第14章

§；6。Fortothisvitalpointwemustreturn。Thesubstitutionofdirectsocialcontrolfortheprivateprofit-seekingmotiveinthenormalprocessesofourindustriesisessentialtoanysoundschemeofsocialreconstruction。Fornototherwisecanwegetthesocialmeaningofindustryrepresentedconsciouslyinthecooperativewillofthehumanfactorsofproduction。Itisnottoomuchtosaythatthepaceofcivilisationfornations，ofmoralprogressforindividuals，dependsuponthisradicalreconstructionofcommonindustry。Fortheexistingstructureofordinarybusinesslifeinhibitstherealisationofitssocialmeaningbythestressitlaysuponthediscordantandtheseparatistinterests。Thestruggletokeeportoimproveone\'sholduponsomeplaceintheindustrialsystem，towinalivelihood，tomakesomegainthatinvolvesalosstosomeoneelse，derationalisestheintelligenceanddemoralisesthecharacterofallofus。 Thisderationalisationanddemoralisationareseentoberootedinthedefectivestructureandworkingofindustrialismitself。 Ifindustrywerefairlyapportionedamongall，accordingtothecapabilityofeach，ifPropertywereallottedtoeachaccordingtohisneeds，bysomenaturalprocessofdistributionasregularandcertainastheprocessoftheplanets，personswouldnotneedtothinkorfeelverykeenlyaboutsuchthingsasIndustryandProperty:theirintellectsandheartswouldbefreeforotherinterestsandactivities。 Buttheinsecurity，irregularityandinjusticeofeconomicdistributionkeepIndustryandPropertycontinuallyintheforegroundofthepersonalconsciousness。 HerecomesintoterriblereliefthemoralsignificanceoftheunearnedSurplusthetermwhichgathersallthebadoriginsofPropertyintothefocusofasingleconcept。 Atpresentmuchindustryisconducted，muchPropertyisacquired，bymodeswhichareunjust，irrationalandsociallyinjurious。Legalprivilege，economicforce，naturalorcontrivedscarcity，luck，personalfavour，inheritance——sucharethemeansbywhichlargequantitiesofpropertycometobepossessedbypersonswhohavenotcontributedanyconsiderableproductiveefforttotheirmaking。 Suchpropertystandsintheeyeofthelaw，andinthepopularregard，uponpreciselythesamefootingasthatownedbythosewhohaveearneditbythesweatoftheirbrow，ortheeffortoftheirbrain。Thefailureofsomanythoughtfulmenandwomentoappreciatethevitalbearingoftheissueoforiginsuponthevalidityofpropertyisthesupremeevidenceoftheinjuriousreactionsofthepresentpropertysystemuponthehumanmind。Thecrucialmoralfallacywhichitevokesisthecontention，seriouslyputforthbycertainsocialphilosophers，aswellasbysocialreformers，thatpropertyacquiredinthewaysIhavejustindicatedisvalidatedinreasonandmoralitybythegoodusestowhichitmaybeputbyitsowners。 Mr。CarnegieandMr。Rockefellerhaveseriouslypropoundedthetheorythatcertainindividualsareendowedbynatureorbycircumstanceswiththeopportunityandpowerofaccumulatinggreatwealth，butthattheirwealth，thoughlegallytheirprivateproperty，isrightlytoberegardedbythemasa\'socialtrust\'tobeadministeredbythemforthebenefitoftheirfellow-men。Itseemstothemamatterofindifferencethatthiswealthis\'unearned，\'providedthatitisproductivelyexpended。Sofragmentsofprofits，earnedbysweatinglabourorbyrackrentingtenants，arespentonpensions，publichospitalsorhousingreform。Fractionsoftheexcessivepricestheconsumingpublicpaystoprivilegedtransportcompaniesor\'protected\' manufacturersaregivenbackinparksoruniversities。Greatinheritances，passingonthedeathofrichbankers，contractorsorcompanypromoters，dropheavytearsofcharitytosoftenthefateofthosewhohavefailedinthebusinessstruggle。Fortunes，gainedbysettingnationagainstnation，areappliedtopromotethecauseofinternationalpeace。Thishumorisinevitable。Unearnedpropertycanfindnosocialusesmoreexigentthantheapplicationofcharitableremediestotheverydiseasestowhichitowesitsorigin。Soeverywherewefindthebeneficiariesofeconomicforce，luck，favourandprivilege，tryingtopourbalmandoilintothewoundswhichtheyhavemade。Theeffectoftheprocess，andwhatmaybecalleditsunconsciousintention，istodefendtheirrationalityandinjusticeoftheseunearnedpropertiesbybuyingoffclearscrutinyintotheirorigins。 Sometimes，indeed，theintentionattainsameasureofclearconsciousness，asinthecaseswhererichmenorfirmsregardthesubscriptionsgiventopublicpurposesassoundbusinessexpenditure，applyingonefractionoftheirgrossprofitstoapropitiationfundastheyapplyanothertoaninsurancefund。 §；7。Theradicaldefectofthisdoctrineandpracticeofthe\'socialtrust\'isitsfalseseveranceoforiginfromuse。Theorganiclawofindustryhasjoinedoriginanduse，workandwealth，productionandconsumption。 Itaffirmsanaturalandnecessaryrelationbetweengettingandspending。 Amanwhoputsnoeffortintogetting，arent-receiver，cannotputwell-directedeffortintospending。Heisbynaturalproclivityawastrel。Amanwhoispurelyselfishinhisgetting，asthesweater，gambler，ormonopolist，cannotbesocialinhisspending。Therecipientofunearnedincomeisimpelledbytheconditionsofhisbeingtoalifeofidlenessandluxury:thisisthelifeheisfittedfor。Heisunfittedfortheadministrationofasocialtrust。 Theseobvioustruths，sofatallyneglected，arenovaguemaximsofrevolutionaryethics，butarefirmlyrootedinphysicalandmoralfact。 Wehaveseenthatthereisthroughoutorganiclifeaquantitativeandqualitativerelationbetweenfunctionandnutrition，eachbeingtheconditionoftheother。Hewhodoesnoteatcannotwork；hewhodoesnotworkcannoteat。 Itistruethatthelatterlawworkslessdirectlyandlessimmediatelythantheformer。Parasitism，individualorsocial，continuestoexisttomanywalksoflife。Butitneverthrives，italwaystendstodegeneration，atrophyanddecay。Normally，andinthelongrun，itremainstruethat\'Whosoeverwillnotwork，neithercanheeat。\'Ifthentherecipiencyofunearnedwealth，parasitism，disablestherecipientfromputtinghis\'property\' tosoundpersonaluses，isitlikelythathecanputittosoundsocialuses？