第11章

Finally，ananalysisofthehumanworthofexistingindustryonitsproductiveandconsumptivesideswouldnotsuffice。Forsuchananalysismerelyacceptstheexistingsystemofindustryandenquiresintothebesthumanmethodsofworkingit。 Buthumanistcriticismmust，ofcourse，gobehindthisacceptance。 Theproblemofindustrywhichitwillenvisagewillbeonethattakesasitsdatatheexistingresourcesofthenation，naturalandhuman，andconsidershowtheseresourcesmay，inaccordancewithpresentknowledge，bebestappliedfortheprovisionoforganicwelfareaccordingtothebestacceptedinterpretationofthatterm。Howeverdifficultitmaybetosecure，tojustifyandtoapplythatstandpoint，thisistheforminwhichtheeconomicproblemmustpresentitselftothestatesman，thepublicist，andthesocialreformer，sofarastheyareclear-sighted，rationalanddisinterestedintheirwork。 Soregarded，eachindividualwouldbeconsideredasacomplexofactivitiesandwants，whosespecialisedworkforsocietymustbeharmonisedwiththatfreedomandexerciseofhisnon-specialisedfunctionsneededtoenablehimtorealisehimselfasahumanpersonality。Dueconsiderationwouldbegiventotheinterplayofhisproductiveandconsumptivefunctionswithinhiseconomiclife。Hiseconomiclifemust，however，bekeptinduesubordinationtohiswiderhumanlife，consisting，asthelatterdoes，mainlyofnon-economicfunctions。 Finally，hiseconomicandhumanlifeasapersonalitymustbeharmonisedwiththeeconomicandhumanlifeofthesocietyofwhichheisamember。 Sucharethemainimplicationsofwhatmightbetermedthehumanscientificcalculusofindustrialvalues。 NOTES: 1。ThePrinciplesofScientificManagement(Harper&；Bros。)。 2。Op。cit。，p。65。 3。ThePrinciplesofScientificManagement，p。74。 4。ThePrinciplesofScientificManagement，p。100。 5。\'Whileonewhoisnotexperiencedatmakinghismenreallyenthusiasticintheirworkcannotappreciatehowathleticcontestswillinterestthemen，itistherealsecretofthesuccessofourbestsuperintendents。 Itnotonlyreducescosts，butitmakesfororganisationandthussavesforemen\'stime。\'F。G。Gilbreth，BricklayingSystem，p。13。 6。ThePrinciplesofScientificManagement，p。83。 7。Taylor，p。85。 8。Op。cit。，p。103。 9。Op。cit。，p。37。 10。Taylor，p。126。 11。Taylor，p。59。 12。PsychologyandIndustrialEfficiency。 13。Op。cit。，p。23。 14。Op。cit。，p。66。 15。Op。cit。，p。85。 16。Thisrationalisationoflifefordistinctivelyeconomicpurposes，alikeonitsproductiveandexpenditureside，hasbeencarriedfurtherbytheJewsthanbyanyotherpeople，i。e。，theirreligion，politics，eugenicsandeducationhavebeendirectedmoreexclusivelyandmorerationalisticallytowardsthebusinessartsinwhichtheyexcel，thoseofthefinancier，undertaker，trader，thaninthecaseofotherpeoples。SeeSombart，TheJewsandModernCapitalism，Chs。IXandX。CHAPTERXV:THEDISTRIBUTIONOFWEALTH §；1。Leisure，regardedasaneconomicgood，comesunderthegenerallawofdistributionofwealth。Butthenotoriousdefectsofitsdistribution，andtheirhumanconsequences，aresuchastoclaimforitaseparateplaceinourenquiry。Modernindustrialismbyitslargeunearnedsurplushasgreatlyincreasedthesizeoftheleisureclasses。Forwhereversuchsurplusgoes，thereisthepossibilityandprobabilityofalifeofleisure。InourstudyofConsumptionwetracedthepartplayedbyconspicuousleisureasanelementofprideandpowerintheeconomyoftherich。InGreatBritainthesizeofthisleisureclassisbynomeansmeasuredbythenumberofthosewhostandinthecensusas\'unoccupied。\'Inthetopstratumofthebusinessworldwefindconsiderablenumbersofthedirectingandmanagerialclasswhoareseldomorever\'busy。\'Theirofficehoursareshortandirregular，theirweek-endsextendfromFridaytoTuesday，theirholidaysarelongandfrequent。 Mostoftheirleisureisaccompaniedbyprofuseconsumption，involvingthusfromthestandpointofsocietyadoublewaste，awasteoftimeandofsubstance。Wheredoesallthisleisurecomefrom？Theanswertothisquestionseemstolerablysimple。Ithasoftenbeenobservedthatlabour-savingmachineryandotherdevicesforabridginghumantoilhavedoneverylittletolightenorshortenthework-dayfortheworkers。Whatthenhasbecomeofthelabourthatissaved？Mostofithasgonetoenlargetheleisureoftheleisuredclass，orperhapsweshouldsay，oftheleisuredclasses。 Forwesawthatthereexistedaloweraswellasanupperleisureclass，anecessaryproductofthesamemal-distributionofresourcesassustainsthelatter。Foranindustrialsystemthatgrindsoutunproductivesurplusbreaksdownthephysicalandmoralefficiencyoflargenumbersofactualorpotentialworkersasaby-productoftheoverdrivingandunderfeedingprocess。Therecklessbreedingoftheclassthusbrokendownfurnishesahordeofweaklings，shirkersandnomads，unassimilated，unassimilablebytheindustrialsystem。Thesebeings，keptalivebycharityandpoor-laws，havegrownwithmodernindustrialismandconstitutetheclassknownas\'unemployables。\'Theyareoftendescribedasa\'standingmenacetocivilisation，\' andareinfactthemostpitiableproductofthemal-distributionofwealth。 §；2。Buttheirregularitiesofmodernproductionandconsumptionarealsoresponsibleforavastamountofinvoluntaryandinjuriousleisureamongthegenuineworking-classes。Thatleisureiscommonlytermed\'unemployment。\' itisnottrueleisure，inthesenseoftimeforrecreationorenjoyment，thoughitmightbecomeso。Forthemostpartitisatpresentwastefulanddemoralisingidleness。 Acertainamountofunemploymentisofcourseunavoidableinanyorganisationofindustry。Therewillbesomeleakageoftimebetweenjobsandunpredictableirregularitiesofweatherandclimatewillinvolvesomeidleness。