第15章

uponthegrowthofmaterialconsumptionandareasonableregulationofthegrowthofpopulation。For，asluxuryandmaterialwasteareseenlargelytoariseasinstrumentsforthedisplayofindividualprowessincompetitiveindustry，theremovalofthatcompetitionfromfieldswhichyieldlargemeansforsuchdisplaywouldnecessarilyquenchthezestwhichitexhibits，aswellasstopthesourcesofsuchextravagantexpenditure。Forwhenprofusedisplayofmaterialapparatusisnolongerpossible，thenaturaldesireforpersonaldistinction，whichisthedeepest-rootedofallpersonaldesires，willtendmoreandmoretofindexpressioninthoseartsofrefinedlivingwhicharemoretrulypersonalinthattheycausethemoreintellectualandspiritualqualitiesofpersonalitytoshineforth。If，forthequantitativedisplayofmaterialgoods，therecangraduallybesubstitutedaqualitativedisplayofspiritualgoods，thischangewillbeattendedbyacorrespondingchangeineconomicactivities。Therewillbeareductioninthecoarserformsofproductiveenergymakinglargedraftsuponthematerialresourcesofnature，andanincreaseofthehigherformsofenergywhosedraftsonthesematerialresourcesarerelativelysmall。 Theproportionofnon-materialtomaterialwealthwillincrease，andtherewillbeacorrespondingincreaseintheproportionofproductiveactivitiesthatcontainlargefactorsofcreativeinterest。Everyenlargementofthescopeforfreeindividualexpressionthrougheconomicdemand，evenforpurelymaterialgoods，willhaveanecessaryeffectincurbingthedominionofmachineryandofroutinelabour。Forsocialarrangementswhichenableandinciteeachconsumertoseekamorepersonalsatisfactionofhisindividualneedswillforceproducerstostudytheseindividualneedsandsatisfythem。Thiscannotbedonebymeremachine-economy，whichrestsupontheoppositehypothesisthatlargenumbersofconsumerswillconsenttosinktheirindividualdifferencesofneedandtasteacceptingcertainroutineformsofgoodswhichdonotexactlymeettherequirementsofanyoneofthem。Itis，therefore，reasonabletoexpectthatamoreequalandequitabledistributionofincomewillevokeinthemassesofpopulation，whonowconsenttoconsumecommon\'routine\'goodsbecausetheycannotaffordtoconsulttheirparticulartastesandpreferences，amorepersonalanddiscriminativedemand，whichwillsetstrictlimitsuponthemachineeconomyandcallforalargerapplicationofindividualskillinthevariouscrafts。 Orif，valuingmorehighlyasfieldsforpersonalexpressionthelessmaterialelementsintheirstandardofliving，theystillconsenttoutiliseroutineindustryforthesatisfactionoftheircommonphysicalneeds，theywillapplyanincreasingproportionoftheirinterestsandtheirincomestotheacquisitionandenjoymentofthosegoods，artistic，intellectual，emotional，whicharemoreennoblingalikeintheirproductionandtheirconsumption。 §；7Afinalworduponpopulation。Istherenotreasontobelieveandhopethatthissounderdistributionofworkandwealthwillcontributetoasatisfactorysolutionbothofthequantitativeandthequalitativepopulationquestion？ifwomenwerenolongerforcedbyeconomicpressureintomarriagesforwhichtheyhadnonaturalinclination，muchunfitparentageandmuchincompetentnurturewouldbeaverted。Iftheywerefreetoliveunmarried，ortochoosethefatheroftheirchildrenandthesizeoftheirfamily，thenormalcurrentofthoseinstinctsmakingforthepreservationandinstinctoftherace，obstructedbyartificialbarriersofeconomiccircumstances，wouldberestoredtotheirnaturalcourse。