Thoughabnormalinstancesmayseem，hereaselsewhere，tocontravenethenaturallaw，itremainstruethatthepowerofindividualearning，notmerelyinvolvesnopowerofsocialspending，butnegatesthatpower。 Itmightevenbecontendedthattherewillbeanaturaldispositionintherecipientofunearnedwealthtospendthatwealthinpreciselythosewaysinwhichitinjuresmostthesocietyheseekstoserve。Thisisprobablythecase。Itismoresociallyinjuriousforthemillionairetospendhissurpluswealthincharitythaninluxury。Forbyspendingitonluxury，hechieflyinjureshimselfandhisimmediatecircle，butbyspendingitincharityheinflictsagraverinjuryuponsociety。Foreveryactofcharity，appliedtohealsufferingarisingfromdefectivearrangementsofsociety，servestoweakenthepersonalspringsofsocialreform，alikebythe\'miraculous\' reliefitbringstotheindividual\'case\'thatisrelieved，andbythesofteninginfluenceitexercisesontheheartsandheadsofthosewhowitnessit。Itsubstitutestheideaandthedesireofindividualreformforthoseofsocialreform，andsoweakensthecapacityforcollectiveself-helpinsociety。Themoststrikingtestimonytothejusticeofthisanalysisisfurnishedbythetendencyof\'modelmillionaires\'todirectalltheircharitytowholesaleandwhattheydeemsocialpurposes，ratherthantoindividualcases。Inordertoavoidtheerrorsofindiscriminatecharity，theyfastentheirmunificenceuponsocietyintheshapeofuniversities，hospitals，parks，librariesandothergeneralbenefits。Realisingquiteclearly，astheythink，thatthecharacterofanindividualisweakenedanddemoralisedbyacharitabledonationwhichenableshimtogetwhatotherwisehecouldonlyhavegotbyhispersonalexertion，theyproceedtoweakenanddemoralisewholecitiesandentirenations，bydoingforthesesocialbodieswhattheyarequitecapableofdoingforthemselvesbytheirowncollectiveexertions。Thesepublicgiftsofmillionairesdebauchthecharacterofcitiesandstatesmoreeffectivelythantheprivategiftsofunreflectingdonorsthecharacterofindividuals。For，whereasmany，ifnotmost，oftheprivaterecipientsofcharityarevictimsofmisfortuneoroflackofopportunity，andarenotfullyresponsiblefortheevilplightinwhichtheystand，thisisnotthecasewithanorganisedself-governingcommunity，aCityoraState。Suchasocietyisable，outofitsownresources，ifitchoosestosecureandusethem，tosupplyforitselfallitsownlegitimateneeds。Ithasafarlargerself-sufficiencyformeetingallordinaryemergenciesandforfollowinganeconomyofself-developmentandprogress，thanhastheindividualcitizen。Foritcansupplyitsneedsoutofthesocialincomewhichitscollectivelifeisconstantlyassistingtoproduce，outofthatverysurpluswhich，wronglyallowedtoflow，unearned，intothecoffersofrichindividuals，istheveryfundusedforthisdebasingpubliccharity。 §；8。Theclearrecognitionofthesetruthsiscloselygermanetoourcentralconsiderationinthischapter，viz。，thequestionwhethertherecanbeevokedinthecommonconsciousnessaflowoftruesocialorcooperativefeelingstrongandsteadyenoughtoevokefromindividualcitizensasufficientvoluntaryefficiencyinproduction。Noabsolutelyconvincinganswertothequestionisatpresentpossible。But，ifanysuchexperimentistobetriedhopefully，itcanonlybedonebysettingPropertyuponanintelligiblemoralandsocialbasis，sothatitpassesintothepossessionofhimtowhomitisreally\'proper\'，inthesensethathehasputsomethingofhimselfintoitsmaking。Onlybyresolvingunearnedintoearnedincome，sothatallPropertyisdulyearnedeitherbyindividualsorbysocieties，cananethicalbasisbelaidforsocialindustry。Solongaspropertyappearstocomemiraculouslyorcapriciously，irrespectiveofeffortsorrequirements，andsolongasitiswithheldasirrationally，itisidletopreach\'thedignityoflabour\'ortoinculcatesentimentsofindividualself-help。 WhenallPropertyisvisiblyjustified，alikeinoriginanduse，therightsofpropertywillforthefirsttimeberespected，fortheywillbeforthefirsttimerespectable。Tosteal，tocheat，tosweat，tocadgeorbeg，willbeconsideredshameful，notbecausethelawforbids，butbecausesuchactswillbefeltbyalltobeassaultsuponthepersonalityofanother。 Forthefirsttimeinhistory，also，thetax-dodger，thecontractorwhoputsuphispriceforpublicworks，thesinecurist，thejobber，theprotectionistandotherparasitesuponthepublicpurse，willreceivethegeneralreprobationduetorobbery。ForwhentheStateisrecognisedashavingrightsofpropertyidenticalinoriginandusewiththoseofindividualcitizens，thatpropertywillclaimandmayreceiveasimilarrespect。Property，inaword，becomesareallysacredinstitutionwhenthehumanlawofdistributionisappliedtothewholeincome，surplusaswellascosts。Suchinequalitiesinincomeassurvivewillbeplainlyjustifiedasthecounterpartofinequalityofeffortsandofneeds。Thewidecontrastsofrichandpoor，ofluxuryandpenury，ofidlenessandtoil，willnolongerstaggerthereasonandoffendtheheart。 Sothestandardofsentimentalvalueswhichaffectstheconventionalmodesoflivingofallclasses——largelybysnobbishimitationandrivalry——willbetransformed。 Ostentatiouswasteandconspicuousleisure，withalltheirinjuriousreactionsuponourEducation，Recreation，Morals，andAEsthetics，willtendtodisappear。TheillusoryfactorofPrestigewillbeundermined，sothatthevaluations，bothofproductiveactivitiesandofconsumption，willshifttowardsanatural，orrational，standard。 §；9。Notmerelywillthewidegulfwhichseversmentalfrommanualworkersdisappear，butalltheelaboratescaleofvaluesfordifferentsortsofintellectualandmanualworkwouldundergoaradicalrevision。 Theeffectofsettingonahumanbasistheindustryofthecountrywould，ofcourse，reactuponallotherdepartmentsoflife，Religion，FamilyandCivicMorality，Politics，Literature，ArtandScience。Forthougheconomicsalonecannotmouldorinterprethistory，thedistinctivelyeconomicinstitutionsofIndustryandPropertyhavealwaysexercisedapowerful，sometimesadominantinfluence，uponotherinstitutions。Thereformationofeconomiclifemust，therefore，produceequallybeneficenteffectsuponallotherdepartments——transformingtheirstandardsandfeedingthestreamsoftheiractivitieswithnewthoughtsandfeelings，drawnnolongerfromthemindsofalittleclassorafeworiginalnatures，butfromthewholetideofhumanlifeflowingfreelyalongeverychannelofindividualandsocialendeavour。 