Expansionsandcontractionsofspecialtrades，changesinmethodsofproductionandofconsumption，thenecessaryelasticityofeconomiclife，willcontinuetoaccountforthetemporarydisplacementofgroupsofworkers。Thereis，ofcourse，nosocialwastageinthisprocess，ifitisproperlysafeguarded。 Buthithertoithasbeenagreatsourceofindividualandsocialwaste。 Societyisonlybeginningtorealisetheduty，orindeedthepossibility，oftakingactivestepstoreducethequantityofthisunemploymentandtoutilisewhatisunavoidableforthebenefitoftheunemployedandofsociety。Thecultivationofthesespareplotsoftimeinthenormallifeoftheworkersmaybecomeahighlyserviceableart。 Ifallunemploymentcouldbespreadevenlyovertheworkingyear，takenoutinashorteningoftheordinaryworking-dayandintheprovisionofperiodicandsufficientholidays，animmenseadditionwouldbemadetothesumofindustrialwelfare。Thus，withoutanyreductionintheaggregateoflabour-time，asensiblereductioninthehumancostoflabourmightbeachieved，iflaw，custom，ororganisedlabourpolicymadeitimpossibleforemployerstovaryviolentlyorsuddenlythevolumeofemploymentandtosandwichperiodsofover-timewithperiodsofshort-time。Thesebanefulirregularitiesofemploymentappearinevitablesolongastheyremainpermissible，asdosweatingwagesandotherbadconditionsoflabour。Whentheyarenolongerpermissible，theorganisedintelligenceofthetradewilladjustitselftothenewconditions，generallywithlittleornoloss，oftenwithpositivegain。 Iftherearetradesuponwhichseason，fashion，orotheruncontrollablefactorsimposegreatirregularityofemployment，asoundsocialpolicywillhavecloseregardtothenatureofthisirregularity。Whereanessentiallyirregulartradeisengagedinsupplyingsomenecessaryorconvenienceoflife，as，forinstance，ingas-worksandcertainbranchesoftransport，alternativetradesmaybefoundwhosefluctuationstendtovaryinverselywiththoseoftheformertrades，andwhichcanfurnishworksuitableinkindandplacetothosewhoareout。 Statisticsofemploymentshowthattheaggregateofemploymentduringanygivenyeardoesnotvarymuch。Itwouldvaryless，ifeverymanengagedinanessentiallyirregulartradehadanalternative，inwhichhewasqualifiedtoearnalivingwhenemploymentintheothertradewasshort。Forthereislittletruthinthecontentionthatspecialisationformostmanualtradesiscarriedsofarthatanalternativeorsubsidiaryemploymentspoilsaworkerforefficiencyinhisprimetrade。Ifthereareanynecessarytradesforwhoseunavoidableunemploymentnosucheffectiveprovisioncanbemade，societymusteithersaddlethetradewiththeobligationofkeepingthe\'reserve\'oflabourwhileitstandsinwaiting，oritmustitselfundertaketheadministrationofthetradeasonewhichcannotsafelybeleftinprivatehands。Inthecaseoffashionorluxurytrades，whichfurnishmanyinstancesofgreatestirregularity，legalprohibitionofover-timewilloftenoperatemostbeneficially。Wheremuchunemploymentstillremains，ahighcontributiontoanunemployedinsurancefundwouldstimulateadvantageousreadjustments。 Finally，iftherearetradesincapableofbearingthetruecostsofmaintenanceofthelabourtheyemploy，itwouldstillberighttoplaceonthemtheobligationtodoso，fortheirdestructionwillbeagainnotalosstoasocietythatunderstandsitshumaninterests。 Butthemainproblemofleisurewouldstillremainunsolved。Forthenormalburdenofindustrialtoil，imposedbyourpresenteconomicsystemuponmostworkers，isexcessive。Thatexcessconsistsprimarilyindurationofthework-day，thoughaggravatedinmanycasesbyintensityorpaceofworking。greatnumbersofworkers，especiallyamongwomen，areemployedinoccupationswhereneitherlaw，custom，nortradeorganisation，imposesanylimits。Nofactorydayaffectstheemployeesinshopsorofficesormostwarehouses，orinmosttransporttrades，orindomesticservicedepartmentsofemploymentwhichabsorbarapidlyincreasingnumberandproportionoftheemployedpopulation。Therearevastnumbersofdomesticworkshopsandhometradesinwhichmenandwomenareemployed，whereallhoursareworked。 Nolegalrestrictionsofhoursaresetuponadultmalelabourinmanufacturingandotherindustrialworkinmostofthemetalandothertradeswhichareexclusivelyorpredominantlymen\'semployments，thoughintradeswherewomenalsoareemployedrestrictionsareoftenimposedwhichinfactextendtomenthefactoryday。 Butthereisagenerallyrecognisedfeelingthatthelengthofthefactorydayisgravelyexcessive，that101/2，oreven9hoursperdiem，undermodernconditionsofspeeded-upmachineryandnervoustension，involvetooheavyahumancost。 §；3。Itisthisgrowingvolumeoffeelingthathascrystallisedinthedemandforaneight-hoursday。Thisisnoimmoderatedemand。Aregularcontributionofeighthours\'workingenergyofhand，orbrain，ornerves，tosomenarrowroutineprocess，isasmuchas，ormorethan，theordinarymanorwomancanafford，inthewholesomeinterestofhispersonality，togiveuptosociety。Forwehaverecognisedquiteclearlythataspecialisationoffunction，adivisionoflabour，growingeverfiner，isrequiredoftheindividualintheinterestsofsociety。Hemustmakethisapparentsacrificeofhisprivatetastes，feelingsandinterests，forthegoodofthesocietyofwhichheisamember。Itisnot，asweperceive，arealsacrifice，unlessthedemandmadeuponhimisexcessive，forthegoodofthesocietyheservesishisgood，andwhathegivesoutcomesbacktohiminparticipationofthecommonlife。But，whenthetaskimposedistoolongortoohard，thesacrificebecomesaninjury，theencroachmentuponthehumanlifeoftheworkerinflictsgravedamage，whichdamageagainreactsuponsociety。 ThestressoftheLabourMovementupontheurgencyofshorteningthework-dayto-dayisextremelysignificant。Ittestifiestotwoadvancesintheactualconditionofthelabouringclasses。