第13章

1。AdamSmith，byopeninghisWealthofNationswithadissertationupontheeconomyofdivisionoflabour，withoutexplainingthatthiseconomyrestsuponapriorconceptionofcooperation，unwittinglyassistedtosetEnglishPoliticalEconomyuponawrongfoundation。 2。Eventhismeasureofworking-classprogresshasbeencheckedduringthelastdecade。RecentstatisticsshowthatinGreatBritainandinmostotherWesterncivilisedcountries，theriseofpricessince1896andstillmoresince1905hasnotbeenattendedbyacorrespondingriseofwages，thoughprofitsandrateofinteresthaverisenatleastequallywithprices。 3。Theordinaryprofit-sharingschemeisvitiated，alikeintheoryandinpractice，bytheerroneousattributionoftheconcept\'profit\'tothatwhichis\'shared。\'Thisisrecognisedatoncewhentheexperimentisproperlydescribed。Fortheordinaryprofit-sharingschemebeginsbylayingdownanormalrateofwagesandofprofits，baseduponcurrentfactsofcommerce。Theprovisionforthisstandardwageandstandardprofitconstitutesafirstchargeuponthetakingsofthebusiness。Undernormalconditionsthiswouldabsorbthewhole。Buttheworkersarenowtoldthat，iftheyproduceanadditionalincome，theyshallhaveinextrawageshalfofit。 Nowthewholeofthisadditionalincomeisduetotheincreasedefficiencyoflabourunderthenewstimulus。Forifanymorecapitalthanbeforeisrequired，provisionforitspaymentatthenormalrateismadebeforeaccountistakenoftheso-calledprofitthatisshared。Nomoreabilityoreffortofsuperintendenceisrequired；infactitisusuallycontendedthatthegreatercaretakenbytheworkersrenderslesssupervisionnecessary。Thus\'profit\'isamisnomerforwhatis\'shared。\'Forthisso-called\'profit\' isentirelyproducedbygreaterintensity，skillorcareonthepartoflabour。Thefactthatlabourgetsonlyhalf，andthatonlyafterthewholeofwhatshouldbecalledthedeferred\'wage-fund\'hasservedtomeetanydeficiencyinthesumrequiredtopaythenormaldividends，explainswhymostoftheseschemesfailafterashorttrial。Theproportionoftheextra-product(evokedentirelybytheincreasedstimulusappliedtolabour)，thatisactuallypaidtolabour，istoosmalltomaintaintheefficiencyofthestimulus。Whentheseprofit-sharingschemessucceed，thesuccessisnearlyalwaystraceabletothefactthatintheoriginalagreement，thebenevolentemployerhasfixedhisrateofinterestorsalary，orboth，uponalowerscalethaniscurrentinthetrade，sothatthestimulustolabouriseffective。 4。BuildingSocietiesareonlyinaveryrestrictedsensecooperative。 5。In1909theaggregatesalesattheRetailStoresamountedto£；70，423，359，orabout10%oftheworking-classincome，andtheprofit(includinginterestpaidonshares)was£；10，851，739。CHAPTERXVII:THENATIONANDTHEWORLD §；1。Wehaveexaminedthechiefdefectsinthestructureofabusinessandatrade，regardedinthelightofinstrumentsofhumanwelfare，andwehaveconsideredsomeoftheremedies，appliedsometimesforpurposesofdistinctivelyindustrialeconomy，sometimesasdevicesofsocialtherapeutics。 Thereremains，however，oneothermodeofeconomicantagonismdeservingofconsideration。Untilmoderntimesanationwastoallintentsandpurposesnotonlyapoliticalbutaneconomicarea，inthesensethatalmostalltradeandothereconomicrelationswereconfinedwithinthenationallimit。 Thesmalldimensionsofforeign，ascomparedwithdomestictrade，andthenatureofthattrade，confinedtoarticlesnotproducedathome，hadlittletendencytogenerateafeelingofinternationalrivalry。Foreigntradewasalmostwhollycomplementaryandnotcompetitive。Withthemodernchanges，whichhavealteredthisconditionandmadenationsappeartobehostilecompetitorsinworldcommerce，weareallfamiliar。ThedevelopmentofcapitalistproductiontoacommonlevelandalongsimilarlinesinanumberofWesternnations，thetendencytowardsanincreaseofoutputofmanufacturedgoodsatapriceexceedingthedemandsoftheexistingmarkets，theconsequentinvasionofthemarketsofeachindustrialcountrybythegoodsofothercountries，andthegrowingcompetitionofthegroupsoftradersineachnationtosecureanddevelopnewmarketsinthebackwardcountries，withtheassistanceofthephysicalandmilitaryforcesoftheirrespectivegovernments，haveimposeduponthepopularmindapowerfulimpressionofeconomicoppositionbetweennations。 Nofalserandmoredisastrousdelusionprevailsinourtime。TheonlyfactswhichseemtogivesupporttoitaretheTariffs，CommercialTreatiesandtheoccasionalusesofpoliticalpressureandmilitaryforcebyStatesforthebenefitoffinanciers，investors，tradersorsettlersbelongingtotheirnationality。Thisinterventionofgovernmentsforthesupposedadvantageoftheircitizenshashadtheunfortunateeffectofpresentingnationsinthewhollyfalsepositionofrivalbusinessfirms。Groupsofprivatemanufacturers，tradersandfinanciers，usingtheirgovernmenttosecuretheirprivateprofitableends，havethusproducedgraveconflictsofinternationalpolicy。Theworstinstrumentofthisantagonism，becausethemostobviousandthemostvexatious，istheprotectiveTariff，andthemostsingularproofofitsderationalisingefficacyisfoundintheconductofourrecentfiscalcontroversy。Thefiercestfightinallthatcontroversyhasragedroundtherelativesize，growthandprofitablecharacteroftheforeigntradeofGreatBritain，Germany，America，etc。 TheseStatesareactuallytreated，notmerelybyProtectionistsbutbymanyFreeTraders，asiftheyweregreattradingfirms，engagedinstrugglingagainstoneanotherfortheexclusivepossessionofsomelimitedeconomicterritory，thesuccessofonebeingattendedbyalosstotheothers。Now，GreatBritain，GermanyandAmericaarenoteconomicentitiesatall；theyarenotengagedinworldcommerce，eitherascompetitorsorascooperators； therespectiveadvancesordeclinesmadebycertaingroupsofmerchantswithintheirconfinesinoverseastradehavenonetnationalsignificanceatall。