Thesecurityandrationalityoftheeconomicorderwillgivetoallthatconfidenceinman，andthatfaithinhisfuture，whicharetheprimeconditionsofsafeandrapidprogress。Forthebrutalandcrushingpressureoftheeconomicprobleminitscoarsestshape——howtosecureamaterialbasisoflivelihood——hasofnecessityhithertoabsorbednearlyalltheenergyofman，sothathispowersofbodysoulandspirithavebeenmainlyspentonanunsatisfactoryandprecarioussolutionofthispersonaleconomicproblem。Religion，politics，thedisinterestedpursuitsoftruthorbeauty，havehadtoliveupontheleavingsoftheeconomiclife。 Aneconomicreformationwhich，byapplyingthehumanlawofdistribution，absorbstheunproductivesurplus，wouldthusfurnishasocialenvironmentwhichwasstrongerandbetterinthenourishmentandeducationitaffordedtoman。Everyorganofsocietywouldfunctionmoreeffectively，supplyingricheropportunitiesforhealthyall-roundself-developmenttoall。Sofarastheeconomicactivitiescanbetakenintoseparateconsideration，itisevidentthatthisjustly-orderedenvironmentwoulddomuchtoraisethephysical，andmoretoraisethemoralefficiencyoftheindividualasawealth-producerandconsumer。Butitsmostimportantcontributiontothevalueandthegrowthofhumanwelfarewouldlieinotherfieldsofpersonalitythanthedistinctivelyeconomic，intheliberation，realisationandimprovedconditionofotherintellectualandspiritualenergiesatpresentthwartedbyorsubordinatedtoindustrialism。CHAPTERXX:THESOCIALWILLASANECONOMICFORCE §；1。Tosecurebyeducationandreflectionsucharevaluationofhumanactivities，aimsandachievements，aswillseteconomicprocessesandproductsinadefinitelylowerplacethanthatwhichtheyoccupyatpresent，is，Ithink，essentialtosafeandrapidprogress。Fortheearlystepstowardsabetterindustrialorderwillverylikelyinvolvesomeeconomicsacrifice，inthesenseofareducedoutputofpersonalenergyandofwealth-productiononthepartoftheaveragememberofsociety。Althoughthislossmaybemorethancompensatedbytheeliminationoflargewastesofcompetitionandbyimprovedorganisation，wearenotwarrantedinassumingthatthiswillatoncetakeplace。 Weneednotassumeit。Forevenifwedonot，ouranalysishasshownthataneconomicsystem，thusworkingatalowerrateofhumancosts，andturningoutasmallerquantityofgoods，mayneverthelessyieldalargerquantityofhumanwelfare，byabetterdistributionofworkandproduct。 Butthegreatgain，ofcourse，willconsistintheincreasedamountoftime，interestandenergy，availableforthecultivationofotherhumanartsoutsidetheeconomicfield。Uponthecapacitytoutilisetheseenlargedopportunitiestheactualpaceofhumanprogressintheartoflivingwilldepend。Atpresentthiscapacitymayseemsmall。Theincreasedopportunitiesofleisure，travel，recreation，culture，andcomradeship，whichhavecomeinwidelydifferentdegreestoallclasses，haveoftenbeenputtodisappointinguses。Butagreatdealofsuchwasteisevidentlyattributabletothatprevailingviceofthoughtandfeelingwhichthedominationofindustrialismhasstampeduponourminds，thecrudedesiresforphysicalsensationsandexternaldisplay。Notuntilafarlargermeasureofreleasefromoureconomicbondshasbeenacquired，shallweenjoythedetachmentofmindrequisiteforthelargerprocessesofrevaluationandrealisation。 §；2。Onewordremains，however，tobesaidupontheall-importantsubjectofmotivesandincentives。Wehaveseenthat，insofarasitispossibletodisplacethecompetitivesystemofindustry，withitsstimulationofindividualgreedandcombativeness，byamoreconsciouslycooperativesystem，thewilloftheindividualengageduponindustrialprocesseswillbeaffectedinsomemeasurebythesocialmeaningoftheworkheisdoing，andwilldesiretoforwardit。Theefficacyofthissocialwillisnot，however，adequatelyrealisedsolongasitisregardedmerelyasafeelingforthepublicgoodoriginatingfromanumberofseparatecentresofenlightenedpersonality。Thegrowingrecognitiononthepartofindividualworkers，thatthestructureofsocietyestablishesastrongcommunityofinterests，willnodoubtsupplysomeincentivetoeachtodohisfairsharetothenecessarywork。Butthispersonalincentivemaynotgoveryfartowardsovercomingtheselfishnessorsluggishnessoffeeblerpersonalities。If，then，thesocialwillbetakenmerelytomeantheaggregateoffeelingforthepublicgoodthusgeneratedintheseparatewills，itmaynotsufficetosupportthecommonweal。Butifourorganicconceptionofsocietyhasanyvalidity，thesocialwillmeansmorethanthisadditionofseparatelystimulatedindividualwills。Theindividualsoldiermayhaveapatrioticfeelingexpressinghisindividualloveofhiscountry，whichhasacertainfightingvalue。But，ashisattachmenttohisprofessiongrows，anotherfeelingofwideroriginandmoreenduringforcefuseswiththenarrowerfeeling，enhancinggreatlyitseffectiveness。Thatfeelingisespritdecorps，acorporatespiritoftheservice，capableofovercomingpersonaldefects，thecowardice，apathyorgreedoftheindividual，andofevokinganenormousvolumeofunitedeffort。Ihavenointentionofsuggestingthattheroutineofordinaryindustrycanyieldscopefordisplaysofthisespritdecorpscomparableinintensitywiththedramaticexamplesofgreatmilitaryachievements。ButIdoaffirmthateveryconsciouscorporatelifeisaccompaniedandnourishedbysomecommonconsciousnessofwillandpurposewhichfeedsandfortifiesthepersonalcentres，stimulatingthosethatareweakerandraisingthemtoadecentlevelofeffort，reducingdissension，andimpartingconsciousunityofactionintocomplexprocessesofcooperation。 Thepowerofthissocialwillasaneconomicmotive-forceoughtnottobeignored。Astheprocessesofindustrialcooperationgrowcloser，morenumerous，moreregularintheiroperation，thiscooperationandcoordination，representingaunityofwillandpurposefartranscendingthevisionandthepurposeevenofthemostenlightenedandaltruisticmember，willformapowerfulcurrentofindustrialconsciousness，influencingandmouldingthewillandpurposesofindividuals。 