Inthefirstplace，itindicatesthatsomesubstantialprogresshasbeenmadetowardsahigherlevelofmaterialstandardofconsumption。Forworkersonthelowerlevelsofpovertydarenotaskforreducedhoursoflabour，involving，asmaywelloccur，areductionofpay。Workersstrugglingforabarephysicalsubsistencecannotaffordtopurchaseleisure。 OfcourseIknowthateventhebetter-to-doworkerswhovoiceademandforaneight-hoursdayarenotreadytoproclaimtheirwillingnesstopayforitindiminishedwages。Norneedtheyinallcases。Wheretheshorterdayisattendedbyimprovedefficiencyorincreasedintensityoflabour，ormerelybybetterorganisationofthebusiness，theremaybenothingtopay。Moreleisurehasbeensqueezedoutoftheworking-day。Therearemanycaseswherethiscanbedone，fortheworking-dayinmanyinstancesiswastefullyprolonged。But，thoughincertaintradesaten-hoursdaymaybereducedtonine，oreveneight，withoutanyreductionofoutput，thisisnotthecaseinothertrades，norevenintheformertradescouldtheprocessbecarriedfarwithoutalossofoutput。Inagreatmanyemploymentsashortworking-daywillinvolvealargereconomiccostoflabour，andwhere，asisusualincompetitivetrade，thislargercostcannotbemadegoodoutofprofits，labourwillhavetobuythisleisure，inpartatanyrate，byreducedwages。Forevenifhecangetitshiftedontotheconsumerintheshapeofhigherprices，asconsumerhewillinhisturnhavetobearapartofit。 Wherethedemandforshorterhoursisgenuine，andisnotamerecoverforextendedover-time，tobepaidforatahigherrate，itmustbetakenasindicativeoftheworkers，willingnesstotakepartofhisshareofindustrialprogressinleisureinsteadofwages。 §；4。Butleisure，asaneconomicasset，isnotamerequestionofhours。Ashorterwork-daymightbedearlyboughtatthecostofanintensificationoflabourwhichleftbodyandmindexhaustedattheendofeachday。Theoppositionofworkerstoapolicyofspeeding-up，ortheuseofpace-setters，isusuallyasaneactofself-defence，andnotthefractiousobstructiontoindustrialprogressitissometimesrepresented。Noconsiderationsofhumanendurancelimitthepaceatwhichmachinerydrivenbymechanicalpowermaybeworked。Unless，therefore，restraintsareputbylaw，customorbargaining，uponthespeedofmachines，orthenumberwhichaworkeriscalledupontoserve，competitionmayimposeawork-daywhich，thoughnotundulylonginhours，habituallyexhauststheordinaryworker。Itisnotalwaysrealisedhowgreatachangetookplacewhentheweaver，theshoemaker，thesmith，passedfromtheworkshops，wherethepaceandotherconditionsofworkweremostlyregulatedbytheirvoluntaryaction，tothesteam-drivenfactory。Theshoemakerandthetailorundertheoldconditionshadtime，energyandlibertyforthoughtwhilecarryingontheirwork: theycouldslacken，breakofforspeedup，theirwork，accordingtotheirinclination。Theclickerorheelerinashoefactory，thecutter-outinaclothingfactory，havenosuchmeasureoffreedom。Thisis，ofcourse，anormaleffectofmodernindustrialism。Closerandmorecontinuousattentionisdemandedduringtheworkinghours。 Thustherealquestionofleisureisaquestionofsparehumanenergyratherthanofsparehours。Theshorterworking-dayischieflyneededasaconditionfavourabletospareenergy。Thoughtherefore，aneight-hoursdaymaynotunreasonablybetakenasaproximatereform，forlabouringeneral，thereisnoreasonwhythework-dayinalloccupationsshouldbecuttothisoranyotherexactmeasure。Sucharithmeticalequalitywouldevidentlyworkoutmostinequitably，asbetweentradeandtrade，orprocessandprocessinthesametrade。Inmanylargedepartmentsofindustry，thetransportanddistributivetradesinparticular，numerousintersticesofleisureareinsertedinaday\'swork，easingtheburdenoftheday，andsometimesaffordingopportunityforrecreationandintercourse。Inthemorearduousprocessesofmanufacture，mining，orinclericalandotherroutinebrainwork，thereislittleornoscopeforsuchrelaxation。 Butwhilesuchconsiderationsevidentlyaffectthedetailedpolicyoftheshorterdayinitspressureontheseveraloccupations，theydonotaffectthegeneralpolicy。 Therecanbenodoubtthatanexcessiveandinjuriousamountofspecialisedlabourisexactedfromtheworkersbytheordinaryindustrialconditionsofto-dayinnearlyallindustrialprocesses。 §；5。Thefirstpleaforashorterdayisonewhichouranalysishasmadeself-evident。 Itwillgreatlyreducethehumancostofproductioninmostprocesses。 For，aswerecognise，thestrainofmuscularandnervousfatigue，bothconsciousandunconscious，gathersforceandgrowswithgreatrapidityduringthelaterhoursoftheworkday，Thoughthecurverepresentingthevariationsofthehumancostwillofcoursedifferineverysortofworkandfordifferentworkers，theirage，sex，strength，healthandotherpersonalconditionsaffectingit，thelasthoursofeachshiftwillcontainadisproportionateamountoffatigue，painandother\'costs，\'whilethequalityandquantityoftheworkdoneintheselasthourswillbeinferior。 Ifoutofanystockofmaterialgoods，wewereabletoseparatetheproductofthelasthour\'sworkfromthatoftheearlierhoursinthework-day，andcouldsubjectittotheanalysisofhumancostandutility，whichwehaveendeavouredtoapplytothegeneralincome，whatshouldwefind？Thislastincrementoftheproductwouldcontainaheavierburdenofhumancostofproductionthananyoftheearlierincrements。Again，turningtotheconsumptionside，whatshouldwefind？Thislastincrementmustbeconsideredasfurnishingthesmallestamountofhumanutilityinitsconsumption。 Indeed，ifwearerightinholdingthataconsiderablefractionofeachsupply，evenofwhatarecommonlyclassedasmaterialnecessariesoflife，suchasfoods，clothings，etc。