Finally，overseastrade，byitself，furnishesnoindexofthecollectiveprosperityofeachnation。 §；2。ThewholepresentationofthecaseundertheheadofNationsisirrelevantanddeceptive，conveying，asitisdesignedtodo，thefalsesuggestionthatEnglishmen，groupedtogetherasapeople，aresomehowcompetingwithgermansgroupedtogetherasanothernation，andAmericansasathirdnation。Nownosuchcollectivecompetitionexistsatall。Sofarastradeinvolvescompetition，thatcompetitiontakesplace，notbetweennations，butbetweentradingfirms，anditismuchkeenerandmorepersistentbetweentradingfirmsbelongingtothesamenationthanbetweenthosebelongingtodifferentnations。BirminghamorSheffieldfirmscompetewithoneanotherformachineryandmetalcontractsfarmorefiercelythantheycompetewithGermansorAmericansinthesametrade，andsoitisineveryotherindustry。 Theproductionofimportandexportfigures，andofbalancesoftrade，undernationalheadings，isamischievouspanderingtothemostdangerousdelusionoftheage。 Ithasdonemorethananythingelsetohidethegreatandbeneficenttruth，thattheharmonyandsolidarityofeconomicinterestsamongmankindhaveatlastdefinitelytranscendednationallimits，andarerapidlybindingmembersofdifferentnationsinanever-growingnetworkofcooperation。 Withinthelastgenerationamoresolidandabidingfoundationforthiscooperationthanordinaryexchangeofgoodshasbeenlaidintheshapeofinternationalfinance。Thoughcertaindangerousabuseshaveattendeditsbeginnings，thiscooperationofthecitizensofvariouscountriesinbusinessenterprisesinallpartsoftheworldisthemostpotentofforcesmakingforpeaceandprogress。Morerapidlythaniscommonlyconceived，itisbringingintoexistenceasingleeconomicworld-statewithanorderandagovernmentwhicharehardlythelessauthoritativebecause，asyet，theypossessaslenderpoliticalsupport。Thateconomicworld-stateconsistsofallthathugeareaofindustriallydevelopedcountriesinregularandsteadyintercourse，linkedtooneanotherbysystemsofrailroadsandsteamshiproutes，bypostalandtelegraphicservices，administeredbycommonarrangements，byregularcommerce，commonmarketsandreliablemodesofmonetarypayment，andbypartnershipsofcapitalandlabourincommonbusinesstransactions。 §；3。Theactualityofthisworld-systemhasprecededitsconsciousrealisation。Butthegrowingfactiseducatingtheideaandtheaccompanyingsentimentinthemindsofthemoreenlightenedmembersofallcivilisednations。Wehearmoreofinternationalismfromthesideoflabour。But，inpointoffact，thecorporateunityoflabourlagsfarbehindthatofcapital。Forthemobilityofcapitalismuchgreater，anditsdistributionisfarbetterorganised。But，asthefinancialmachineryforthecollectionanddistributionofindustrialpoweroverthewholeeconomicworldisfurtherperfectedandunified，itwillbeattendedbyalooseningofthoselocalandnationalbondswhichhavehithertolimitedthefreemovementoflabour。 Asthecentreofgravityintheeconomicsystemshiftsfromland，whichisimmovable，tomoney，themostmobileofeconomicfactors，sotheoldlocalattachmentwhichkeptmostlabourfastenedtosomesmallplotoftheearth，itsnativevillage，willyieldplacetolibertyofmovementaccommodatedtotheneedsandopportunitiesofmodernprofitablebusiness。 Withinthelimitsofeachcountrytheincreasedmobilityhaslongbeenevident:ithashelpedtobreakupparochialismandprovincialismofideasandfeelings，andtoevolveastrongersenseofnationalunity。Butthereistobenohaltingatthelimitsofthenation。Alreadylargeforcesofinternationallabourexist。NotmerelydovastnumbersofworkersmigratewithincreasedeasefromBelgiumintoFrance，fromRussiaintotheUnitedStates，fromGermanyintoSouthAmerica，forsettlementinthesecountries，butlargebodiesofwage-earnersarebeingorganisedasacosmopolitanlabourforcefollowingthecurrentsofindustrialdevelopmentabouttheworld。 Sofarasunskilledlabourisconcerned，largetractsofChina，IndiaandtheStraitsSettlements，formarecruitinggroundinAsia；whileItalyandAustro-HungaryfurnishalargeEuropeancontingent。Butnotlesssignificantarethehigherranksofcosmopolitanlabour，theBritishandAmericanmanagers，overseersandworkmenintheengineering，railroad，electricalandminingindustries，whoto-dayaremovingsofreelyoverthenewlydevelopingcountriesofthreecontinents，placingtheirbusinessandtechnicalabilityattheserviceoftheeconomicworld。ThenewmovementsintheeconomicdevelopmentofAsiaandofSouthAmericawillenormouslyacceleratethisfreeflowofbusinessabilityandtechnicalskillfromthemoreadvancedWesternnationsovertherelativelybackwardcountries，andwillalsobringintoclosercooperationatalargernumberofpointsthecapitalandmanagementofWesternpeoples。 Myobjectinreferringtotheseconcreteeconomicmovementsofourtimeistoillustratethepowerfultendencieswhicharecounteractingtheoldfalserealisationofindustryintermsofhumancompetitionandantagonism，andaremakingforaconsciousrecognitionofitscooperativeandharmoniouscharacter。CHAPTERXVIII:SOCIALHARMONYIN ECONOMICLIFE §；1。Abriefsummaryoftheactualtendenciestowardsharmonyanddiscordatpresentvisibleintheeconomicworldmaybeconvenientlypresentedhere。 Weseeamongthefundamentalindustriesthetransformationofthestructureofthesinglebusiness；largenumbersoflittlerivuletsofsavingsfrominnumerableseparatepersonalsourcesmergingtoformasinglebodyofeffectivecapital；largenumbersofworkerscloselyweldedintoasinglebodyofeffectivelabour-power；bothoperatinginnormalharmonyunderthedirectionofacommoncentralmanagement，andengagedinthecontinuousworkofturningoutaproduct，thepriceofwhichformsthecommonincomealikeforcapitalistsandworkers。Sofarasthatportionofthedividendisconcernedwhichformstheeconomicallynecessarycostsofthesemassesofcapitalandlabour，thereexistsaharmonyofinterestsbetweenthetwogroupsofclaimants，whichismoreclearlyrecognisedwitheveryimprovementofthegeneralstandardofintelligenceandinformation。