Suchaforce，emanatingfromthesocialwhole，willofnecessitynotbeclearlycomprehensibletotheindividualswhofeelitsinfluenceandrespondtoit。Theyarethemany，whileitflowsfromtheirunion，whichmustalwaysbeimperfectlymirroredinthemindofeach。Yetthisdirectsocialwillonlyworksthroughitspowertostimulateanddirectthewillofeach，soastoproduceamoreeffectiveharmony。Vaguetheorythiswillseemtosome，utterlyremotefromthehardfactsoflife!Theproblemishowtoinducepublicorothersalariedemployeestodoafairday\'swork，whentheymightshirkitwithoutlossofpay。Well，wesuggestthatwhenthatfairday\'sworkisnotundulylongoronerous，whenitisfairlypaid，andwheneachseesthatalltheothersarecalledupontodotheirpropershare，thegeneralsenseoffairnessinthearrangementwillcometoexerciseacompellinginfluenceoneachmantokeephisoutputuptoadecentlevel。 Thispowerofthesocialwillhasneveryetbeentested。Forasocietywitharrangementsbasedonmanifestprinciplesofjusticeandreasonhasneveryetbeensetinoperation。Butthoughourorganiclawofdistributionmayneverattainaperfectapplication，sofarasitisapplieditmaysurelybeexpectedtoactinthewayheredescribed，appealingtothespringsofhonour，equity，comradeshipandrespectforpublicopinion，withaforceimmeasurablygreaterthanispossibleinasystemofindustryandpropertywherereasonandfairplayintheapportionmentofworkanditsrewardsaresoimperfectlyapparent。 §；3。Theseconditionsoforganicwelfareintheapportionmentofworkandwealthdonotimplyaconceptionofindustrialsocietyinwhichtheindividualandhispersonaldesiresandendsareimpairedorsacrificedtotheinterestsofthecommunity。Theydoimplyagrowthofthesocial-economicstructureinwhichtheimpulsesofmutualaid，whichfromtheearliesttimeshavebeencivilisingmankind，shallworkwithaclearerconsciousnessoftheirhumanvalue。Astheindividualperceivesmoreclearlyhowintimatelyhispersonaleffortsandeffectsare，inprocessandinproduct，linkedwiththoseofalltheothermembersofsociety，thatperceptionmustpowerfullyinfluencehisfeelings。Hewillcomeconsciouslytorealisehispersonalfreedominactionsthatareawillingcontributiontothecommongood。 Thisconsciousnesswillmakeitmoredifficultforhimtodefendinhimselforotherseconomicconductorinstitutionsinwhichindividual，classornationalconflictsareinvolved。Thusabettersocialconsciousnessandabettereconomicenvironmentwillreactononeanotherforfurthermutualbetterment。Theunityofthissocial-industriallifeisnotaunityofmerefusioninwhichtheindividualvirtuallydisappears，butafederalunityinwhichtherightsandinterestsoftheindividualshallbeconservedforhimbythefederation。Thefederalgovernment，however，conservestheseindividualrights，not，astheindividualistmaintains，becauseitexistsfornootherpurposethantodoso。Itconservesthembecauseitalsorecognisesthatanareaofindividuallibertyisconducivetothehealthofthecollectivelife。Itsfederalnaturerestsonarecognitionalikeofindividualandsocialends，or，speakingmoreaccurately，ofsocialendsthataredirectlyattainedbysocialactionandofthosethatarerealisedinindividuals。 Iregardsuchafederationasanorganicunionbecausenoneoftheindividualrightsorinterestsisabsoluteinitssanction。Societyinitseconomicasinitsotherrelationsisafederalstatenotafederationofstates。 Therightsandinterestsofsocietyareparamount:theyoverrideallclaimsofindividualstolibertiesthatcontravenethem。 §；4。Sofarasindustryisconcerned，weperceivehowthisharmonybetweenindividualandsocialrightsandinterestsisrealisedintheprimarydivisionofproductiveactivitiesintoArtandRoutine。Theimpulsesanddesireswhichinitiate，sustainanddirectwhatwetermart，includingallthecreativeactivitiesinindustry，flowfreelyfromtheindividualnature。Werecognisethatproductiveactivitiesinwhichtheseelementsareofparamountimportanceformaneconomicfieldwhichsociety，guidedbyitsintelligentself-interest，willsafelyandprofitablyleavetoindividualsandprivateenterprise。Industrieswhichareessentiallyofaroutinecharacter，affordinglittlescopeforcreativeactivitiesofindividuals，mustpassunderdirectsocialadministration。Forfreeindividualinitiativeanddesireswillnotsupportthem。Theycanonlybeworkedunderprivateenterpriseonconditionthatgreatgainsareprocurablefortheentrepreneursandanunfreebodyofproletarianlabourisavailableforcompulsoryservice。 Theroutineservicesofsocietycannotproperlybesecuredbyappealstotheseparateself-interestsofindividuals。Soadministered，theyinvolvethewasteofvastunearnedgainsaccruingtoaprivatecasteofmasters，theinjuryanddegradationofeconomicservitudeintheworkers，andagrowinginsecurityandirregularityofservicetotheconsumers。Theonlyvolumeoffree-willandvoluntaryenterprisethatcansupportthoseroutineindustriesisthefree-willandenterpriseofSociety。Ifwecanbringourselvestoregardthegreatnormalcurrentsofroutineindustry，engagedinsupplyingthecommondailyneeds，fromthestandpointofarealliveSociety，weshallrecognisethattothatSocietythisindustrialactivityanditsachievementsarefullofinterestandvariety。WhattotheindividualisdullroutineistoSocietycreativeart，thenaturalemploymentofsocialproductiveenergiesfortheprogressivesatisfactionofsocialneeds。Thoughtheindividualwillsoonflagsbeforedemandsforworksoirksomeandrepellenttoitsnature，thesocialwillgladlyrespondstoworkinwhichthatwillfindsitsfreenaturalexpression。 Thisistheultimateargumentinfavourofthesocialisationoftheroutineindustries，viz。，thereleaseoftheindividualwillfromworkthatiscostly，repellentandill-done，inordertoenablethesocialwilltofindinthatworkitshealthy，interesting，educativeself-realisation。 ForonceconceiveSocietyasabeingcapableofthoughtandfeeling，theseprocesseshaveaninterestforit。Theyaresocialart，partofthecollectivelifeinwhichSocietyrealisesitself，justastheindividualrealiseshimselfinindividualart。