，iswastefullyorevendetrimentallyconsumedbythewell-to-do，thereisreasontoholdthatthislastincrementofproduct，involvingthelargesthumancostinitsproduction，containsnoutilitybutsomeamountofhumandisutilityinitsconsumption。 Ifthisanalysisbetrue，thelasthour\'sworkmaybedoublywastefulfromthestandpointofhumanwelfare。 Ofthe£；2，000，000，000whichconstitutesourincomeitmayverylikelybethecasethat£；200，000，000ofitrepresentswealth，which，fromthehumanstandpoint，is\'illth，\'alikeinthemodeofitsproductionandofitsconsumption。Ifithadnotbeenproducedatall，thenationmighthavebeenfarbetteroff，forbyabstainingfromtheproductionofthisshamwealth，itwouldhaveproducedasubstantialamountofleisure。 Itisofcoursetruethattheparticulargroupsofproducers，whobytheirlasthour\'slabourmadethesegoods，maynothavebeenlosersbydoingso；theirheavytoilmayhavebeencompensatedbytheenhancedwagewhichtheycouldnototherwisehavegot，andthelossofwhichwouldhaveinjuredtheirstandardoflife。Itis，indeed，theoperationofcompetitionuponwagesthatactuallyforcesintoexistencethissham-wealth。Drawnoutofover-wroughtworkersbytheunequalconditionsofthewage-bargain，itpassesintowastefulconsumptionbytheback-strokeofthesamelawofdistribution，whichpaysitawayas\'surplus\'or\'unearned\'wealth。 Itisonlytheclearconsiderationofitsproductionandconsumptionfromthesocialstandpointthatexhibitsthewasteofthelasthour\'sproduct。 Butfromthestandpointoftheindividualworkertheeconomyofashorterwork-dayhasadoublesignificance。Wehaveseenthatitmorethanproportionatelydiminisheshispersonalcost，bycancellingthelastandmostcostlyportionofhiswork-day。Butitalsoincreasesthehumanutilitywhichhecangetoutofhiswages。Adayofexhaustingtoilentailstheexpenditureofalargeportionofhiswageinmerereplacementofphysicalwearandtear，orincitestoexpenditureonphysicalexcesses，whiletheleisurehoursarehoursofidlenessandtorpor。Areductionofthework-daywill，bythelargerleisureandspareenergyitsecures，reducetheexpenditureuponmerewearandtear，andincreasetheexpenditureuponthehigherandmorevariedstrataofthestandardofcomfort。Moreleisurewillingeneralsoalterthemodeoflivingastoenabletheworkertogetmoreandbetterutilityoutoftheexpenditureofhiswages。Takeanextremecase。Amanwhotoilsalldaylongatsomeexhaustingwork，andgoeshomeatnighttootiredforanythingbutfoodandsleep，soastoenablehimtocontinuethesameroundto-morrow，thoughhemayearngoodwagesfromthistoil，cangetlittleoutofthem。Ifhewereinducedtoworklessandleavehimselfsometimeandenergyforrelaxationandenjoyment，hewouldgetalargerutilityoutoflessmoneyincome。 Thematter，however，doesnotneedlabouring。Itisevidentthatmanymodesofconsumptiondependinpart，forthepleasureandgaintheyyield，upontheamountoftimegiventotheconsumingprocesses。Itwouldbemerefoolishnessforatiredworkertospendmoneyuponimprovingbookswhichhehadnotthetimeandenergytodigest。Shortenhishours，leavehimmoreenergy，suchexpendituremaybeextremelyprofitable。Eventheenjoymentandgoodofhismealswillbeincreased，ifhehasmoretimeandenergyforwholesomeprocessesofdigestionandfortheexercisewhichfacilitatesdigestion。Andwhatistrueofhisfoodwillholdalsoofmostotheritemsinhisstandardofconsumption。Noconsumptionispurelypassive:togetthebestutilityorenjoymentoutofanysortofwealth，timeandenergyarerequisite。Thegreaterpartofaworkman\'sincomegoestotheupkeepofhishomeandfamily。Doesthenormalwork-dayinourstrenuousagepermitthebread-winnertogetthefullenjoymentoutofhomeandfamily？Hebelongsperhapstoacluboracooperativesociety。Canhemakethemostoftheseopportunitiesofeducationandofcomradeship，ifhisdailytoilleaveshimlittlemarginofvitality？MostofthegrowingpublicexpenditurewhichthemodernStateorCitylaysoutupontheamenitiesofsociallife，theapparatusoflibraries，museums，parks，musicandrecreation，ishalfwastedbecauseindustryhastrenchedtoomuchuponhumanity。 §；6。Moreleisuremeansanincreasedfundofutilityorwelfaregotoutoftheincomeatthedisposalofeachworker。 ThisintroducesustothefullereconomyofleisureregardedaStheopportunityofopportunities——theconditionofalleffectivesocialreconstructionandprogress。 Consideritfirstinrelationtoindustrialwelfare。Wehaveseenhowsocietyenforcesitsclaimsupontheworkerbydivisionoflabourandspecialisationoffunctions。Thisspecialisationisusuallyjustifiedbythevarietyofconsumptionwhichityields。Butwillnotthismorecomplexandrefinedconsumptioninlargepartbewastedorpervertedtobaseends，iftheproducerbecomesevernarrowerinhisproductivefunction？ TheOrganicLawpresseshereinsistently。Itwouldbegoingtoofar，doubtless，toassertthathewhocanproduceonethingcanonlyconsumeonething。ButeveryonefamiliarwiththefinerartsofConsumptionwilladmitthataconsumerwhoisutterlyunskilledintheproductionofthesegoodscannotextractfromtheirconsumptionthefullenjoymentorutilitywhichtheycontain。Atrueconnoisseurofpicturesmust，intrainingandinstudy，beagooddealofanartist:theexquisitegourmetmustbesomethingofacook。 Inotherwords，ourindustrialcivilisationoffersadangerousparadox，ifitmerelypresentsmanexposedtotwoopposedforces，tendingontheonehandtogreaternarrownessofproduction，ontheother，togreaterwidthandcomplexityofconsumption。Tosolvethisparadoxisthefirstserviceofthelargenewfundofleisurewhich，forthefirsttimeinhistory，theneweconomiesofindustryrenderavailablenotforalittleclassbutforwholepeoples。 Thefirstuseofleisure，then，isthatitsuppliesacounterpoisetospecialisationbytheopportunityitgivesfortheexerciseoftheneglectedfaculties，thecultivationofneglectedtastes。