Inmostbusinessesthatcommonareaofinterestcoversbyfarthelargerpartofthebusinessdividend。Whereasurplusemergesinexcessoftheseeconomiccosts，aninitialdiscordarisesbetweentheclaimsofthecapitalandlabour。Butthisdiscordmayberesolvedintwoways，ineachofwhichimportantexperiments，attendedbyagrowingmeasureofsuccess，arebeingcarriedon。LargepatchesoftheareaofdiscordarebeingreclaimedtoorderbythemodernState，whosepolicyismoreandmoredirectedtoabsorbingbytaxation，andapplyingtotheuseofthecommunity，greatsharesofthesebusinesssurpluses，astheyemergeinincomesandinheritedproperties。Asregardsthesurpluswhichisnotsoabsorbed，thegroupedforcesofcapitalandlabourwithinthebusinessareconstantlyengagedinseekingtodiscoverpacificandequitablemodesofdivisionwhichshallreconcile，oratleastmitigate，theremainingopposition。Thoughthisremainsatpresentthesharpestfieldofconflict，pacificforcesaremakingmoregainthanperhapsappearsuponthesurface。Someofthoseindustries，wheresuchdiscordshavebeenmostrifeandmostwasteful，havebeentakenoverbytheStateortheMunicipality。 Inthesecasessuchquarrelsasmaystillariseinconnectionwiththeclaimsoflabouradmitofsettlementbyothermeansthaneconomicforce。 Inothers，theStateintervenesonbehalfofpublicorderbyassistingtopromoteprocessesofarbitrationorconciliation。Inothers，again，theorganisationoftheforcesofcapitalontheonehand，labourontheother，overthewholerangeofbusinessescomprisinganationaltrade，hastendedtomakeactualconflictsrarer，andpresentsamachinerycapableofapplicationtopacificsettlements。GraveasarethedefectsintheworkingofthismachineryofJointBoards，SlidingScales，Conciliationandthelike，andterribleasaretheinjuriesthesedefectscause，theyoughtnottoblindustoarecognitionofthefactthatthenumberofactualconflictsbetweencapitalandlabourisconstantlydiminishing。 §；2。Thistruthisbetterrealisedwhenweturnfromthestructureofthebusinesstothatofthetradeormarket。There，thoughkeenandevencut-throatcompetitionstillsurvives，thetendencyismoreandmore，especiallyinthegreatstapleindustrieswherelargeaggregatesofcapitalandlabourareemployed，towardscooperation，combinationandtradeagreements。 If，forthemoment，weignorethedangerswhichsuchcombinationsoftenthreatentoconsumers，andregardthemfromthestandpointoftradestructure，wecannotfailtorecognisetheenormousadvancetheyrepresentinthecauseofindustrialharmony。ForwhateverthedegreeofunityattainedbysuchaTrust，Cartel，Conference，TradeAgreement，Federation，itmeansprotantoasavingoftheenergyofcapitalandlabourformerlyexpendeduponconflict，andaconcentrationofthethoughtsandpurposesofbusinessmenuponthebestperformanceoftheusefulfunctionsofproductionwhichconstitutethesocialvalueoftheirtrade。Solongasatraderemainsinadistinctivelycompetitivecondition，anenormouspartoftheactualenergyisconsumednotinproductionbutinwarfare。Thethoughtsandwillsofthecontrollersoftheseveralbusinessesaredeflectedfromtheeconomicalfulfilmentoftheirsocialfunctiontoconsciousrivalry。Neitherthecapitalnorthelabourineachseveralbusinessenjoysareasonablemeasureofsecurity；andnotonlytheprofitsbutthewagesofeachfirmarejeopardisedbythesuccessofastrongercompetingfirm。Thegrowingdisplacementofthisconditionofatradebytheprincipleandpracticeofcombinationisperhapsthemostconspicuousmovementtowardsindustrialpeace。Iamawarethat，initself，thisconcentrationandcombinationofbusinesseswithinatradeaffordnosuresettlementforthedifferencesbetweencapitalandlabour。Theymayevenaggravatethosedifferencesinseveralways。 For，inthefirstplace，suchcombinationsareexpresslyandchieflydesignedtoproducealargerquantityofsurplusprofits，thusstimulatingconflictbyofferingalargerobjectofattacktolabour。Inthesecondplace，suchcombinations，ifatallcomplete，mayprovemoreclearlythaninanyotherwaythesuperiorityoforganisedcapitaloverorganisedlabourinthedeterminationofwagesandconditionsoflabour。Finally，privateownershipofnaturalresources，producingforitsownerseconomicrent，remainsanunsolvedantagonism。Thoughtheextenttowhichthe\'surplus\'，whichmonopolistic，protectedorotherwisewell-placedbusinessesobtain，asopenorconcealed\'rent\'，isnotcapableofexactestimate，many，ifnotmost，profitablebusinessesderivesomeoftheirsurplusfromthepossessionorcontrolofnaturalresources。Suchnaturalresourcesaretoallintentsandpurposescapital，sofarasrelatestoissuesofconflictbetweencapitalandlabour。 Theamountandpossiblytheproportionofsurplus(takingthewholeindustrialworldintoconsideration)whichisplainordisguisedrent，isprobablyupontheincrease。EveninGreatBritain，thoughaggregaterentsdonotkeeppacewithprofitsandotherincomesderivedfrombusinesscapital，theyprobablyformanincreasingproportionofthatincomewhich，accordingtoourdefinition，ranksas\'unproductivesurplus。\'Thoughtheserents，likeother\'unproductivesurplus，\'couldbeadvantageouslydivertedintowagesontheonehand，publicrevenueupontheother，theyarekeptonthesideofcapitalbythefullforceofcombination。 Thusthelabourinanytrademaybeconfrontedbyalargerbodyofwealthwhichitwouldliketosecureforhigherwages，whileatthesametimeitfindsitselflessabletoachievethisobject。 §；3。Equallysharpmaybetheantagonismofinterestssetupbetweensuchacombineandthegeneralbodyofconsumers，bymeansofthecontrolofpriceswhichtheformerpossesses。Forthelargesurplus，whichweseetobeanobjectofdesiretotheworkersinacombinationortrust，representstotheConsumeranexcessofprices。Soitcomestopassthattheconsumer，unabletocombineinhiseconomiccapacity，astheworkersdointheirtradeunions，combinesascitizenandcallsuponthegovernmenttosafeguardhimagainstmonopolies。