OnceaccepttheviewofSocietynotasameresetofsocialinstitutions，oranetworkofrelations，butasacollectivepersonality，thegreatroutineindustrialprocessesbecomethevitalfunctionsofthiscollectivebeing，interestingtothatbeingalikeintheirperformanceandtheirproduct。Thatsubdivisionoflabourandthatapparentcontradictionofinterestsbetweenproducerandconsumerwhichseemdesignedtofeedpersonalantagonismsandtothwartindividuality，nowacquirerationaljustificationasthecomplexadaptiveplayofhealthyvitalfunctionsinSociety。 §；5。Labour，thusinterpreted，becomesatrulysocialfunction，theorderlyhalf-instinctivehalf-rationalactivitybywhichsocietyhelpsitselfandsatisfiesitswants，acommontideofproductiveenergywhichpulsesthroughtheveinsofhumanity，impellingtheindividualmembersofsocietytoperformtheirpartascontributorstothegenerallife。Whetherthoseindividualactionsarestrictlyvoluntary，pleasurableandinterestinginthemselvestothosewhoperformthem，asinthefinerarts，orarecompulsoryintheirmainincidenceupontheindividual，andaccompaniedbylittleinterestorsocialfeelingonhispart，isamatterofquitesecondaryimportanceasviewedfromthesocialstandpoint。Aslabourissocial，soiscapital。Theotherapparentdiscrepancy，thatbetweentheinterestsofpresentandfuture，spendingandsaving，alsodisappearswhenweconsiderthesocialsignificanceofsaving。Forsocietysecretescapitalbythesamehalf-instinctivehalf-rationalprocessbywhichitgenerates，directsanddistributes，itssupplyoflabour。Onlybyahypothesiswhichthusassignsacentralindustrialpurposetosocietycanwepossiblyunderstandthelifeofindustryandthecomplexcooperationitdisplays。 Takeforasingleinstancethewheatsupplyoftheworld——orthecottonindustryofLancashire。Weseelargerhythmicactions，elaborateintheircomplicatedflows，responsivetoinnumerablestimuliofworld-markets，——anervoussystemofaffluentandeffluentcurrents，directedbythedesiresandbeliefsofinnumerableproducersandconsumers，eachconsciouslyactuatedbyhisownparticularmotivesandyetcooperatingtowardslargesocialends。 Wecanneithergrasp，intellectuallyoremotionally，thehumanorsocialsignificanceoftheseprocesses，ifwepersistinresolvingthemintotheideas，feelingsandactionsofindividualpersons。Theharmonybecomeseitherfortuitousorpurelymystical。But，ifweregardSocietyashavingalargelifeofitsown，thecooperativeharmonyofindividualaimsandactivitiesbecomesacorporateorganicprocess。Thesociallifedoesnotsufferfromdivisionoflabourandspecialisationoffunction，butgains，asintheanimalorganism。Thesociallifeisnotoppressed，degradedorinjuredbytheroutineofthesmallerworkinglives，anymorethantheanimalorganismbytheregularityandrepetitionoftherespiratory，circulatingandotherroutineoperationsofitsorgansandtheircells。 §；6。\"But，\"itwillbeobjected，\"evenifwearejustifiedinpushingtheorganicanalogysofarastoclaimtheexistenceofarealsociallifewithameaningandendofitsown，superiortothatoftheindividual，asthelifeofeveryorganismissuperiortothatofitsorgansandcells，thatlargersocialbeingcanonlyremainashadowyorhypotheticalbeingtoactualmenandwomen。Anditistheaims，ideas，feelingsandactivitiesoftheselittleunitsthat，afterall，willalwaysabsorbourattentionandoccupyourheartsandminds。\" Hereisthefinalquintessenceofindividualismsurvivinginmanyprofessingsocialists，thedenialoftheexistenceofarationalmoralsociety。Yetsuchasocietyexists。Theearliestbeginningsofanimalgregariousness，sexualfeelings，andotherprimaryinstinctsofassociation，withthemutualaidtheygiveriseto，areafirsttestimonytotheexistence，evenattheopeningofthehumanera，ofarealthoughrudimentarysociety，physicalandpsychicalinitsnature。CivilisationhasitschiefmeaningintheextensionandgrowingrealisationofthisunityofSociety，byutilisingthesesecretthreadsofsocialfeelingfortheweavingofthefabricofsocialinstitutions。Thus，throughtheseinstrumentsofcommonsociallife，language，art，science，industry，politics，religion，societygathersalarger，moresolidandvariouslife。Race，Nationality，Church，thebondofsomecommoninterestinascience，anart，aphilanthropicpurpose，oftenpresentintenseexamplesofgenuinelycommonlifeandpurpose。Thesearenotmeresocialcontractsoffreeindividuals，seekingbycooperationtoforwardtheirindividualends。Suchaconceptionofmutualaidisasfalseforreligion，science，artorindustry，asforpolitics。Thestatementthat\'manisasocialanimal\'cannotmerelysignifythatamongman\'sequipmentoffeelingsandideasthereexistsafeelingandideaofsympathywithothermen。Thatisonlyhowitlooksfromthestandpointofthecell。Itmeansthathumanityinallitsvariousaggregationsisasocialstuff，andthatwhateverformsofcoalescenceitassumes，i。e。，anation，caste，church，party，etc。，therewillexistagenuinelyorganicunity，acentralorgenerallife，strongorweak，but，sofarasitgoes，tobeconsideredasdistinctfromanddominantoverthelifeandaimofitsmembers。 Thiscentrallife，thoughdistinguishablefromthelivesofitsmembers，asanobjectofthoughtandwill，isyetonlylivedinandthroughthelifeoftheorgansandcells。Thisisthesubtlenatureoftheorganicbond。 Wearetoldindeedthat\"Societyonlyexistsinindividuals。\"This，however，isonlytrueinthesamerestrictedsenseinwhichitistruethatananimalorganismonlyexistsinthelifeofitscells。Thereisnothingbutthecellsplustheirorganiccooperation。ButIshouldrathersaythattheorganismexistsinthecooperationofthecells。SoIshouldsaythatSocietyexistsinthecooperationofindividuals。 Thisisnotamatteroftheoreticaccuracyofstatement，butofimmensepracticalsignificance。Forthefutureprogressoftheartsofsocialconduct，especiallyofindustryandpolitics，mustlargelydependuponthemeasureandmannerofacceptanceofthisviewofthenatureofSociety。Itmust，indeed，totheindividualmindalwaysremainasahypothesis，incapableoffullandexactverification。Forsuchverificationwouldimplyanabsolutemergingofindividualpersonalityinthesocialunity。Suchapublicspiritcanneverabsorbanddisplaceprivatespirits。Butthehypothesismay，forallthat，possessbothintellectualandemotionalvalidity。