Asthespecialisationgrowscloser，thisurgencyincreases。Moreleisureisrequiredfortheroutineworkertokeephimhuman。 Inthefirstplace，itmustaffordhimrelaxationorrecreationbyoccupationsinwhichthespontaneity，theliberty，theelementsofnovelty，increasinglyprecludedfromhiswork-day，shallfindexpression。Itmustliberatehimfromautomatism，andaffordhimopportunityforthecreativeandinterestingworkrequiredtopreserveinhimhumanity。 Aneight-hoursdaywouldmeanthatthousandsofmen，whoatpresentleavethefactoryorfurnace，theofficeortheshop，inastateofphysicalandmentallassitude，wouldtakeaturnatgardening，orhomecarpentry，wouldreadsomeseriousandstimulatingbook，ortakepartinsomeinvigoratinggame。 Thuseachmanwouldnotmerelygetmoreoutofeachitemofhiseconomicconsumption，buthewouldaddtothenetsumofhishumanity，andincidentallyofhiseconomicutility，bycultivatingthoseneglectedfacultiesofproductionwhichyieldhimapositivefundofinterestandhumanbenefit。 §；7。SofarIhavesetforththeeconomyofleisurefromthestandpointofphysicalandmoralhealth:theorderandharmonyofhumanpowers。This，however，isinthemainastaticaleconomy。Now，OrderischieflyvaluableasthemeansofProgress，HealthasthemeansofGrowth。ThedynamiceconomyofProgressdemandsleisureevenmoreinsistently。 EveryonewillformallyadmitthatEducationisimpossiblewithoutleisure。 ItisoftenpointedoutthattheGreekwordwhichhasbeenconvertedintoourword\'School\'meansLeisure。Onemight，therefore，supposethattheutmostcarewouldbetakentogetthefullestuseoutoftheleisurewhichchild-lifeaffords，andtoensurethatthroughoutlifethereshouldremainasufficientsupplyofthisrawmaterialofprogress——thesurplusenergybeyondthebareneedsofexistenceneededfororganicgrowth。 Theprodigalwasteofthissacredstoreofleisureforchild-lifeintheprocessesofourElementaryEducationisonlytoofamiliartoallofus。Mr。StephenReynolds1hardlyoverstatesthecasewhenhesays，\'itgivestothechildrenaboutthreeyears，worthofsecond-rateeducationinexchangeforeightornineyearsoftheirlife。\'2 Ibelievethatthetrainededucationalistofthenextgeneration，examiningtheexpensiveeducationgiveneveninthebestequippedofoursecondaryschoolsandouruniversities，inthelightofamorerationalconceptionofhumanprogress，willfindatleastaslargeawasteofopportunityintheseseatsoflearningasinourelementaryschools。Notuntileducationalstandardsandmethodsarebetteradjustedtotrueconditionsofthevitalprogressofindividualsandofsocieties，willthechiefsignificanceofleisureberealised。 §；8。Butthevalueofleisureisbynomeansexhaustedbytheseconsiderations。Thefinestfruitsofhumanlifecomenotbyobservation。 Tolayoutalloursparetimeandenergytotheverybestadvantagebyascrupulousseizureofopportunitiesisinrealityafalseeconomy。Industrialismhasundoubtedlydonemuchbothtodisciplineandtoeducatethepowersofman。Butithaspreachedtooarrogantlythegospelofeconomyandindustry。 Itisnotgoodforanymantoaccountforhistimeeithertohimselfortoanother，withtoogreatexactitude，ortoseektomakeamosaicofhisdays。TheSmilesianphilosophyofthriftandindustryimpartsmorecalculationintolifethanisgoodforman。Weshouldnotbesoterriblyafraidofidleness。Dr。Wattsheldthat\'Satanfindssomemischiefstillforidlehandstodo。\'ButfarsanerisWordsworth\'sview，\'thatwecanfeedthismindofoursinawisepassiveness，\'andThoreau\'sdemandfora\'broadmarginoflife。\' Wearenotyetsufficientlyadvancedinpsychologytoknowmuchoftheprocesseswithinthemindbywhichnovelthoughtsandfeelingsseemtoenteroftheirownaccord，startingnewimpulsestoaction，orbywhichtheuncheckedimaginationworksalongsomerapidlineofintuition。Butthatsuchseasonsofvacancyandreverieareessentialtomanyofthefinestprocessesoftheintellectandheart，isindisputable。Todenythistoanymanistodeprivehimofapartofhisrightfulheritageofhumanopportunity。 Theinventor，thepoet，theartist，arereadilyallowedsuchfreedisposaloftime。Everyoneallowsthatgeniusmusthaveampleperiodsofincubation。 Buttheimplicationthatcommonmenoughttohavetheirfaceskepttothegrindstoneisquitefalse。Everybodywantsleisureforhissoultomoveaboutinandtogrow，notbysomecloselyprescribedplanofeducation，butbyfreeexperimentationofitssecretpowers。Averyslenderharvestofhappythoughtsandfeelingswilljustifymuchapparentidleness。 Inthenarrowerinvestigationofmethodsofindustrywhichweessayed，werealisedthecriticalpartplayedbyleisureintheartofinvention。 Thelackofleisureforthegreatmajorityofworkersisassuredlyawasteofinventivepower。Wethinkoursocietyprolificininventions，especiallyintheagewearelivingin，butitislikelythatthepaceofprogressthroughindustrialinventionswouldbegreatlyquickenediftheproperplay-timeofthemindwerenotdeniedtothegreatmajorityofmenandwomen。 Biologistsandpsychologistshavemademanyinterestingenquiriesintothemotivesthatpromptanimalsandhumanbeingstoplay。Theformsofplay，therhythmorpatternsintowhichtheorganiccooperationsofmuscularandnervoustensionsanddischargescastthemselves，arefoundtohavesomedirectrelationtotheseriouspursuitsofadultlife，theprotectionagainstenemies，thepursuitofpreyandotherfood，courtship，matingandthecareoftheyoung，andthecorporatemovementsnecessaryfortheprotectionofthehordeortribe。Sointerpreted，playisaninstinctiveeducationforlife。Natureisfullofindirectness，andagreatdealofthisplayisnotcloselyimitativeofanyparticularsortofusefulactivitybutisdirectedtogeneralfitness。Thisappliesparticularlytothehigheranimalswhoarelessexclusivelydirectedbyseparateparticularinstinctsandareliabletohavetomeetnovelandirregularemergenciesthatcallforgeneraladaptabilityofbodyandofmind。