythechangeinsocialareasthatistakingplace。Classhonourandcomradeshiphaveasomewhatwiderscopeastherangeofeffectiveintercourseexpands，andclasseswhichformerlywerewideapartcomepartiallytofusewithoneanother，orarebroughtwithintherangeofsympathy，asregardstheirmoresympatheticmembers。SointercourseuponafairlyequalbasiscantakeplaceinsuchacountryasEnglandbetweenmostpersonswhohavereachedacertainlevelofrefinementofliving。 Thiscertainlyimpliessometransfusionofmoralstandards，theunionofcommonsentimentsregardingindustryandpropertywiththedownwardspreadofamodifiedconceptionofasportinglife。Indeed，imitationhasgoneacertainwaytowardsinfectingallthestablergradesoftheworking-classeswiththisblendofbarbarianandpuritanvaluations。Whilethelargerpecuniarymeansandleisurewhichtheypossesshasintroducedintotheirstandardoflifesportinghabitslargelyimitativeofthefullyleisuredaristocracy，ithasimplantedhabitsof\'respectability\'asthecontributionofthebourgeoistypeimmediatelyabovetheminthesocialscale。 §；6。Butwhenwedipdownbelowthebourgeoisandtheregularworking-classeswhichhehasdrilledinindustry，wefindalowerleisureclasswhosevaluationsandwaysoflivingformamostinstructiveparodyoftheupperleisureclass。Bothincountryandtownlifethesetypesappear。Theyinclude\'gypsies\'，tramps，poachersandothervagabonds，whohaveneverbeenenlistedinthearmyofindustry，orhavedesertedinfavourofa\'free\'lifeofhazard，beggaryandplunder。Intownsnaturalproclivitiesormisfortuneaccountforconsiderablegroupsofcasualworkers，professionaloramateurthievesandprostitutes，street-sellers，corner-men，kepthusbands，andotherparasiteswhoareaburdenontheworking-classes。Alikeincountryandintown，thesemenpractise，sofarascircumstancesallow，thesamehabitsandexhibitthesamecharacterastheleisureclassatthetop。Thefighting，sporting，roving，generous，reckless，wastefultraitsarealldiscernible，thesameunaffectedcontemptfortheworker，thesameclasscamaraderie，oftenwithaspecialcodeofhonour，thesamesexlicenseandjovialityofmanners。Eventheirintelligenceandhumour，theirverymodesofspeech，arethehalf-imitative，half-originalreplicaofhighlifeasitshowsintherace-course，intheclubsmoke-room，ortheflashmusichall。Oftentheparasitesandhangers-ontoupper-classsportsandrecreations，theseformalargeandgrowingclassofourpopulation，andtheirwithdrawalfromallindustrythatcanbetermedproductive，coupledwiththedebasedmodeofconsumptionwhichtheypractise，countheavilyintheaggregateofsocialwaste。 §；7。Astheopportunitiesofleisureandofsomesurplusincomebeyondthecurrentacceptedstandardofclasscomfortbecomemoregeneral，thissympatheticimitationofrecreations，educationandmorals，undoubtedlymakesforanationalstandardisationoflife，thoughtheenormousdiscrepanciesineconomicresourcesgreatlylimittheefficacyofsuchatendencytounity。Buttheapparentgaininhumanitythussuggestedislargelycounterworkedbythestrongersenseofnationalandespeciallyofracialcleavagewhichhascomewithmodernworldintercourse。Ifclassbarriersofconduct，educationandfeelingaresomewhatweakeningintheforemostEuropeannations，aclearerandintenserrealisationofnationalandracialbarrierstakestheirplace。Everymodificationofclassexclusiveness，andofeconomicplunder，uponthesmallerscale，iscompensatedbythiswiderracialexclusiveness，withitsaccompanyingparasitism。 ThecivilisedWesternworldiscomingmoreconsciouslytomoulditspracticalpolicy，politicalandeconomic，anditssentimentsandtheories，uponawhiteexploitationofthelowerandthebackwardpeoples。Imperialismisdisplacing，oratpresentiscrossing，classsupremacy，andisevolvinganintellectualismandamoralsaccommodatedtotheneedsofthisnewsocialcleavage。ItismovingtowardsanotdistantepochinwhichWesternwhitenationsmay，asregardstheirmeansoflivelihood，bemainlydependentuponthelabourofregimentedlowerpeoplesinvariousdistantportionsoftheglobe，allormostmembersofthedominantpeoplesenjoyingalifeofcomparativepleasureandleisureandacollectivesenseofpersonalsuperiorityastherulersoftheearth。 Thatstandardsofrecreation，educationandmorals，thusformedandtransformed，arelikelytocontainenormous\'wastes\'intheirdirectandindirectbearinguponeconomiclife，isobvious。Howfarthiswasteistobeimputedtoimitationoftheprestige-possessinghabitsof\'theleisuredclass\'，howfarto\'originalsin\'ortheerrorsorexcessesnaturaltoallsortsandconditionsofmen，itisnotpossibletoascertain。Butitwillbeevidentthatinthesehighersatisfactions，towhichanincreasing\'surplus\'ofwealth，leisureandenergycanbedevoted，willbefoundthelargestwastes。