Itsclearprovisionalacceptancewillnotonlyexplainmanyofthedifficultiesandreconcilemanyofthediscrepanciesinthosetendencies，industrialandpolitical，whicharegenerallyacceptedasmakingforhumanprogress，butwillaffordincreasedeconomyofdirectionandofmotive。ForonceletusrealiseSocietyaspossessingaunityandalifeofitsown，tothefurtheranceofwhicheachofuscontributesinthepursuanceoftheparticularlifewecall\'ourown，\'theso-calledsacrificeswearecalledupontomakeforthatlargerlifewillbeconsiderednolongerencroachmentsonbutenlargementsofourpersonality。Weshallcomeinlargermeasuretoidentifyouraimsandendswillinglywiththeaimsandendsweimputetosociety，andeverystepinthatpublicconductwillenrichorstrengthenthatsocialsympathywhichweshallrecognisetobetheverylifeofsocietyflowinginourveins。Thisisthespiritofsocialreform，asdistinguishedfromtheconcretemeasuresofreform。Uponthecreationandrecognitionofthisspiritthepossibility，theusefulness，thedurabilityofeveryoneoftheinstitutionsandpolicies，whichareevolvedbymoderncivilisation，depend。Itis，therefore，ofsupremeandcriticalimportancetoobtainthewidestpossibleacceptanceoftheconceptionofSocietyasalivingbeingtowhicheachofus\'belongs，\'abeingcapableofthinkingandfeelingthroughusforitself，andofdesiring，pursuingandattainingendswhichareitsends，andwhichwearecapableofhelpingtorealise。SolongasSocietyisspokenofandthoughtofasanabstraction，nosocialconductcanbesoundorsafe。Foranabstractionisincapableofcallingforthourreverence，regardorlove。AnduntilweattributetoSocietysuchaformanddegreeof\'personality\'ascanevokeinusthoseinterestsandemotionswhichpersonalityalonecanwin，thesocialwillwillnotbeabletoperformgreatworks。 Thefinalclaimwemakeforthehumanvaluationofindustrypresentedhereisthatithelpstobringintoclearreliefasetofhumanproblemswhich，fromtheconceptionofsocietyasamerearrangementforsecuringindividualends，areperceivedtobeinsoluble，butforwhichreasonandemotionalikedemandasatisfactorysolution。Onlybysubstitutingfortheattainmentofindividualwelfaretheidealandthestandardofsocialwelfare，areweabletoobtainamethodofanalysisandvaluationwhichfurnishessatisfactorysolutionstotheproblemsthatindustrypresents。CHAPTERXXI:PERSONALANDSOCIALEFFICIENCY §；1。Whatlightdoesourhumanvaluationofeconomicprocessesthrowupontheconditionsofindividualandsocialprogress？Ourexaminationofindustryhasshownusthewaysinwhichtheactualproductionandconsumptionofwealthaffectthepersonalefficiencyandwelfareofindividuals。Theorganiclawofdistributionclearlyindicatespersonalefficiency，alikeforpurposesofeconomicproductivityandforthewiderartoflife，todependprimarilyuponthemaintenanceofsoundrelationsbetweentheoutputofeconomicactivitiesandtheincomeofeconomicsatisfactions。Ahealthysystemofindustrywilldemandfromeachproduceranamountandkindof\'costly\'labouraccommodatedtohisnaturalandacquiredpowers。Bysuchadistributionofthesociallyusefulworkwhichisnotinitselfagreeabletoitsperformers，thecommoneconomicneedsofsocietyaresuppliedwiththesmallestaggregateamountofhumancost。Similarly，weseehow，byadistributionofwealthaccordingtotheneedsofeachmember，i。e。，accordingtohis\'power\'asconsumer，thelargestaggregateamountofhumanutilityisgotoutofthewealthdistributed。 Butthisburdenof\'costly\'work，requiredoftheproducerandadjustedtohispowers，isnottheonlyworkthathecando。Themainobjectoftheshorterwork-dayandthebetterapportionmentof\'costly\'labour，aswehavealreadyrecognised，istoliberatetheindividualsothathehastimeandenergyforthevoluntaryperformanceof\'productive\'activitiesthatare\'costless，\'interestingandbeneficialtohispersonallife。Someofthesevoluntaryactivitieswillbe\'economic\'inthesensethattheymayproducegoodsorserviceswhichhaveanexchangevalue。Suchisthegardeningorthewood-carvingwhichamanmaydoinhissparetime。Thoughitmaybringhimadirectreturnofpersonalgainandsatisfactionthatisnon-economic，itmayalsobeasupplementarymeansofincome。Thereisnoreasonwhyamanwhosehobbyishisgardenshouldnotbeabletoexchangesomeofthefruitandflowers，whichithasbeenapleasureforforhimtogrow，forthephotographsorthebook-bindingsonwhichhisneighboursmayprefertospendaportionoftheirleisure。Mostofthespareenergyorleisure，however，wonfortheworkerbyafairdistributionof\'costly\'labour，will，ofcourse，usuallybeappliedtopersonalemployments，totheartsofhomelifeandofsociety，which，thoughhighlyconducivetopersonalefficiency，lieoutsidetherangeof\'economics。\'Eachpersonwouldapplythisfreetimeandenergydifferently，hisvoluntaryworkhavingsomenaturalrelationas\'relief\'or\'variety\'tothesortof\'costly\' orroutinelabourwhichearnedhislivelihood。Thusonthistrueequalitarianbasistherewouldariseanimmensevarietyoffreelyactivepersonalities。 Eachpersonwouldhavewhatmaybecalledapersonalstandardofproduction，anorderlyapplicationofhisproductiveenergies，which，thoughpartlyimposedbyhisstatusasamemberofsocietyboundtodohisshareinsocialwork，wouldlargelyrepresenthispersonaltastes，choicesandinterests，selfishoraltruistic，accordingtohistemperament。 §；2。Turningtotheothersideofindustry，thedistributionofwealthtoeachaccordingtohisneeds，i。e。，capacitiesofuse，personalitywouldimpressitselfsimilarlyuponanimmensevarietyofactualstandardsofconsumption，ormodesofapplyingincometothesatisfactionofdesires。 Thereis，however，animportantdistinctiontobenotedbetweenstandardsofconsumptionandofproduction。Whereasinmodernindustrytheearningofincomeisnormallyanindividualart，itsconsumptionisnormallyafamilyact。Whilethefamily，exceptinsomeagriculturalsocieties，isveryrarelyaunitofproduction，itremainsusuallyaunitofconsumption。 Itwouldappear，then，thatourhumandistributionwouldaffectpersonalefficiencydifferentlyuponthetwosidesofitsapplication。