Theplayofhigheranimalsandespeciallyofhumanyoungwillthusrunlargelyintoformsinwhichtheintellectualandemotionalpowerswillhavelargescope，wherespontaneousvariationandfreeimaginationwillexpressthemselves，andwherethemoreorlessroutinerhythmsoftheprimitivedanceorsongormockfightwillpassintohigherformsofindividualcunningandcompetitiveexploit，havingastheirmainbiologicalandsocial\'meaning\'thepracticeofanefficientmentalandemotionalequipment。Playthusconsideredisanexperimentationofvitalpowers。Itsutilityforchild-lifeiscommonlyadmitted。Infact，thereisagravedangerlestthespontaneityandinstinctivedirectionwhichnaturehasimplantedshouldbedamagedbytheattemptsofeducationaliststoforcethevitalutilityofplaybyorganisingitinto\'setgames。\'Thoughweneednotrudelyruleoutreasonableregulationfromthis，asfromanyotherdepartmentoflife，itwouldbewelltorememberthatplayhaspowerfuldirectiveinstinctsbehinditinchild-lifewhichadultnotionsofeconomymaygravelymisconceiveandinjurebyover-regulation。Hastyendeavourstodisplaceinstinctbyreasoninchild-lifearelikelytoprovecostlytohumanwelfareinthelongrun。Thespontaneousjoyofthoseactivitiesofchildhoodthatseemmost\'wasteful\'isprobablyafarbetterindextowelfarethananypedagogiccalculations。 Butbecausethehumanutilityofplayisgreatforchildren，itdoesnotfollowthatitissmallformenandwomen。Eventhephysiologicalandmuchmorethepsychologicalutilityofplaylaststhroughlife，thoughdoubtlessindiminishingvalue。Foradultworkersmerereposeneverexhauststheuseofleisure。Thebiologicalorthesocialutilityofhisplaymaybemuchsmallerthaninthecaseoftheyoung。Butitwillremainconsiderable。 Noristhisutilitychieflyexpressedintherelationbetweenplayandinvention。Thechiefjustificationforleisuredoesnotconsistinitscontributiontotheartsofindustrybutratherinraisingthebannerofrevoltagainstthetyrannyofindustryoverhumanlife。 §；9。Wehavegrownsoaccustomedtoregardbusinessastheabsorbingoccupationofman，thatwhichnecessarilyandrightlyclaimsthemajorpartofhiswakinghours，thatasocietybasedonanyotherscaleofvaluesseemsinconceivable。Thoughhistoryhasmadeusfamiliarwithcivilisations，suchasthoseofAthensandofRome，wherealargebodyoffreecitizensregardedpolitics，art，literatureandphysicalrecreationsasfarmoreimportantoccupations，weknowthatsuchcivilisationsrestedonabasisofslavelabour。Wedonotseemtorealisethatforthefirsttimeinhistorytwoconditionsaresubstantiallyattainedwhichmakeittechnicallypossibleforawholepeopletothrowoffthedominionoftoil。MachineryandDemocracyarethesetwoconditions。Iftheycanbebroughtintoeffectivecoordination，sothatthefulleconomicsofmachineproductioncanberenderedavailableforthepeopleasawhole，thedominationofindustryoverthelives，thethoughts，andtheheartsofmen，canbeoverthrown。Thisisthegreatproblemofsocial-economicreconstruction，tomakeindustrytheservantofallmen，nottheservantsofthefew，themastersofthemany。Itssolutiondemands，ofcourse，thatafterthewholesomeorganicneedsaresatisfied，thestimulationofnewmaterialwantsshallbekeptincheck。Forifeveryclasscontinuesconstantlytodevelopnewcomplicateddemands，whichstrainthesinewsofindustryevenunderasocially-orderedmachine-economy，takingthewholeofitsincreasedcontrolofNatureinnewdemandsuponNatureforeconomicsatisfaction，thetotalburdenofindustryonManisnowiselightened。Ifwearetosecureadequateleisureforallmen，andsotodisplacethetyrannyofthebusinesslifebythedueassertionofotherhigherandmorevariedtypesoflife，wemustmanagetocheckthelustofcompetitivematerialismwhichindustrialismhasimplantedinourhearts。 Iamawarehowdifficultitistotranslatethesehandsomeaspirationsintopracticalachievement。Tourgetheworking-classesofthiscountry，orevenconsiderablesectionsofthemiddle-classesengagedinthetradesandprofessions，tosacrificesomeimmediatelyattainableriseintheirmaterialandintellectualstandardofcomfort，inordertherebytopurchasemoreleisure，willbetakentoindicateablankignoranceoftheactualconditionsoftheirlives。Ishallberemindedthatrecentstatisticsofwagesinthiscountryshowthataboutone-thirdofourworking-classfamiliesarelivinguponprecariousweeklyincomesamountingtolessthan25s。aweek，andthatthiscomputationdoesnottakeintoaccountalargebodyofthepopulationlivinguponcasualearningsindefinitelylowerthanthissum。NowMr。Rowntreeandothersearchersintoworking-classexpenditurehaveshownthat24s。willhardlypurchaseforanordinaryfamilyinanyEnglishtownasufficiencyoffood，clothing，housing，fuelandotherrequisitestomaintainitsmembersinfullphysicalefficiency。Itwillseemidletocontendthatworking-peopleinthiscasewoulddowelltopreferashorteningoftheirworkingday，howeverlongitbe，toanincreaseoftheirwages。 NoneoftheconsiderationsIhaveurgedrelatingtothebetterutilisationoftheirconsumptionwillbeheldtojustifysoobviouslywastefulapolicy。 Theseworkerssimplycannotaffordtobuymoreleisureatsohighaprice。 Theydarenotsacrificeanyfractionoftheircurrentwagestoprocureareductionofhoursfromtenhourstoeight，eveniftheconditionsoftheirtradeotherwiseadmittedsuchachange；andifincreasingprosperityintheirtradepresentsthemwiththeoptionofobtaininghigherwagesorshorterhours，theirpressingdemandsforbetterfoodandhousingwillrightlycompelthemtochoosetheformerofthetwoalternatives。 