Hisfirstinstinctivedemandis，thatsuchcombinationsshallbedeclaredillegalbodies，actinginrestraintoftrade，andbrokenup。Butnothingprovesmoreplainlytheinherentstrengthofthecohesiveunifyingtendenciesthanthecompletenessofthefailuretoachievethisobject。Whenbusinessmendesiretocombine，itisimpossibletoforcethemtocompete。Thealternativesare，eithertoleavetheconsumingpublictothetendermerciesofamonopoly，which，frommereconsiderationsofprofit，maynotbeabletoraiseitspricesbeyondacertainlimit，orelsetoimposelegalregulations，or，finally，tobuyoutthebusiness，transferringitfromaprivateintoapublicmonopoly。 WhereverthemodernStateisdriventoconfrontthisproblem，itiscompelled，inproportionaspublicopinionisarticulateandpoliticallyorganised，tofastenanincreasingmeasureofpubliccontroluponsuchpowerfulcombinations，andtotakeoverintothesphereofStateenterprisesthosewhichcannoteffectivelybecontrolled。Insuchwaysdoesmodernsocietyseektohealthenewdiscordsgeneratedbytheveryprocessesemployedbytheseveralbusinessesandtradesintheirsearchafteraninternalharmony。 Butthelargestformsofcapitalisticenterprisewilltendmoreandmoretotranscendthelimitsofanysinglestate，notonlyintheircompositionbutinthepowerstheyexerciseuponsubsidiaryindustries，anduponthegeneralbodyofconsumersthroughouttheindustrialworld。1Theprivatelyorganisedapparatusofeconomicmachinery，whichconstitutesthefabricofthiseconomicworld-state，hasbeendescribedasastrikingexampleoftheexpansionofindustrialsolidarityandharmony。Buthereagainthepossibilities，nay，certainties，ofnewdiscordbetweencapitalandlabour，producerandconsumer，cannotbeignored。Hencethegreatsocialproblemsofthefuturewilltoalessandlessextentliewithinthepoliticalcompetenceofsinglestatesorbesolublebytheseparateactionofthegovernmentsofthosestates。Thevastcurrentsofinternationalcapitalandlabourcannotflowwithoutgreatdisturbancesoforderandofeconomicinterestsoftenaffectingseveralnations。Thesafe，successful，profitable，pursuitoflargeforeignenterprisesbythecapitalandlabourofpersonsbelongingtomanynationalities，willmoreandmoreinvolvecommonpoliticalaction。 §；4。WearealreadybeginningtorecognisethatourStateisdisabledforthefullysatisfactorysolutionofsomeofthemostpressingofoursocialproblems。Theimmigrationofforeignlabourcomplicatesourtreatmentofsweatedindustries。Theimprovementofconditionsoflabourinourtradesmayberenderedmoredifficultbytheadmissionofsweatedimports，orourfeelingsmaybeshockedbytheinfluxoftheproductsofslavelabour。 Thepolicyoftaxinginterestsandprofitsmaybethwartedbyourinabilitytotracetheincomesderivedfromforeigninvestmentandtrade。AfinancialcrisisinAmericaorgermanymaydepleteourgoldreserveandworkhavoconourcredit。Asthesemovementsgatherforceandfrequency，theimpotenceofanysingleStatetoexerciseaneffectivecontrolovertheprimaryeconomicinterestsofitspeoplewillgrowmoreapparent。Thegravestsocial-economicproblemswillbefoundinsolubleexceptbyinternationalarrangement。AneraoffreeconferencesandofmoreorlesslooseagreementsbetweenStateswilllaythefoundationforwhatintimemustamounttointernationalregulationofindustry。 Inotherwords，theeconomicinternationalism，whichIhavetraced，willweaveforitselfthenecessaryapparelofpoliticalinstitutions。 Thetruegermofworld-federationisperhapstobetracedto-daylessclearlyattheHaguethanatBern，wheretherepresentativesoftheleadingindustrialnationshavealreadymettosetthesealoftheirrespectivegovernmentsuponundertakingstopromotecommonpoliciesoflegislationinsuchmattersastheregulationofnightlabourforwomen，andthedisuseofpoisonousingredientsinthematchtrade。Insuchagreements，asinthebetter-knownPostalUnion(whichalsohasitsofficesatBern)，onefindstheearliestcontributionsmadebymodernindustrialismtothefederalgovernmentoftheworld。 ThesefactsIcite，partlytoenforcethethesisthatthetendenciesofmodernindustrywhichmakeforharmonyandcooperationaregaining，bothinthesmallerandthelargerareas，overthosewhichmakefordiscordandforcompetition。Thisgrowingharmonyoffactmusttendtoevokeacorrespondingharmonyofthoughtandfeeling。Buthereweareretardedbyasetofpsychologicalobstacleswhichpervertordisguisethetruth。 Ihavealludedtothedamageduetothefalserepresentationofnationsasrivaltraders，contendingforalimitedmarketupontermswhichsignifythatthegainofoneisthelossofanother。Butthewholeintellectualandmoralatmosphereisthickwithsimilarmistakesoffactandfallaciesofreasoning，chieflysustainedbyfalsephraseswhichevokefalseimagesandarouseinjuriousdesiresandpassions。Ordinarybusinesslanguageisfilledwithselfish，separatistandcombativephrases，representingtradeasawarfare，inwhicheverymanmustfightforhisownhand，mustforcehiswaresuponthepublic，outwitorbludgeonhiscompetitors，conquernewmarkets，beatdownthepricesofthegoodshebuys，orinfinancebecomea\'bull\'ora\'bear。\'Incertainlargedepartmentsofthebusinessworldtherestillremainssomuchdisorder，insecurityandcompetitionastoaffordsupporttothesecombativeviewsandfeelings。Buttheyarenolongerrepresentativeofthemainnormalactivitiesofindustry，andtheyoughtandmustbydegreesbedisplacedbyviewsandfeelingsaccommodatedtothemoreorganicconception。Itisanimportanttaskofeconomicsciencetoenforceconceptionsoftheoperationofeconomiclawswhichwillsupportthesenewerandsounderviewsandfeelings。Foronlywiththisgrowingrecognitionofthesocialharmonyrepresentedbyindustrycanthesocialwillbenourishedthatisnecessarytosupportandfurtherit。