Asproducerhisstandardofproduction，orofuseofproductiveactivities，wouldappeartobedirectedbyabalancebetweenthesocialrequirementsoflabourandhispersonalproclivities，whereasonthesideofconsumptionthebalancewouldbebetweenthesocialrequirementsandthefamily。Societymustsecureforthestandardoffamilycomfortsuchanexpenditureaswillsustaintheworkingnumbersofthefamilyinfulleconomicefficiency，i。e。，apropereconomyofwhattheclassicaleconomistscalled\'productiveconsumption\' musttakeplace。But，outsidethislimit，theparticularrequirementsandconditions，notoftheearneralone，butofthefamilyasawhole，mustdeterminetheexpenditurethatmakesforefficiency。Thisdiscrepancy，however，isnotreallysogreatasitappearsatfirstsight。Thedirectinterestofsocietyintheproductiveandconsumptivelifeofitsindividualmembersliesintheirperformanceofthispropershareof\'costly\'orsocialserviceandtheiruseofaproperportionoftheirincomeforconsumptionadjustedtomaintaintheirefficiencyforthissocialservice。Therestoftheirproductiveenergy，therestoftheirconsumptivewealth，lieundertheirowncontrolfortheirpersonallife。Thefactthatthispersonallifemaybemorenarrowlypersonalontheproductiveside，moreofafamilylifeontheconsumptiveside，doesnotseriouslyaffecttheissue。Indeed，thediscrepancyalmostwhollydisappearswhenwelookalittlecloseratthelibertieswhichabettersocialeconomyofproductionsecuresfortheworker。Thebetterlifewhichaslackeningoftheindustrialstrainwillbringtotheproducerwillconsistinthecultivationofinterestsandactivitieswhich，preciselybecausetheyarevoluntaryandinthemselvesdesired，cannotrightlybeclassifiedaseitherproductionorconsumptionbutunitethequalitiesofboth。Wehaveseenthatthisisthecharacteristicofallart，orallworkwhichisgoodandpleasantinitself。Anyactivitythatcarriesasurplusofhumanutilityoverhumancostisatoncefunctionandnutrition，productionandconsumption。Inaword，itisanincreaseoflife。Soitcomesaboutthatthe\'humandistribution\'feedspersonalefficiencyequallyonitsproductiveandconsumptivesides。Ahealthyapplicationofproductiveactivitieswillcontributeasmuchtoindividualprogressasahealthystandardofconsumption。 §；3。Itremainstorecognisethattheorganictreatmentofourproblemdoesnotpermitsocietytoadoptaseparatistviewofthedistributionofworkanditsproduct。Adistributionofwork\'accordingtothepowers\' ofworkersisconceivableontermswhichwouldcauseheavydamagetosocietythroughignoringthereactionsofworkuponconsumption。Itmightappearsuperficiallyasoundhumaneconomytoplacealltheburdenoftheheaviestandmostrepellentmusculartoiluponclassesorracesofmenwhosepowerfulbodiesandinsensitivemindsseemedtoindicatethattheywerebestfittedbynatureforsuchwork。1Butiftheeffectofsuchaneconomywere，asitwouldbe，tokeepconsiderablebodiesofpopulationinalowgradeofanimalism，asrepresentedincoarsemodesoflivingandbrutalrecreations，thisone-sidedview，byneglectingtheseorganicreactions，wouldinjurethepersonalityoftheselowergradesofcitizens，andthroughthemdamagetheefficiencyofthesocietyofwhichtheyweremembers。Or，takinganoppositeinstance，aSocietywhichenabledclassesofartisticorliteraryfolktoescapeallshareof\'costly\'sociallabour，soastocultivateexclusivelytheirindividualactivitiesandtastes，wouldincurasimilarsocialdangerthroughthepresenceofhighlystimulatingpersonalities，uncheckedbyanyadequatesenseofsocialresponsibilities，whobytheirexampleandinfluencemightunderminetheroutineactivitieswhicharethefeedersofsociallife。 Sofar，then，aseconomicreformsareaimingatpersonalefficiency，theymusttakesimultaneouslyintoconsiderationtheeffectswhicheachreformwillhaveupontheproductionandtheconsumptionofwealth。Forexample，ashorteningoftheworkdayoughttobeaccompaniedbyimprovedopportunitiesofeducationandofrecreationasanintegralpartofthereform。 §；4。Oursettingoftheproblem，whichbringsintocontrasttheroutinesocialproductionthatis\'costly\'toindividualsandthecreativeorindividualproductionwhichis\'costless，\'mightseemtoinvolvetheviewthatsocialprogress，asdistinctfromindividual，wouldinvolveanincreasingtotalburdenofroutineworkunderdirectsocialcontrol。Thusanantagonismbetweentheconsciousinterestsoftheindividualandthesocialinterestsmightappeartoremain。For，thoughabettersocialwill，operatingupontheindividual，mightdisposehimtoaccepthisdutyofservingsocietyintheperformanceofhisshareofroutinework，itwouldstillbetruethatsuchservicewaslessdesirabletohimandlessnourishedhispersonallifethanthefreepersonalactivitiesuponwhichitencroached。 Thisopensupanexceedinglyimportantissueinsocialeconomy。Ithasbeenassumedthatareallyenlightenedsocietywillsoadministerindustrythatalightday\'slaboursharedamongallwillsufficetowinthewealthnecessaryforthesupportofsocietyandthesatisfactionofthecommonmaterialneedsofitsmembers。Thusanincreasingproportionofhumanenergywillbeliberatedfortheperformanceofthoseactivitieswhicharepleasantandinterestingtothosewhoengageinthem。Adiminishingamountoftimeandenergywillbeappliedtothemechanicalprocessesofgettingfoodandothermaterialsfromtheearth，andoffashioningthemandcarryingthemabout。Thustherewillbemoretimeandenergyforthefineartsandcrafts，whichdependlessuponquantityofmaterialsandmoreupontheskilledapplicationofpersonalpowers。Fromthestandpointofhumanwelfaresuchaneconomyisobvious。Itmeans，ontheproductiveside，aprogressiveincreaseofactivitythatishumanly\'costless\'andpleasurable，aprogressivedecreaseofthatwhichiscostlyandunpleasurable。Ontheconsumptiveside，itmeansthesubstitutionofnon-materialwealth，suchasbooks，pictures，poetry，science，whicharevirtuallyinfiniteinthehumanutilitythattheyarecapableofyielding，formaterialwealthwhichismostlyconsumedinasingleactofappropriation。Thehigherkindofgoodsthusbringsaminimumofcostsandamaximumofutilities，andthatuponeachsideoftheorganicequation。 