Fortheconventionalexpenditureembeddedinthesestrataofthevariousclassstandardswillbelargelydirectedbymotiveswhichareverylooselyrelatedtoanyrealstandardoforganicwelfare。Oneneednotexaggeratethisexpenditureoftimeormoney，ordeemitwhollyunproductive。 Itmayevenbeconcededthatfewofthepursuitsofpleasurearewhollydestituteofbenefit，norareprestigeandtheimitationitengenderswhollyvalueless。Butsuchpracticescontainmuchthatisobsolete，incongruousorindigestible，muchthatisactivelyinjurious，bothtotheindividualandtosociety。Regardedfromthestandpointofpecuniaryexpenditure，themisdirectionofthesurplusincomeintoemptyordepravedmodesofrecreation，culture，religionandcharityisthelargestofalleconomicwastes。Coulditbesetforthinveraciousaccounts，itsenormitywouldimpressallreflectiveminds。Howsmallthetotalyieldofhumanwelfareorevenofcurrentpleasurablesatisfactionfromtheidletravel，racing，hunting，motoring，golfing，yachting，bettingandgambling，incomparisonwiththehumangainfromtheworkandartsofwhichtheyarethefutilesubstitutes!Considerthedamagetoagriculture，thesheerlossofhumanenergy，theselfishness，sensualityandbrutalityincidentaltomanysports，theempty-mindedness，obtusenessofintelligenceandinsensatepride，theshuttingofthesensesandtheemotionstomostofthefinerandnoblerscenesinthespectacleofnatureandthedramaofhumanity，thatarethenaturalandnecessaryconsequencesof\'asportinglife。\' Orcouldoneaccuratelyanalysethecostsofdilettantism，shamculture，withitsmonstrousperversionsofproductiveenergyinthefieldsofpedagogy，art，science，andliterature，inadescendingscaleoffrivolousnessordepravity，astheyseizebyimitationtheawakeningmindofeverlargerstrataofourpopulations!Butevenworsethanshamintellectualismistheshammoralitywhichtricksitselfoutinpietisticformulasandcharitablepractices，soastoevadeobediencetotheplainlawsofhumanbrotherhoodandsocialjusticeinthisworld。 Thewidestanddeepestimplicationsofthisparasiticlifeofluxuryandleisure，thesubstitutionofrecreationforartandexercise，ofdilettantismforthelifeofthought，ofpietism，andcharityforhumanfellowship，liebeyondthescopeofourformalenquiry。Weareconcernedwiththemprimarilyasaffectingeconomicproductionandconsumption。Sport，dilettantismandcharityareforuscharacteristicproductsofmal-distributionseizingthatsurplus-incomewhichistheeconomicnutrimentofsocialprogress，andapplyingittoevolveacomplicatedlifeoffutilefrivolitiesforasmallleisuredclasswhodamagebytheircontagiousexampleandincitementthestandardsoftheworkingmembersofthesocietyinwhichtheyexercisedominion。CHAPTERXII:THEHUMANLAWOF DISTRIBUTION §；1。Inseekingatoncetoestablishandapplytoindustryastandardofhumanvalue，wehavetakenforourconcretesubject-mattertheaggregateofmarketablegoodsandservicesthatconstitutetherealincomeofthenation。Thisrealwealth，distributedinincomeamongthevariousmembersofthecommunity，wesubjectedtoadoubleanalysis，tracingitbackwardsthroughtheprocessesofitsproduction，forwardintoitsconsumption。 Someoftheactivitiesofitsproductionwerecognisedasbeinginthemselvesinteresting，pleasant，educativeorotherwiseorganicallyuseful:otherswefoundtobeuninteresting，painful，depressingorotherwiseorganicallycostly。Asimilardivergenceofhumanvalueappearedintheconsumptionofthoseformsofwealth。Somesortsandquantitiesofconsumptionwerefoundconducivetothemaintenanceandfurtheranceofhealthylife，bothpleasantandprofitable。Othersortsandqualitiesofconsumptionwerefoundwastefulorinjurioustothelifeoftheconsumersandofthecommunity。 Thegeneralresultofthisdoubleanalysismaybesummarisedinthefollowingtabularform。 WEALTH PRODUCTION Humanutility——Art&；Exercise；LabourHumancost——Toil；Mal-productionCONSUMPTION Humanutility——Needs；AbundanceHumancost——Satiety；Mal-consumptionIntheordinaryeconomicaccount\'costs\'appearentirelyontheProductionsideoftheaccount，\'utility\'entirelyontheConsumptionside。Productionisregardednotasgoodordesirableinitself，butonlyasameanstowardsanend，Consumption。Ontheotherhand，allpartsofConsumptionareregardedasinthemselvesdesirableandgood，andareassessedasUtilitiesaccordingtotheworthwhichcurrentdesires，expressedinpurchasingpower，setuponthem。 Ourhumanvaluationrefusestoregardworkasameremeanstoconsumption。 Itfindslifeandwelfareinthehealthyfunctioningofproductiveactivities，aswellasintheprocessesofrepairandgrowthwhichformsoundconsumption。 