Ifthesupportofayoungfamilywerenolongeraheavyandinjuriousstrainupontheeconomicresourcesoftheparentsandtheirfuturecareeragraveanxiety，thehumanloveofchildrenandtheattractionsofacompletehomelifewouldprobablycheckthatrapiddeclineofthebirth-ratewhichtomanyisoneofthedarkestfeaturesofourpresentorder。Itwouldnot，indeed，restoretherecklesspropagationofformertimeswhichimposedonparents，andchieflyuponthemother，aburdeninjuriousinitsprivateincidenceanddetrimentaltosociety。Butwhilethebettereconomicorderwouldstopcompulsorymarriagesandundesiredandthereforeundesirableoffspring，itwouldrestoretheplayofthenormalphiloprogenitiveinstincts。Theneteffectwouldseemtobesomeretardationofthedeclineofbirth-rateinthosetypesoffamilieswheretheconditions，physicalandpsychical，appearfavourabletogoodnatureandgoodnurtureforchildren，andapositiveeliminationofcertaintypesofunionunfavourabletosoundoffspring。 Thetotaleffectuponthequantitativeissuewouldofcoursedependuponthebalancebetweenthisfreerplayofthephiloprogenitiveinstinctandtheotherinfluences，notdirectlyaffectedbyeconomiccauses，whichmakeforsmallerfamilies。Butthatthequalityorcharacterofthepopulationmustbeimprovedbythemorenaturalplayoftherejectiveandselectiveinfluenceshereindicatedcanhardlyadmitofcontroversy。Indeed，itmaywellbeurgedthatthecrowningtestimonytothevalidityofthehumanlawofdistributionwillconsistinthehigherqualityofhumanlifeitwillevokebyliberatingandnourishingthenaturalartofeugenicsinsociety。 NOTES: 1。Ruskinhadacuriousnotionofthissort(cf。TimeandTide，par。107，MuneraPulveris，par。109，ForsClavigera，Letterlxxxii)，andtherecentAmerican\'ScientificManagement\'appearstoendorseit。 2。TimeandTide，par。123。 CHAPTERXXII:SOCIALSCIENCEAND SOCIALART §；1。Thetaskofahumanvaluationofindustryinvolvedattheoutsetthearbitraryassumptionofastandardofvalue。Thatstandardconsistedinaconceptionofhumanwell-beingapplicabletothevariousformsofhumanlife，manasindividual，asgroupornation，ashumanity。Startingfromthatconceptionofthehealth，physicalandspiritual，oftheindividualhumanorganism，whichisofwidestacceptance，weproceededtoapplytheorganicmetaphortothelargergroupings，soastobuildupanintelligiblestandardofsocialwell-being。Thisstandard，atoncephysicalandspiritual，staticandprogressive，wasassumedtobeofsuchakindastoprovideaharmonyofindividualwelfareswhenthegrowingsocialnatureofmanwastakenintodueaccount。 Withthestandardofhumanwell-beingwethenproceededtoassignvaluestotheproductiveandtheconsumptiveprocessesofwhichindustryconsists，examiningthemintheirbearinguponthewelfareoftheindividualsandthesocietiesengaginginthem。 Nowthismodeofprocedure，theonlypossible，ofcourseinvolvedanimmensepetitioprincipii。Theassumptionofanycloseagreementastothenatureofindividualwell-being，stillmoreofsocialwell-being，waslogicallyquiteunwarranted。 Economicvalueshave，indeed，anagreed，exactandmeasurablemeaning，derivedfromthenatureofthemonetarystandardinwhichtheyareexpressed。 Now，nosuchstandardofthehumanvalueofeconomicgoodsorprocessescanbeestablished。Yetwepretendedtosetupastandardofsocialvalueandtoapplyacalculusbaseduponit，claimingtoassessthehumanworthwhichunderliestheeconomiccostsandutilitiesthatenterintoeconomicvalues。 Hasthisprocedureprovedutterlyillicit？Iventuretothinknot。 Thoughattheoutsetourstandardwasonlyageneralphrasecommittingnobodytoanything，theprocessofconcreteapplication，intestingtheactualformsofworkandwealthwhichmakeupindustry，gavetoitacontinualincreaseofmeaning。