Solongastheordinarybusinessmanorworkerhashiseyes，hismind，hisheartandwill，gluedtothetinypatchofindustrytowhichhisowndirectlypersonaleffortisapplied，thepulseofhumanitybeatsfeeblythroughthesystemofindustry。Butlettheordinaryeducationofeverymanandwomanimposeclearimagesofthiseconomicorderasagreathumancooperationinwhicheachbearsanessentialpart，asproducer，consumerandcitizen，thequickenedintelligenceandsympathywillrespond，sothattheblindprocessesofcooperationwillbecomeinfusedandstrengthenedbythecurrentofaconsciouswill。 NOTES: 1。TheforemostexampleofsuchorganisationinagreatstapleindustryistheInternationalIron&；SteelAssociation，formedinJuly1911 byrepresentativesofAustria，Belgium，Canada，France，Germany，GreatBritain，Hungary，Russia，Spain，UnitedStates。Theobjectsofthisorganisationweretoregulateproduction，soastocontrolprofitablepricesandtopreventundercuttingintimesofdepression。(Cf。Chiozza-Money，ThingsthatMatter，Ch。XI)。CHAPTERXIX:INDIVIDUALMOTIVESTOSOCIALSERVICE §；1。Ourexaminationoftheexistingindustrialsystemdisclosescertaindiscordsofinterestanddesirebetweentheownersoftheseveralfactorsofproduction，ontheonehand，betweenproducersandconsumersontheother。Amongtheownersoffactorsofproductionthesharpestantagonismsarethosebetweenthecapitalistemployerandthewage-earner，andbetweenthelandownerandtheownersofallotherfactors。Exceptasregardstheownershipofland，theseantagonismsarenotabsolutebutqualified。Theinterestsofcapitalandlabour，ofproducerandconsumer，marchtogetheruptoacertainpoint。Theretheydiverge。Thesediscordsofinterestmaterialiseinwhatweterm\'thesurplus，\'thatportionoftheproductwhich，thoughnotessentialtotheperformanceoftheeconomicprocess，passestocapital，labourortheconsumer，accordingtotheeconomicstrengthwhichnaturalorartificialconditionsassigntoeach。Thehumanisationandrationalisationofindustrydepend，aswerecognise，uponreformingthestructureofbusinessesandindustries，soastoresolvethesediscords，toevokethemosteffectivecooperation，infactandwill，betweentheseveralparties，andtodistributethewholeproduct，costsandsurplus，amongthemupontermswhichsecureforitthelargestaggregateutilityinconsumption。Theoperationofindustryuponthistrulyandconsciouslycooperativebasis，would，itiscontended，evokeincreasedproductivepowers，bybringingintoplaythoseinstinctsofmutualaidthatarelargelyinhibitedbypresentmethods，andbydistributingtheincreasedproductsoastoevokethehighestpersonalefficiencyoflifeandcharacter。 Butitwouldbefoolishtoignorethedoubtsandobjectionswhichareraisedagainstthespiritualassumptionuponwhichthisidealofhumanindustryisbased。Itisoftenurgedthatmanisbynaturesostronglyendowedwithselfishandcombativefeelings，sofeeblywithsocialandcooperative，thathewillnotworkefficientlyunderthereformedeconomicstructuresthatareproposed。Hemustbeallowedfreescopetoplayforhisownhand，toexercisehisfightinginstincts，totriumphoverhiscompetitors，andtoappropriatetheprizesofhazardandadventure，thespoilsattestingpersonalforceandprowess，orelsehewillwithholdthefinestandmostusefulmodesofhiseconomicenergy。 Thedistinctivelyspiritualissuethusraisedisexceedinglymomentous。 Supposethatthebusinesslifecanbesetuponwhatappearstobeasoundandequitablebasis，ishumannaturecapableofrespondingsatisfactorilytosuchanenvironment？Puttingitmoreconcretely，aretheactualpowersofhumansympathyandcooperationcapableofbeingorganisedintoaneffectivesocialwill？ThisissueisseentounderlieallthedoubtsanddifficultiesthatbesettheproposalstoapplyourorganicLawofDistributionforpurposesofpracticalreform。Allproposalsbyorganisedpublicefforttoabolishdestitutiongiverisetofearslestbysodoingweshouldsaptheincentivestopersonaleffort，andsoimpairthecharacterofthepoor。Amongsuchcriticsthereisentertainednocorrespondinghopeorconvictionthatsuchapolicymay，bythebetterandsecurerconditionsoflifeandemploymentitaffords，sowtheseedsofcivicfeelingandofsocialsolidarityamonglargesectionsofourpopulationwhoselifehithertohadbeenlittleelsethanasordidandunmeaningstruggle。Proposalstosecureforpublicusebyprocessoftaxationlargersharesofsurpluswealtharemetbysimilarapprehensionslestsuchencroachmentsuponprivatepropertyshouldimpairtheapplicationofhighqualitiesofbusinessandprofessionalability。 ThegrowingtendencyofStatesandMunicipalitiestoengageinvariousbusinessoperationsisstronglyandpersistentlyattackeduponthegroundthatsufficientpublicspiritcannotbeevokedtosecuretheable，honestmanagementandefficientworkingofsuchpublicconcerns。 Finally，thewholebasicpolicyoftheMinimumWageandtheMaximumWorking-dayisassailedonthesamegroundasalevellingdownprocesswhichwillreducethenetproductivityofindustryandstopalleconomicprogress。 §；2。Tosuchcriticismtworepliesarepossible，eachvalidwithinitslimits。Thefirstconsistsinshowingthattheexistingbusinessarrangementsareextremelyill-adaptedforofferingthebestandmosteconomicallyeffectivestimulitoindividualproductivity。Theyarenotwell-directedtodiscover，apply，andimprovethebestandmostprofitablesortsofhumanabilityandlabour。Inotherwords，theactualsystemforutilisingselfishnessforindustrialpurposesiswofullydefective:nine-tenthsofthepowerremainsunextractedorrunstowaste。 Thosewhorelyuponthiscriticismbasetheirreformpolicyupontheprovisionofbettereconomicopportunitiesandbetterpersonalstimulitoindividuals。Butsuchreformswillnotsuffice。Whatisneededaboveallisasocialsoultoinhabitthesocialbodyinourindustrialsystem。 Aconsciouscoordinatingprinciple——anindustrialgovernment，inwhichtheconsentofthegovernedshallberepresentedintheirseveralwillsandconsciousnessaswellasinsomecentralorganiccontrol——istobedesiderated。