IfallproductioncouldbereducedtoArtandExercise，thecreativeandthere-creativefunctions，allconsumptiontothesatisfactionofphysicalandspiritualneeds，weshouldappeartohavereachedanidealeconomy，inwhichtherewouldbenohumancostsandamaximumamountofhumanutility。 Theconditionsofacompleteindividuallifewouldseemtobeattained。 Butwearenotconcernedwithasocietyinwhichcompletenessoftheindividuallifeisthesoleend，butwithasocietyinwhichthedesires，purposesandwelfareoftheindividualsarecomprisedintheachievementofacommonlife。ForthisreasonIhaveincludedundertheheadofUtilityontheProductivesideofouraccount，notonlytheArtandExercisewhicharedirectlyconducivetoindividualwell-being，butaquantumofLabourwhichrepresentstheeconomicmeasureoftheinter-dependency，orsolidarity，oftheso-calledindividuals。Suchlabouristheso-called\'sacrifice\' requiredof\'individuals\'intheinterestofthesocietytowhichtheybelong。Totheindividualistitappearsadistortionofthefreefulldevelopmentofhisnature，aninterferencewithhisperfectlife。Butitis，ofcourse，neithersacrificenordistortion。Fortheso-calledindividualisnowise，exceptinphysicalstructure，1completelydividedfromhisfellows。Heisasocialbeingandthissocialnaturedemandsrecognitionandexpressionineconomicprocesses。Itrequireshimtoengageinsomespecialworkwhichhasforitsdirectendthewelfareofsociety，inadditiontotheworkofusinghisownpowersforhisownpersonalends。Howfarthisroutinelabourforsocietycanbetakenintohisconceptionofhishumannature，andsobecomeasourceofpersonalsatisfaction，isaquestionweshalldiscusslateron。Atpresentitwillsufficetorecognisethateachman\'sfaircontributiontotheroutinelabouroftheworld，thoughirksometohim，isnotinjuriousbutserviceabletohis\'human\'nature。Thusinterpreted，itstandsontheutility，notonthecost，sideoftheaccount。Itmustbedistinguishedfromitsexcess，whichwehereterm\'toil\'，andfromwork，whichwhetherfromanabuseofthecreativefacultyorofsocialcontrol，isbadanddegradinginitsnatureandisheretermedmal-production。 Asimilardistinctionbetweenthenarrowlypersonalandthebroadersocialinterpretationofwelfareisapplicableontheconsumptionside。 Itisclearlynotenoughthattheincomewhichistofurnishconsumptionshouldsufficeonlytomakeprovisionforthesatisfactionofthematerialandspiritualneedsoftheindividualorevenofhisfamily。Theexpenditureofeverymanshouldcontainamargin——whichIherecall\'abundance\'—— fromwhichhemaycontributevoluntarilytothegoodofothers。Therewillbepublicneedsoremergencies，whicharenotproperlycoveredbyStateservicesbutremainacalluponthepublicspiritofpersonsofdiscernmentandhumanity。Therearealsothecallsofhospitalityandcomradeship，andthewiderclaimofcharity，thewillinghelptothoseinneed，acharitythatisspontaneous，notorganised，thatdegradesneitherhimwhogivesnorhimwhoreceives，becauseitisthenaturalexpressionofaspiritofhumanbrotherhood。Forthestingalikeofcondescensionandofdegradationwouldberemovedfromcharity，whenbothpartiesfeelthatsuchactsofgivingareanagreeableexpressionofaspiritoffellowship。Fromtheconsumptionwhichisthusappliedtothesatisfactionofsoundpersonalneeds，orwhichoverflowsin\'abundance\'tomeettheneedsofothers，wedistinguishsharplythatexcessivequantityofconsumption，whichinourTableranksas\'Satiety\'，andthosebasemodesofconsumptionwhichintheirpoisonousreactionsonpersonalandsocialwelfarestrictlycorrespondtothebaseformsofproduction。 §；2。Sucharethegenerallinesofdemarcationbetweenthestrictlybusinessandthehumanvaluationoftheproductiveandconsumptiveprocesses。 WenowperceivehowcloseistheresemblanceofthelawsofhumanvaluationasappliedtothetwosidesoftheequationofWealth。Thissimilarityis，ofcourse，nochancecoincidence:itinheresintheorganicnatureofsocietyandofindividuallife。But，inordertoproceedwithourmainpurpose，theexpressionoftheeconomicincomeintermsofhumanincome，wemustbringthetwosidesoftheenquiryintocloserunion。Wecanthusgetafairsurveyofthecurrentlifeofindustryfromthestandpointofwealthandwaste，healthanddisease。Sofarasournationalincome，the£；2，000，000，000ofgoodsandservices，areproducedbyactivities，whichintheirnatureanddistributioncanbeclassedasArt，ExerciseandSocialLabour，andareconsumedinwaysconducivetothesatisfactionofindividualandsocialNeeds，ourindustrialsocietyissound。 Probablythegreaterpartofourincomeisthusmadeandspent。Thenecessityofattendingmorecloselytothedefectsthantothesuccessesofthepresentsystemmustnotleadustodisparagethelatter。