Whilethewidestdivergencewouldbefoundintheformaldefinitionsofsuchtermsas\"humanwelfare\"or\"socialprogress，\" alargeandgrowingbodyofagreementwouldemerge，whenasufficientnumberofpracticalissueshadbeenbrought-upforconsideration。Thetruthofourstandardandthevalidityofourcalculusareestablishedbythisworkingtest。Itisnotwonderfulthatthisshouldbeso，forthenatureandcircumstancesofmankindhavesomuchincommon，andtheprocessesofcivilisationaresopowerfullyassimilatingthem，astofurnishacontinuallyincreasingcommunityofexperienceandfeeling。Itis，ofcourse，thisfundof\'commonsense\'thatconstitutesthetruecriterion。Theassumptionthat\'commonsense\'isadequateforataskatoncesograveanddelicatemay，indeed，appearverydisputable。Grantingthathumanexperiencehassomuchincommon，canitbeclaimedthatthereasoningandthefeelingbasedonthisexperiencewillbesocongruousandsosoundastofurnishanyreliableguideforconduct？Surely\'commonsense\'initsbroadestpopularsensecangoaverylittlewaytowardssuchataskasahumaninterpretationofindustry。 Thereisnodoubtagooddealofforceinthisobjection。Ifwearetoinvoke\'commonsense\'forthepurposesofaninterpretationoravaluation，itmustevidentlybewhatistermedan\'enlightenedcommonsense。\'Andhereatoncewearebroughtintodangerlestenlightenmentshouldnotsupplywhatisrequired，viz。，aclearerormorefullyconsciousmodeofcommonsense，butadistortedorsophisticatedmode。Howrealthisdangeris，especiallyintheconductofpublicaffairs，mayberecognisedfromtheexcessivepartplayedbycertainhighlyconsciousandover-vocalinterestsofthecommercialandintellectualclassesintheartofgovernment。ThemostpressingtaskofCivilisationintheself-governingnationsofourtimeissotospreadtheareaofeffectiveenlightenmentastosubstitutethecommonsenseofthemanyforthatofthefew，andtomakeitprevail。 Itisthiscommonsense，moreorlessenlightened，thatthedisinterestedstatesmantakesforthesanctionofhisreadingofthegeneralwillwhichheendeavourstoexpressintheconductofpublicaffairs。Thatitisneveratanytimeacertain，aperfectlycoherent，aprecisecriterion，willbereadilyadmitted。Butthatitissufficientlyintelligible，sufficientlysound，isthenecessarypresuppositionofalldemocraticstatecraft。And，sofarasitisthusserviceable，itsuppliesavalidstandardandavalidcalculusofsocialvalues。Thoughthereadingofthisstandardandtheapplicationofthiscalculuswillalwaysbesubjecttosomebiasofpersonalidiosyncrasy，theweightofthegeneraljudgmentcommonlyprevailsinthemoreimportantprocessesofsocialvaluation。 But，inpinningourfaithtoenlightenedcommonsenseforaninterpretationorvaluationofindustry，wemustnotallowourselvestobedeceivedastotheamountof\'scientificaccuracy\'whichattendssuchaprocedure。 Whilethisstandardcanandmustsupplytherulesandmeasurementswhichweapplyintheprocessesofdetailedanalysisandcomparisonbywhichweestimatethecostsandutilitiesandthenethumanvaluesofthevariousindustrialactivitiesandproducts，wemustnotputintothisstandardastabilityitdoesnotpossess，orintothequantitativemethodsitusesanauthorityforsocialconductwhichtheyareinherentlydisqualifiedfromyielding。 §；2。ThescienceandartofsoCietyhavesufferedsomuchfromwantofexactandmeasuredinformationthatitisonlyrightandnaturalforimmenseimportancetobeattachedtothecollectionofmassesoforderedandmeasuredsocialfacts。