Inmostadvancednationsofourtimethisgainintherelativeimportanceoftheartsandprofessionsengagedinartistic，professional，recreative，educational，scientificandothercreativeactivities，isrecognisedasbeinganevidenceandameasureofadvancingcivilization，andsomeoffsettotheadvanceofmaterialluxury。 §；5。If，however，thereistobeacontinuousincreaseintheproportionoftimeandenergyavailablefortheproductionandconsumptionofthehighergradesofnon-materialeconomicgoodsandforotheractivitiesofanon-economicnature，somelimitationmusttakeplaceofthedemandandsupplyofmaterialeconomicgoods。Ifinanycountry，orthroughouttheindustrialworld，thegrowthofpopulationweresuchas，intheoldphrase，topress\'uponthemeansofsubsistence，\'theamountofproductiveenergyneededfortheartsofagriculture，mining，andthestaplebranchesofmanufactureandtransportwouldbesuchastodefeattheeconomyofsocialprogressjustindicated。Evenifthepopulationdidnotadvance，butwerechieflyengagedinseekingfullersatisfactionofanincreasingnumberofdistinctivelyphysicalwants，thesameresultwouldfollow。Largerdraftsmustcontinuallybemadeuponthenaturalresourcesofthesoil，bymeansofindustriessubjecttowhatpoliticaleconomycalls\"thelawofdiminishingreturns，\"andanincreasingproportionoflabourmustbeengagedintheseindustries。Thoughmechanicsandthedivisionoflabourinthemanufactures，andeveninagriculture，temperthetyrannyofmatter，enablingagivenamountofroutinetoiltoachieveanincreasingoutputofgoods，thispolicyofhumanliberationisimpededandmaybeentirelyfrustratedbyaconstantpreferenceamonglargepopulationsforastrictlyquantitativesatisfactionofnewmaterialwants。Therootissueofsocialprogressfromtheeconomicstandpointisheredisclosed。Itisthequestionoftherelativeimportanceofquantityofmatterinthesatisfactionofwants。Inurgingthatsocialprogressrequiresaprogressivediminutionofthepartplayedbymatterandtheindustriesinwhichquantityofmatterisachiefdeterminantfactor，Idonotmerelymeanthatcivilisationimpliesanincreasingvaluationoftheintellectualandmoralfacultiesandoftheiractivities。Mostofthefineartsrequiresomematterfortheirmanipulationandfortheirinstruments；everybranchoftheintellectuallifeneedssomematerialequipment。Butintheseoccupationsandintheirproductsquantityofmatterisofanimportancethatisslight，oftenwhollynegligible。Afineart，askilledcraft，amachineindustry，mayeachhandlethesamesortofmaterial，metal，stoneorwood，butthequantityofthismaterialwillhavearapidlyincreasingimportance，asonedescendsfromthemanipulationoftheartisttothecraftsmanandfromthecraftsmantothemanufacturer。 If，then，wearetosecureaneconomyofsocialprogressinwhichrelativelylessimportanceistobegiventothoseindustrieswhicharelesshumanlydesirable，alikeintheworktheyinvolveandinthesatisfactiontheirproductsyield，wemusthaveasocietywhichbecomesincreasinglyqualitativeinitstastesandinterestsandinitshumanconstitution。Alargerproportionofitsrealincomemusttakeshapeinnon-materialgoods，orinmaterialgoodswhichdependmoreforthesatisfactiontheyyieldupontheirquality。 Inaword，theremustbeatendencytokeeplifesimpleinregardtomaterialconsumption。 Butwhenonesaysthatsocietyitselfmustgrowmorequalitativeinitsconstitution，amoredifficultconsiderationemerges。 Inthediscussionregardingthebearingofthegrowthofpopulationupongeneralwelfaretoomuchattentionwasformerlyaccordedtothemerelyquantitativequestion。Toolittleisnowaccorded。Underthetitleofeugenicsthepopulationquestionthreatenstobecomeentirelyqualitative。Nowthisisevidentlyamistake。Forwhateverinterpretationweaccordtosocialwelfare，someconsiderationastothedesirablenumberandrateofgrowthofthepopulationisevidentlyofimportance。Thoughitmaybeagreedthatvitalvaluesintheirspiritualandeveninthephysicalmeaningsaredistinctlyqualitative，andthat，asfaraspossible，asocietyshouldsetitselftomaintainconditionsofsexselectionfavourabletoadmittedlyfinerandhealthiertypes，thisissueofqualitymustnotbedetachedfromtheissueofquantity。 Asintheeconomyoftheindividuallifeaproperallowanceofattentionmustbesecuredforphysicalwantsandforthematerialproductionandconsumptiontheyinvolve，soinasocietythesizeofitsphysicalstructure，thenumberofcooperatinghumancellsthroughwhichitlives，isaconsiderationthatinheresintheartofsociallife。Ruskinwassurelyrightinhisgeneralsettingofthesocialquestion\'Howcansocietyconsciouslyorderthelivesofitsmemberssoastomaintainthelargestnumberofnobleandhappyhumanbeings？\'2Howmuchconsciousnessorcalculationcanadvantageouslybebroughttobearupontheregulationoftheplayofthesexualandrelatedinstinctsanddesires，isahighlycontroversialquestionintowhichweneednotenterhere。Butsofarassocialreformcanmakegoodanyclaimtoregulatethegrowthofthepopulation，itsregulationshouldclearlyhaveregardtoquantityaswellasquality。Alargenumberofphysicallysoundandhappyhumanbeingsmustbetakenasaprimeconditionofsocialwelfare。Itisnoteasytodefendtheprosperityofapeoplewhoshallseemtopurchaseafullerandevenamorespirituallycomplexlifeforsomeoralltheirmembersbyacontinuousreductionoftheirnumbers。Wherelifeisvaluedandvaluablethenaturaldispositiontoextenditsvaluesaswidelyasisconsistentwiththeirmaintenanceisanaturalinstinctdifficulttoimpugn。Ifitbecontendedthatthisisinsomesenseanadmissionofthesocialvalidityofthetendencytomultiplysoasto\'pressonthemeansofsubsistence，\'Imightadmittheinterpretation，provideditwereunderstoodthat\'meansofsubsistence\'includedalltheessentialsofspiritualaswellasofphysicallife。 Idonot，however，wishtodogmatiseuponadifficultandexceedinglydebateablematter，butonlytoinsistthataconsciousartofsocialprogresscannomoreignorequantitythanqualityofpopulationinanygeneralcalculusofhumanwelfare。 §；6。Thegreaterequalisationofincomeswhichwouldfollowfromtheabsorptionofunproductivesurplusintopublicincomeandintoremunerationoflabour，wouldbefavourabletothetwoconditionsofsocialprogressherelaiddown，arestriction