Noristhisreasoningrefutedbydwellingupontheundeniablefacts，thatmoststandardsofworking-classcomfortcontainelementsofconventionalconsumptionwhichmightbecutoutwithpositiveadvantage，andthat，apartfromthis，amoreintelligenthousekeepingwouldenablemostofthemtodomuchbetterwiththeiractualincomesthantheydo。Forwhenadueallowancehasbeenmadeforsucherrorsorextravagance，theordinarylabourer\'swageintownandincountrystillremainsbelowthemarginoffamilyefficiency。 Ofcourse，inalmosteveryoccupationtherewillbeaconsiderablenumberofworkerswho，havingnofamilydependentonthem，willhavesomemeansattheirdisposalforcomforts，luxuries，savingorleisure。Butthenormalstandardwageforunskilledorlow-skilledlabourinthiscountrydoesnotappeartohaveattainedaheightatwhichthepurchaseofashorterworkingdayissoundeconomy。Wemustalwaysbearinmind，besides，thattheexistenceinatradeofevenaconsiderableminorityofworkerswhocouldaffordtotakeinincreasedleisurewhattheymighttakeinenhancedwages，wouldnotmakethissteppracticableordesirable。Formosttradesarenowsoorganisedthatacommonstandardworkingdayisevenmoreessentialthanauniformrateofwages。 Thesefactsenableustorealisewhyitisthatsomuchelasticityorambiguityattendstheactuallabourmovementforashorterworkingday。 Thedemandisseldomframedinsuchawayastoprecludethecommonuseofover-time，thoughsuchauseofcoursedefeatstheaimforleisure，convertingitintoanaimforhigherwages，thetimeandahalfrateusuallypaidforover-time。 But，thoughthisopenorsecretcompetitionbetweenmoreleisureandmorewagescontinuestotakeplaceintradeswheregeneralconditionsoflabourareimproving，therelativestrengthoftheclaimforleisureisadvancing。Therecomesapointintheimprovedconditionsofeachworking-classwhenthedemandforlibertyandeaseandrecreationbeginstoassertitselfwithsomuchinsistencethatitoutweighssomepartofthechronicdemandforhigherwages。Thoughworkersareusuallyreluctanttoadmittheeconomicnecessityofmakingawage-sacrificeinordertopurchaseleisure，andwillhardlyeverclaimashorterday，iftheyknowittoinvolveanactualfallofwages，theywillsometimesriskthisfall，andmoreoftentheywillforegoaportionofacontemplatedriseofwage，soastogetashorterday。Thestrengthandeffectivenessofthisdemandforleisureincomparisonwithwagesmust，ofcourse，varywiththeactualstandardofcomfortthatobtains，theonerousnessorirksomenessofthework，theage，sexandintelligenceoftheworkers，andthevarietyandsortsofopportunitieswhichincreasedleisurewillplaceattheirdisposal。IntheordinaryEnglishfeudalvillage，oreveninthesmallcountrytown，leisurecommonlymeanstorporqualifiedbythepublic-house。Thepriceofsuchleisure，intermsofsacrificeofwage，wouldbeverylow，fortheutilityinthesensationalenjoymentoftheleisurewouldbeslightascomparedwiththesubstantialadditiontothematerialstandardoffamilycomfortwhichevenashillingwouldafford。 Ontheotherhand，tothebetter-paidmechanic，compositor，orskilledfactoryworker，wherethefamilywagewasrelativelyhigh，andwhereorganisedcitylifepresentedmanyopportunitiesfortheuseandenjoymentofleisure，itmightseemwellworthwhiletopaysomethingincashfortheadvantageofalongerevening。 §；10。Thisproblem，ofcourse，ismerelyoneillustrationofthecomplicatedissueswhichariseinanyorderlystudyofthehumaneconomicsofclassandindividualstandardsofconsumption。Evensuchamerelycursoryglanceatthisdelicateorganicproblemwillservetoexposethefatuityofsomuchofthecrudedogmaticcriticismlavisheduponworking-classeconomybywell-to-doreformerswhohavenotsufficientimaginationordiscretiontoabstainfromapplyingthestandardsofvaluationappropriatetoanincomeof£；1，000ayeartoafamilylivingupon£；60ayear。Theexactincome-pointwhereaWestHamworkercanaffordtoobservethelegalrequirementsagainstovercrowdingbyhiringanotherroom，wherehecanjoinaClubwithareasonablechanceofkeepingupthesubscriptions，wherehecanaffordtokeeptheboysorgirlsatschoolbeyondthelegalage-limit，suchquestionscannotbesettledbygeneralmaximsastothedutyofthriftortheadvantagesofeducation，oreventhedangersofbadsanitation。Itmustberememberedthateveninthishighly-civilisedandChristianlandtherearestillsomemillionsofpeoplewhocannotaffordtosetasideanythingforarainyday，ortolettheirchildrenenjoytheeducationwhichtheStatefreelyprovides，oreventoobeysomeofthefundamentallawsofhealth。Asthefamilywagerisesbeyondabareminimumofcurrentsubsistence，apointwillemergewhereeachoftheseandmanyothersoundpracticesbecomeseconomicallyfeasible:theparticularincome-point，ofcourse，willdifferwitheachfamilyaccordingtoitscomposition，itsneeds，andtheopportunitiesofmeetingthem。 Whatappliessoevidentlytothenarrowincomesofthewage-earnersis，ofcourse，equallyapplicabletothehigherincomesofotherclasses。 Thewell-to-doprofessionalmanrecognisesthatanannualexpenditureoffiveoreventenpercentofhisincomeonholidaysmaybeasoundeconomy，justashecalculatesthatheisdoingbetterforhissonbyspending£；1，000 onhisprofessionaltrainingthanbyputtinghimtobusinessatsixteenwiththesamesumforcapital。Notonlyisitimpossibletogeneraliseforawholepeople，orforallfamiliesinagiventradeorofagivenincome，buttherewillbenotwocaseswherearisingincomeoughttobelaidoutpreciselyinthesameway。Thisisofcoursenothingelsethansayingthat，asnotwopersons，orfamilies，arepreciselyalikeinphysicalandmoralmake-up，intastes，needs，opportunities，theirexpenditurecannotrightlybethesame。 Thoughthisbelongstothemostobviousofcommon-places，noneismorehabituallyignored。Andthatneglectislargelyduetothefactthattheplatitudinarianmoralisthasalwaysbeenallowedtohaveafreerunintheregionofcommentaryonexpenditure。 