Ifasufficientnumberoftrainedinvestigatorscouldbesettoworktogather，measure，siftandtabulate，thevariousordersofcrudefactrelatingtotheemployment，wages，housing，expenditure，health，thrift，education，andotherconcreteconditionsofthepoorergradesoftownandcountrydwellers，itseemsasifanumberofaccurateandvalidgeneralisationswouldemergebyclearinductionuponwhichcouldbeconstructedanabsolutelyscientifictreatmentofpoverty。Or，again，totakeanarrowerandmoredistinctivelyeconomicissue，thatoftheshorterworkingday。Ifacarefulseriesofobservationsandexperimentscouldbemadeinanumberofrepresentativebusinesses，astotheeffectuponthesize，costandqualityofoutputproducedbygivenreductionsinthehoursoflabouramongvariousclassesofworkers，itmightappearasifanaccuratelygradedsocialeconomyoftheworkingdaycouldbeattainedbycalculations。 Butthoughstatesmen，philanthropistsandreformersaremoreandmoreinfluencedintheirjudgmentsandpoliciesbythesemeasuredfacts，nosafemechanicalrulesfortheguidanceoftheirconductinanysocialproblemcanbebaseduponthem。Thefactsandfigureswhichappearsohardandsoreliableareoftenverysoftandineffectivetoolsforthesocialpractitioner。 Thereareseveraldefectsinthemregardedasinstrumentsofsocialprogress。 Itishardlyeverpossibletoprovecausationbymeansofthem。Youmayobtainthemostexactstatisticsofhousingconditionsandofdeath-ratesforthepopulationofagroupoftowns，butyoucannotprovetowhatextent\'backtoback\'housesaffectinfantmortality。Nofiguresprofessingtomeasurethecausalconnectionbetweendrinkandcrimeorinsanity，incomeandbirth-rate，oranyothertwosocialphenomena，possessthedegreeofvaliditytheyclaim。Why？Becauseyoucanneverisolatethefactorscompletelyinanyorganicorsocialproblem，andyoucanneverknowhowfaryouhavefailedtoisolatethem。Youmay，indeed，byvaryingtheconditionsofyourexperimentsorobservationssufficiently，obtainpracticalproofoforganiccausation，butyoucanseldomexpressthiscausationintermsofanyquantitativeaccuracy。Stillmoreisthistrueofpsychologicalandsocialproblems。 Apurelydescriptivescienceofsocietymayattainaconsiderabledegreeofquantitativeaccuracy，butthelawsexpressingthecausalrelationsofthesemeasuredfactswillalwayslackthecertaintyofoperationandthemeasurabilityofactionbelongingtothelawsofchemistryandphysics。 Nowthechieffactswithwhichthestatesmanandthesocialreformerareconcernedinformingjudgmentsandpoliciesaretheselawsofcausalrelation，andnotthecrudemeasuredfactsthatconstitutetherawmaterialofstatistics。Thiscomparativeinexactitudeorlackofrigidityinthelawsofsocialscienceconstitutesthe。firstdifficultyinapplyingthesciencetotheartofsocialconductwiththesameamountofconfidencewithwhichthelawsofphysicsandchemistryareappliedtothemechanicalarts。Butanotherdifficultyquiteasgraveasthiswantofrigidityinsocialfactsistheinstabilityofthestandard。Inallprocessesofphysicalmeasurementitiscustomarytomakeallowancesforerrorsduetowhatiscalled\'thepersonalequation，\'abnormalitiesofobservationintheexperimenter。 Butthestandardofhumanvaluation，theenlightenedcommonsenseofacommunity，appliedtointerpretsocialphenomenaintermsof\'utility\' or\'welfare，\'willevidentlybesubjecttomuchwidervariations，andtheinterpretationofthisstandardbystatesmen，orotherindividualagentsofsociety，willbesubjectagaintowideerrorsofpersonalbias。 