Nowisthisconditionofthoughtandofdesirereallyattainable？ Canwereallysupposethatanysortofeducationislikelytoarouseandmaintainintherank-and-fileofemployeeseitherinthepublicservicesorinthegreatprivateindustriesasenseofpublicdutyandarealisationofthelargerindustrialharmony，whichwillcompensateinanyappreciablemeasureforthedulnessanddrudgeryoftheirparticularjob，andfurnishaneffectivecheckuponshirkingorslacking？Supposethatasalarybasisofpayment，ashortenedwork-dayandsecurityoftenure，withadequateinsuranceagainsteconomicmishaps，hadbeenobtainedinallregularoccupations，wouldthequickenedsenseofcooperationyieldaproductiveenergyadequatetotherequirements？ Tothisquestionitmust，Ithink，befranklyanswered，thatwecannottell。Wehavenosufficientdataforaconfidentreply。Thegeneralreplyofbusinessmenandofeconomistswould，Ithink，beinthenegative。Itwouldbeurgedthatthegreaterpartoftheroutineworkofindustrywillalwaysremainsodullandtiresome，thesenseofpublicdutysoweakandintermittent，thatthefixedsalarybasisofremunerationwillnotproveanadequateincentivefortherequiredamountofhumaneffort。 Theexperienceofexistingsocialserviceswouldbeadducedinsupportofthisjudgment。Publicemployees，itiscomplained，workwithlessenergythanprivateemployees；thereismoreslackingandscampingandmoremalingering； the\'governmentstroke\'hasbecomeaby-word。Thedignityofsocialservicedoesnotevokeanyclearresponseinthebreastoftheemployee。Suchisthecomplaint。Itisprobablynotill-founded。Thegreatmassofpublicemployeesarecertainlynotanimatedbymuchconsciousprideandsatisfactioninrenderingsocialservice。But，beforeregisteringafinaljudgmentuponsuchevidence，certainqualifyingconsiderationsmustbetakenintoaccount。 Theattitudeofaworkertowardshisworkwillbestronglyaffectedbytheprevailingattitudeofthosearoundhim。Solongasthegeneraleconomicenvironmentisoneinwhichtheinterestsofemployerandemployedarerepresentedasantagonistic，similarideasandsentimentswillcontinuetoaffectthefeelingsofpublicservants。Theywillnotrealisethattheyareworkingforthemselvesinworkingforsocietyofwhichtheyaremembers: theywilltreatthedepartmentforwhichtheyworkratherasanalienorahostilebody，bentupongettingasmuchoutofthemandgivingaslittleaspossible。Itisjustherethatwetouchthemostsensitivespotinthepsychologyofgovernment，thebestrecogniseddefectofbureaucracy。Thehigherofficials，whocontrolandmanagepublicbusinesses，evokeintherank-and-fileofthepublicemployeesverymuchthesamesentimentsofestrangementoroppositionthatprevailinmostprivatebusinessesbetweenemployerandemployee。Forinpointoffact，thetemperandmentalattitudeofhigherofficialsarethoseofamasterinhisownbusiness，notthoseofapublicservant。Thataffectstheirdealingsnotonlywiththerank-and-fileintheirdepartment，butwiththeoutsidepublic。Inaso-calleddemocracy，wherethehighestaswellasthelowestofficersofstatearepaidbythepeopletodoworkforthepeople，nomethodofeffectivepopularcontrolovertheofficialserviceshasyetbeendevised。Theabsenceofanysuchcontrolisclearlyrecognisedbyallhighofficials，anditpowerfullyinfluencestheirmindandtheirbehaviour。Uncontrolled，orinsufficientlycontrolledpower，ofcourse，affectsdifferentlydifferenttypesofmen。 Itinducesslacknessandtheadoptionofaslowconservativeroutineinthoseoftorpiddisposition。Menofarbitrarytemperwillbeledtodespotictreatmentoftheirstaff。Menofbrainsandenterprisewillbefreetoembarkuponexpensiveenterprises，tothegainorlossoftheirpaymasters。 Butinnocasedoestheactualsituationfavourthepermeationofthepublicservicebyafullsenseofsocialcooperationandjointresponsibility。 Highofficialsmayandoftendoexhibitgreatenergyanddisinterestedzealinthepublicservice。Butthesenseofmastery，bothinrelationtothelowergradesofemployeeandtothepublic，isalwaysdiscernible。 Theyhavethispowerandtheyknowit。Until，therefore，thesenseofpublicservicecanbemadearealityamongthehigherpublicofficers，notruetestoftheefficacyofthegeneralwillistobeobtained。ThisreformationofBureaucracyisthechiefcruxofmoderndemocracy。Forunlesssomemodeisfoundofexpellingfromthehigherpublicservantstheprideofcaste，andofkeepingtheminsympatheticcontactwiththegeneralcurrentofpopularfeeling，themassofthesubordinateemployeeswillnotrespondtothesocialclaimupontheireconomicenergies。 Finally，thefamiliarcriticismoftheinefficiencyofpublicemployeesinthiscountrydoesnottakeproperaccountofconditionsofemployment。 Forwhilethetopgradeofofficialsispaidmorehandsomelyandenjoysmoredignityandsecuritythaninothercountries，thelowergradesareoftensubjecttoconditionsofpay，hoursandtenure，notappreciablybetterthanthoseprevailingintheordinarylabour-market。Untiltheseconditionsareimproved，itmayreasonablybecontendedthatthedignityofpublicservicecannotbeexpectedtofurnishaneffectiveeconomicmotive。 If，however，increasedsecurityoflifeandlivelihoodcouldbeobtainedforthepeople，withsuchimprovementofoureducationalsystemasprovidedadequateopportunitiesforenablingthechildrenofthepoorerclassestoenterallgradesofthepublicservices，thebeginningsofagreatchangeinthespiritofthoseservicesmightbeattained。For，ifthewidegapsofdignityandofemoluments，whichdivideatpresentthehigherfromthelowergrades，couldbereduced，whileatthesametimeeffectivepublicityandcriticismcouldbebroughttobearuponalldepartmentsofpublicwork，the\'bureaucraticstate\'mightbetransformedintosomethingmorenearlyapproachingaself-governingsociety。 §；3。Thecoolpracticalbusinessmenwill，however，probablyinsistthatnoneofthesedevicesforimprovingeducationandforstimulatingpublicspiritwillenableapublicdepartmenttogetoutofitsemployeessolargeanoutputofproductiveenergyascanbesecuredbythestimuliofprivateprofit-seekingenterprise。