Eulogiaofthriftandindustryhavebeenasindiscriminateandasunprofitableasdiatribesagainstluxuryandidleness。Whatisneededisaflowoforderlyinvestigationintotherealneedsandcapacitiesoftheindividualsandgroupswhoconstituteindustrialsociety，notconfinedtothehardfactswhichcanbetabulatedandplottedincurvesbuttakingcountofthosesofterandmoreplasticfactswhichacloserstudyofhumanlifewillalwaysshowasthemaindeterminantsofanyartofconduct。 Theplaceofleisureintheorganicstandardofagrouporclassornationwillbeoneofthemostdelicateproblemsinsuchastudy。Itsdelicacyfortheindividualeconomymay，indeed，bededucedfromtheexpressionwhichweusedattheoutsetofthistreatment，indescribingitas\'theopportunityofopportunities。\'Inotherwords，itshumanutilitytoanyman，and，therefore，itsimportance，relativetohiswagesoranyothergoodhegetsfromthem，willdependuponthenatureofalltheopportunitiesitopensup，andthatinitsturndependsupontheentiresumofthoseconditionswhichwenamehisNatureandhisEnvironment。 Theprogressiveachievementofthiseconomyofleisureiscloselylinkedwithagradualreorganisationofindustrysoastoeliminatethelargewasteoftimeandenergywhichpresentproductivemethodsinvolve。WithscienceandhumanitycooperatingintheartofsocialorganisationitoughttobepossibletoeffectsucheconomiesaswouldplaceallEnglishmeninprivatepossessionofthegreaterpartoftheirwakingdayfortheirownpurposesinlife。Itrequires，however，agenuinefaithintheorganicprogressofHumanNaturetourgewithconfidencethefullermeasureofsuchareform。Weneedatleasttoassumethatthenormaltendencywillbetowardstheuse，nottheabuse，ofmoreleisure，asofhigherwages。 Thatsomewastewillbeincurredinlearningtouseleisure，asalsoinbuildingupeachstageinarisingstandardofexpenditure，isofcourseinevitable。Muchmightbesaidabouttheconditionswhichfacilitatetheassimilationbothofleisureandofwagestonourishahigherhumanlife。 Race，climate，socialtraditionsandsurroundings，thenatureofthework，age，sexand，indeed，manyotherconditions，musthelptodeterminehowagivenshorteningofhours，orenhancementofwages，willaffectthestandardoflife。Somecrudedistinctionsofgreatsignificancehavebeenobserved。 TheBantuandmostotherAfricans，newtoprocessesofwage-labourandtotheneedsofcivilisedlife，willtakethewholeofasuddenriseofwagesinincreasedleisure，butthatleisurewillbespentalmostwhollyinidleness。PushfulGermantradersintropicalcountriescommonlycomplainofthe\'verdammteBedü；rfnislö；sigkeit\'(accursedwantlessness) oftheinhabitants。Thislowconservativestandardoflivingimpedeseconomicprocessesofexchange。Italsoprecludesthefruitfuluseofleisure，thesatisfactionofthenon-economicneeds。Thoughthereisnoreasontoholdthatanyraceortypeofmanisunprogressive，inthesensethathismindisimpervioustonewwantsandisincapableofincitinghimtoneweffortsfortheirsatisfaction，theextentandpaceofsuchprogressvarygreatlywiththeeconomicenvironmentandwiththedegreeofconsciousculturehithertoattained。Thestimuliofeconomicneedsandofnon-economicneedswillnormallyproceedtogether，andinthemassesofaworkingpopulationwillmanifestthemselvesinasimultaneousdemandforhigherwagesandmoreleisure。Butaswagesreachatolerablyhighstandardofeconomiccomfort，itmightbeexpectedthattherelativelystrongerpressureofthenon-economicneedswouldgiveincreasingemphasistothedemandforashorterandeasierworkingday。This，indeed，willseemtoaccordwiththegeneralclaimwhichsocialistsaswellasindividualistsmakeforprogressiveindustrialism，thatitshallmakelargerprovisionforpersonallibertyandself-development。Asspecialisedandregimentedindustryrepresentsthedirecteconomicserviceeachmustrendertosociety，thedemandsofexpandingpersonalityareheldtorequirethatanincreasingproportionofeachman\'stimeandenergyshallbeputathisdisposal。 §；11。Noabstractconsiderationsindeed，canbeadducedtosupportanindefinitereductionofthework-day。Asahighlevelofcivilisationisattainedinanycommunity，theproportionofenergydevotedtomaterial，ascomparedwithnon-materialCommoditiesandservices，willdoubtlessbereduced。Butthatdoesnotnecessarilyimplyacorrespondingreductionofeconomictimeandactivity。Foramongeconomicgoodsthemselves，thosewhicharewhollyormainlynon-materialwillformanincreasingproportionofthewhole。AcommunitylikethatofgreatBritain，withapopulationdeclininginitsgrowth，willtendtotakeacontinuallyincreasingshareofitsrealincomeintheshapeofintellectual，moral，aesthetic，recreative，andothernon-materialservices。Thesewillabsorbanever-growingshareoftheproductiveenergyofthepeople。Thisdemandforthesatisfactionofhighereconomicneedswillbelikelytoputacheckuponthetendencytowardsanillimitablereductionofthework-day。Formostofthesehighernon-materialgoodsdonotadmittheapplicationofthoseeconomiesofcapitalistproductionavailableinthemakingofmaterialgoods。Takeoneexample，thatofeducation。Hereisaservicewhichwillprobablyabsorbacontinuallyincreasingpercentageofthetotaltimeandenergydevotedtoeconomicservices。Thesameisprobablytrueofhygienicservices。Thoughportionsoftheseandotheractivitiesmaypassfromtheeconomicintothenon-economicsphere，beingundertakenbyindividualsasprivateoccupations，fortheirleisure，aspublicservicestheywillcertainlyfurnishemploymenttoanincreasingnumberofemployees。 Thustheclaimsofagrowingprogressivesocialorganisationwillimposesomenecessarylimitsuponthedemandsoftheindividualforlargerlibertyandleisure。