Illustratingfromtheeconomicspherewhichisourconcern，thatspecialisationofindustriallifewhichhasmadethreequartersofourpopulationtown-dwellersandismakingournationcontinuallymoredependentuponforeignsuppliesoffood，willhaveaverydifferentvaluesetonitbythenarrowernationalismwhichbelievestheinterestsandambitionsofnationstobeirreconcilable，andbythewiderpoliticaloutlookwhichconceivestheeconomicinterdependenceofnationsasinitselfdesirableandasthebestguaranteeofnationalsecurity。Oragain，adifferenceofvieworsentimentregardingtherelativeworthofthepersonalqualitiesofenterpriseandself-relianceontheonehand，ofploddingindustryandsocialityupontheother，mustmateriallyaffectthevaluesgiventosuchphenomenaasemigration，publicprovisionagainstunemployment，copartnership，taxationofhighincomesorinheritances。 Indeeditisquitemanifestthatwitheverydifferenceoftherangeofsympathyandimaginationthemeaningwhichenlightenedcommonsensewillgivetosocialwelfare，andtoeveryfactsubmittedtothistest，willvary。 Theseconsiderationsmayseematfirstsighttoinvalidatetheentirepurposeofthisbook，theendeavourtoapplyasocialcalculusforthevaluationofindustry。Solongasthecostandutilityofeconomicmaterialandprocessisexpressedintermsofmoney，youhaveafixedstandardcapableofyieldingexactvaluations。Endeavourtoresolvethiscostandutilityintotermsofhumanwelfareordesirability，youappeartohaveadoptedafluctuatingstandardthatcangivenoserviceableinformation。 §；3。Thetruth，ofcourse，isthatascientificvaluationofanythingcanonlyproceedbywayofquantitativeanalysis。Astandardofvaluationwhichshouldregardqualitativedifferencesasultimatewouldnotbescientificatall。Itmightbeaestheticorhygienicorethical，accordingtothenatureofthequalitativedifferencesinvolved。Astrictlyscientificvaluationofwealth，orofcostorofutility，oroflifeitself，mustapplyasinglestandardofmeasurementtoallthevariousobjectsitseekstovalue，i。e。，itmustreduceallthedifferentobjectstotermsofthiscommondenominator。 Itcanmeasureandvalueallformsofpurchasablegoodsorservices，howevervariousinnature，throughthemarketprocesseswhichreducethemtoasinglemonetaryequivalent。Itcanmeasureandvaluelabour-costsofdifferentsorts，eitherbyamonetarystandardorbysomemeasureoffatigueorvitalexpenditure。Itcanmeasuretheutilityofvarioussortsoffoodoroffuel，bycomparingthequantitiesofworking-poweroroutputwhichuponanaveragetheyyield。Itcanascertainthevitalvaluesofdifferenttownsandoccupations，incomes，races，intermsoflongevity，fertility，susceptibilitytodiseases，etc。 Thismethod，essentialtoscientificanalysis，restsonanassumptionthat£；1worthofbadbooksisofthesamevalueas£；1worthofgoodbooks。Thisassumptionistrueforthepurposetowhichitisapplied，thatofamarketvaluation。Itassumesthatayear\'slifeofanimbecileoraloaferisworththesameasayear\'slifeofasaintoragenius，andsoitisforthepurposeofvitalstatistics。 Thisisofcourseuniversallyadmitted。Scienceproceedsbyabstraction: itdoesnotpretendtodescribeorexplaintheindividualityorparticularqualitiesofindividualcases，buttodiscovercommonattributesofstructureorcompositionorbehaviouramongnumbersofcases，andtoexplainthemintermsofthesecommoncharacters。 Sofar，then，astheso-calledvalueofanything，oranyhappening，consistsinitsuniquenessoridiosyncrasy，thisvaluenecessarilyevadesscientificanalysis。Itisonlythecommonproperties，theregularities，theconformities，thatcountforscientificvaluation。Nay，more。Sofarassciencetakesaccountofindividualqualities，itisinthecapacityofeccentricities，i。e。，itmeasurestheamountoftheirvariationfromtheaverageornormal。