Andthismaypossiblybetrue。Butthosewhohaveacceptedthegenerallinesofouranalysiswillrecognisethatsuchanadmissionisnotfataltothecaseforsalariedemploymentandpublicservice。Fortheprivatebusinessisprimarilyconcernedwithonesideofthehumanequation，theproduct，andisableinlargemeasuretoignorethehumancostsinvolvedingettingit。ButtheState，asrepresentingthehumanwelfareofitsmembers，musttakethecostsintoaccountaswell。 AnintelligentSocietywouldregarditasafoolishpolicytoattempttogetoutofitsemployeestheamountofdailytoilimposedundertheconditionsofmostprofit-makingbusinesses。While，therefore，itistruethatapublicservice，runuponanadequatebasisoffixedsalaryandshortwork-day，wouldstandcondemned，iftheoutputofeffectiveenergypermanfellgreatlybelowthatfurnishedunderthedriveofordinarycapitalism，aslightreductionofthatoutputmightbewelcomedasinvolvinganactualgaininhumanwelfare。 Thediminishedutilityoftheproductmightbemorethancompensatedintermsofhumanwelfarebythediminishedhumancostoftheproductiveprocess。 Itisnot，therefore，incumbentupontheadvocatesofanewindustrialorder，baseduponacloserapplicationoftheorganiclaw，toshowthatsuchanorderwillyieldatleastaslargeanoutputofeconomicenergyandeconomicproductascanbegotoutofthemixedcompetitionandcombinationwhichprevailatpresent。Applyingthisstandardofhumanvaluation，theyareentitledtosetoffagainstanyreductionofpurelyeconomicstimulithatmayensuefromtheirreforms，notonlythereliefinhumancostswhichaccompaniessuchreductionbuttheenlargementofotherhumangains。 For，thoughinthisendeavourtovalueindustrialactivitiesandproductsintermsofhumanwelfare，wehaveforthemostpartconfinedourselvestothehumancostsandutilitiesdirectlyconnectedwiththeprocessesofeconomicproductionandconsumption，wecannotignorethewidermeaningoftheseprocesses。Manlivesnotbybread，oreconomicgoods，alone，butby\'admiration，hopeandlove。\'Thoughthevariousnon-economicgoodsandactivitiesdonotdirectlyenterintoourhumanvaluationofindustry，wecannotneglecttheinteractionsbetweentheeconomicandtheotherhumaninterestsinvolvedintheorganicnatureofmanandofsociety。 §；4。Thewiderproblemofhumaneconomy，theemploymentofallhumanpowersforhumanwelfare，mustinfactinvolveacontinualreadjustmentbetweentherespectiveclaimsoftheeconomicandthenon-economicactivitiesuponourlives。Mostthoughtfulcriticsofouragecomplainthatthisadjustmentisdefectiveinthatbusinessbulkstoolargelyinourlives。Theyconsiderthatourmoderncommandovertheresourcesofnatureforthesatisfactionofourwantsoughttoissuenotsomuchinthelargersupplyofold，andtheconstantadditionofneweconomicwants，asintheincreasedliberationofhumanpowersforothermodesofenergyandsatisfaction。Thereexistwholecountrieseveninourtime，suchasChina，wherepopulationliessothickupontheearth，andwheretheartsofindustryremainsoprimitive，thatvirtuallythewholevitalenergyofthepeoplemustbeabsorbedintheeconomicprocesses。Thisisnotourcase。Withourimprovingartsofindustryandourdwindlinggrowthofpopulation，wecanaffordtogiveanincreasingshareofourinterestsandenergiestothecultivationandenjoymentofintellectualandmoralgoods。Thegradualrealisationofthishumaneconomyisthebestmeasureofourcivilisation。Ourgreatestimpedimentinthisprogressisthesuperstitiousandexcessivevalueputbyallclassesofourpeopleuponindustryandproperty。Thisisalmostidenticalwithachargeofmaterialism，foreconomicvaluescentreroundmaterialformsofproperty。\'Gettingandspendingwelaywasteourpowers。\'Thisisaliteralstatementofourbadeconomy。Untilwecan，asanation，throwoffthedominionoftheeconomicspirit，wecannotwinthespirituallibertyneededfortheascentofman。Solongaswestand，forfullsix-seventhsofourtimeandmore，withhandsandeyes，intelligenceandwill，dedicatedtotheserviceofindustrialism，wecannotsee，muchlessrealise，betteridealsofhumanity。Absorbedinearningalivelihood，wehavenotimeorenergytolive。 Suchsentencesasthese，Iamwellaware，havebecomecommonplaces，andsuchwisdomastheycontainhassobecomealmostimpotent。Thisdrawingofthefangsoftruthbyreducingittotruismsisoneofthemostseriousobstaclestointellectualandmoralprogress。FromthetimeofWordsworthtothepresentdayourwisestteachershavedemandedthatindustryandpropertyshallbeputintheirrightplacesasservants，notmasters，ofmen，andthatourconquestovernatureshallbeattendedbyaliberationofallsortsandconditionsofmenfromthetyrannyofmatter。Innoadequatedegreehasthisliberationbeenachieved。Theironofindustrialismhasenteredsodeeplyintooursoulsthatwearelothtouseourliberty。Whyisthisso？ Manisaspiritualaswellasamaterialbeing。Hisascentincivilisationimpliesanincreasingsatisfactionofhisspiritualneeds。Inthishigherlifeeconomicprocessesandmarketvaluesplayadiminishingpart。Howcomesit，then，thatthevasteconomiesofmodernindustryhavedonesolittletoreleaseusfromthebondageoftheeconomicsystem？Whyhaveindustryandpropertyretainedsodominantagraspuponourthoughtsandfeelings，continuallycheckingouraspirationstothehigherlife，continuallyencroachingonthetimeandenergywhichbyrightswouldseemtobelongtothatlife？ §；5。Thetrueanswertothesequestionsisnotdifficulttofind。 Wehavesketchedagrowingorder，harmonyandunity，ofindustriallife，concernedwiththeregularsupplyofeconomicneedsformankind。Weresuchanordereffectivelyachieved，inaccordancewiththerationalandequitableapplicationofourhumanlawofdistribution，theeconomyofindustrialprocesseswouldbeaccompaniedbyacorrespondingeconomyofthoughtandemotionamongthehumanbeingsengagedinthiscommoncooperation。