Itcannotentertainthenotionthatthereisanysortofdifferencewhichisinherentlyimmeasurable，i。e。，thatthereisdifferenceinkindaswellasindegree。1 §；4。Ascientificanalysistreatsalldifferencesasdifferencesofdegree。So-calleddifferenceofqualityorkinditeitherignores，oritseekstoreducethemtoandexpressthemindifferencesofquantity。 Thisendeavourtoreducequalitativetoquantitativedifferenceisthegreatstumbling-blockinallorganicscience，butparticularlyinthedepartmentsofpsychologyandsociology。Thedifficultyisbestillustratedintherecentextensionofquantitativeanalysisintoeconomicsbythemethodofmarginalpreferences。Notcontentwiththeassumptionthattheparticularcosts，consumablequalities，etc。，ofanytwoarticlessellingfor£；1 eachmaybedisregarded，andthesinglepropertyoftheirmarketvalueabstractedforconsideration，themathematicaleconomistsnowinsistthatthestudyofmarginalpreferencesdisclosesimportantlawsofthepsychologyofindividualsandsocieties。 Thewholeprocessofexpenditureofincomeappearstoberepletewithinstancesofthecapacityofthehumanmindtomeasureandapplyaquantitativecomparisontothingswhichseemtobedifferentinkind。ItmightseemasifmydesiretohelpthestarvingpopulationofIndiainafamine，andmydesiretoattendaQueen\'sHallconcertthiseveningwerefeelings，notmerelyofdifferentintensity，butofsuchwidelydifferentnaturethattheycouldnotbeaccuratelymeasuredagainsteachother。Andyetthismiracleissaidtobeactuallyperformed，whenIdecideupondueconsiderationtodividethe7s6dinmypursesoastogive5stotheFamineFundandtobuya2s6dticketfortheconcert，insteadofthemoreexpensiveticketIshouldhaveboughthadInotbeenluredtotheFaminemeeting。Imighthavegiventhewhole7s6dtotheFamineFund，andmissedtheconcert。 WhydidInot？Imusthaveperformedtheverydelicatespiritualoperationofreducingmyhumanitarianfeelingtocommontermswithmyloveofmusic，andtohavestruckabalancewhichcanonlymeanthatIconsidertheadditionalsatisfactionIwouldhavegotfromgivinganother2s6dtotheFamineFundtobealittlelessthanthesatisfactionIwouldgetfromtheconcert。 Butthis，ofcourse，isasinglecrudeinstanceofafarmoreelaborateprocessofcomparisonwhichunderliesthewholeexpenditureofmyincome。 Aftertheroutineexpenditureuponnecessariesandcomforts，whichmaybesaidtorepresentmyhabitualstandardofconsumption，hasbeendefrayed，therearevariousattractiveusestowhicheveryothersovereignandshillingmaybeput。Allsortsofdifferentappealsofpleasure，duty，pride，presstheirclaimsthroughathousanddifferentchannels。InordertoapportionmyexpenditureasIdo，Imustbeconceivedasreducingalltheseclaimstosomecommonstandardofdesirability，anddecidinghowmuchtolayoutonthis，howmuchonthat。Thatphysicalsatisfactionscanbecomparedwithoneanother，bytheapplicationofsomestandardofpleasuremayappearintelligibleenough。Butthatasenseofmoraldutycanbebroughtintodirectcomparisonwithaphysicalpleasure，orthatvariousdutiescanbecomparedinsizeorstrengthwithoneanother，wouldseemalmostimpossible。 Yetthisisdoneincessantlyandquickly，ifnoteasily。Evenwhenitisclaimedthatsomedutiesaresoparamountthatagoodmanwillrefuseto\'weigh\'anyotherclaimagainstthem，assigningthemavaluewhich，hesays，is\'infinite，\'themarginaleconomistwillnotadmittheclaimtoexemption。\'Thisonlymeansthattohimthetotaldifferencebetweenthecommandofthingsinthecircleofexchangethathealreadyenjoys，andanindefinite，orunlimitedcommandofthem，doesnotweighasheavyinhismindasthedishonourorthediscomfortofthespecificthingheisrequiredtodo。