Thissocialeconomydemands，aswehaveseen，thesubstitutionofsocialwelfareforprivateprofitasthedirectingmotivethroughoutindustry。ButitdoesnotimplyacompletelysocialisticsysteminwhicheachproductiveprocessisunderthedirectandexclusivecontrolofSociety。Forthatassertionofabsoluteunitywouldcontainadenialofthemanifoldnessofdesireandpurposeinvolvedintheveryconceptcooperation。Scopemustremain，intheinterestsofsocietyitself，forthelegitimateplayofindividuality。Thewell-orderedsocietywillutilisetheenergiesofegoisminfruitfulfieldsofindividualactivity。Thehumanegowillalwaysseekadirectlypersonalself-expressioninthefreeexerciseofartisticinstinctsandothercreativeoradventurousactivitiesthatyieldthegloryofachievement。 Theseprimarilyself-regardingimpulsesaremadesociallyprofitablebyallowingthemfreeexpressioninthesefields。Theattempttoregulateanddirecttheseimpulsesandtheirproductiveactivitieswouldbedisastrous。 Thisplayofunfetteredpersonalityinthefinearts，inliterature，intheunsettledandexperimentalsectionofeachprofessionandeachtrade，mustbeconserved，notasaninherentrightofindividualsbutasasoundsocialeconomy。Forthedistinctionbetweenthesefreecreativeactivitiesandtheordinaryrunofroutineworkinthetradeandprofessionsisfundamental。 Itisnotthattheformer，thefreeunorganisedactivities，arenotastrulysocialasthelatterintheirultimatesignificanceandworth。Buttheirsocialvalueisbestsecuredbyleavingthemtothestimuliofpersonalinterests。Thecreativeactivities，includingallworkwhichpleasure，interest，surpriseorpersonalpride，causetobedesireduponitsownaccount，neednosocialcompulsiontoevokethem。Theirproductisthefreegiftwhichtheindividualmakestothecommonwealthoutoftherichesofhisactivepersonality。Astheircosttohimismorethancompensatedbythepleasuresofcreation，hewillcontributethemfreelytotheserviceofmankind。Butevenifacoarserstreakofselfishnesscausesthecreativeartist，poet，inventor，discoverer，toclaimsomelargeshareofthemarketablevalueofhisproductforhimself，itwillbetterservesocietytopayhimhisprice，thantoattemptto\'organise\'creationonapublicbasis。Suchsufficientmaterialrewardsofgeniusorhightalent，iftheyarereallynecessarytoevokethecreativeactivity，mustrightlybeconsidered\'costs\' ratherthan\'surplus。\'Therewillremainamarginofsuchunfetteredprivateenterprise，notonlyinthefineartsandthelearnedprofessions，wherethecreativemindseemsmostinevidence，butatthegrowingpointofeverylivingindustry。Forthedistinctionbetweencreationandimitationorroutine，aswehaveseen，cannotbeappliedinawholesalewaytoentiretradesandoccupations。Buddingandexperimentalindustries，involvinglargeapplicationofinventiveandconstructiveenergy，appealingtonewanduncertaintastes，carryingheavyrisksofcapitalandreputation，arebetterlefttoindividualenterprise。Thesameindustries，settledonestablishedlines，withsmallerrisksandsmalleropportunitiesofusefulchange，willproperlypassunderdirectsocialcontrol。Itishardlyconceivablethatthedevelopmentofthemotor-carandtheaeroplanecouldhavebeensorapid，iftheseindustrieshadbeenattheoutsetclaimedasStatemonopoliesandofficialexpertshadalonebeensettooperatethem。Theinjuriousretardationofelectriclightingandtransportinthiscountrybythelegalshacklesimposeduponthemhasbeenastrikingtestimonytothesocialharmdonebyprematureapplicationofsocialcontroltoanindustryinitsearlyexperimentalstage。 Ontheotherhand，itisequallyfoolishtoexcludefromeffectivesocialregulationorstateorganisationentireprofessions，suchasteaching，law，ormedicine，onthegroundthattheyareessentially\'creative。\'Fortheyarenot。Theverynameprofessionimpliestheadoptionofprescribedandacceptedmethodsfordealingwithlargeordinaryclassesofcases，thatistosayroutineprocedure。Though，aswerecognise，suchproceduremayneverreachthesamedegreeofmechanicalroutineasprevailsinordinaryprocessesofmanufacture，thecommonfactorsmaybesopredominantastobringthemproperlyunderthesamepublicregimen。Though，forexample，class-teachingwillalwayscarrysomeelementoforiginalityandpersonalskill，atrueregardforpublicinterestsestablishesclosepubliccontrolofcurriculumandmethodinthosebranchesofinstructioninwhichitisconvenienttogivethesameteachingtolargenumbersofchildrenatthesametime。Ineducation，asinmedicineandineveryotherskilledcalling，therearegradesofpracticerightlyclassedasregularorroutine。Whereitisimportantformembersofthepublictobeabletoobtainsuchservices，inreliablequalitiesuponknownandreasonableterms，effectivesocialcontrolofthemmustbesecured。For，otherwise，apowerofprivatetyrannyorofextortionorneglectisvestedintheproducersofsuchservices。 Theinadequatepubliccontroloverthemedicalandlegalservicesinthiscountryisraisingacropofgravepracticalproblemsforearlysolution。 Soineveryindustryoroccupationtherelativelyroutineworkrequiresdirectsocialorganisationwhilethepreponderantlycreativeworkshouldbeleftto\'private\'enterprise。Theformerclasscontainsthegreatbulkofthoseindustrieswhich，concentratedinlargebusinessesfortheprofitablesupplyoftheprimeneedsandconveniencesofordinarymenandwomen，breedcombinationsandmonopolies。Whereasinthecreativeindustriesthereexistsanaturalharmonyofinterestsbetweenproducerandconsumerthatwillsecuretosocietythebestfruitsofindividualeffort，thisisnotthecaseintheroutineindustries。Theretheoperationofthehumanlawofdistributioncanonlybesecuredbydirectsocialorganisation。Onlythuscanexcessiveprivatesurplus，involvingatyrannyoverlabourontheonehand，theconsumerontheother，beprevented。Innootherwaycanthemainorgansofindustrybeinfusedwiththehumanfeelingsofsolidarityandcooperationessentialtothestabilityandprogressofsocialindustries。