Itdoesnotmeanthathisobjectionis\"infinite。\"itmerelymeansthatitislargerthanhisestimateofallthesatisfactionthathecouldderivefromunlimitedcommandofarticlesinthecircleofexchange，andthisisastrictly，perhapsnarrowly，limitedquantity。\'2 Butthoughtherearemenwhosehonourissoincorruptibleasalwaysto\'outweigh\'otherconsiderations，theethicsofbriberymakeitclearthataweakersenseofhonourcanbemeasuredagainstmaterialsatisfaction，andthatisallthatseemsnecessarytosupporttheviewthatsuchqualitativedistinctionscan\'bereducedtoquestionsofquantity。\'Norisitmerelyamatterofthemonetaryvaluationthroughexpenditureofincomes。Preciselythesameproblemarisesinthedisposalofone\'stimeorenergy。Howmuchshallbegiventotheperformanceofthisorthatpersonalorfamilyduty，torecreation，ortostudy？Inwhatproportionsshallwecombinetheseactivities？Ifacurtailmentofmoneyoroftimeisnecessary，howmuchshallbetakenfromthis，howmuchfromthatemployment？ Butitisneedlesstomultiplyexamples。Whenanyscientificvaluationistaken，allqualitiesareabstractedandquantitiesonlyarecomparedandestimated。Asineconomics，soinethics。Themoralstruggletoresistatemptationisnearlyalwayssetinscientificpsychologyasamechanicalproblem，forwhentheethicistprofessestointroducesomeimponderable\'freedomofthewill\'hehastothrowoverboardhisscience。A\'conflictofduties，\'asMr。Wicksteedrecognises，impliesthat\'dutyitselfisaquantitativeconception。\'3 §；5。Similarlywiththescientificpoliticianwhoseekstomakefulluseofquantitativeanalysis。Hetooiscompelledtovisualiseandrepresentthepsychologicaloperationthroughwhichapoliticaljudgmentisreachedasamechanicalone，conceivedintermsofsize，weight，strainorintensity。InhisHumanNatureinPoliticsMr。GrahamWallasgivesaveryinterestingexampleofthescientificvaluationofaprocessofpoliticalthinking，viz。，theprocessbywhichMr。Gladstone，intheautumnandwinterof1885-6，mustbeconceivedtohavearrivedathisHomeRulepolicy，\'thinkingincessantlyaboutthematter\'and\'preparingmyselfbystudyandreflection。\' Afterdescribing，withtheaidofLordMorley\'sLife，thevariousstudiesandcoursesofreflectionemployed，the\'calculations\'ofthestateoffeelinginEnglandandIreland，theexaminationofvarioustypesoffederation，asfoundinpastandcurrenthistory，thestatisticalreportsuponfinance，lawandotherconcreteissues，considerationsofthetimeandopportunity，theplayoftheemotionalvaluations，\'theirresistibleattractionforhimofallthegrandandexternalcommonplacesoflibertyandself-government，\' Mr。Wallasseestheresultsofallthisacquisitionofknowledgeandreflectiongatheringandbeingcoordinatedintoaprobleminwhichthefactorsarequantitiesandthesolution\'aquantitativesolution，\'\'adelicateadjustmentbetweenmanyvaryingforces。\'4\'AlargepartofthisworkofcomplexcoordinationwasapparentlyinMr。Gladstone\'scaseunconscious，\'anoperationhedeclares，\'ratherofartthanofscience。\'Now，since\'thehistoryofhumanprogressconsistsinthegradualandpartialsubstitutionofscienceforart，\'itisdesirabletobringoutwithclearerconsciousness，andfortifywithgreateraccuracyofknowledge，theprocessesofpoliticalthinking。\'Quantitativemethodmustspreadinpoliticsandmusttransformthevocabularyandtheassociationsofthatmentalworldintowhichtheyoungpoliticianenters。 Fortunately，suchachangeseemsatleasttobebeginning。Everyyearlargerandmoreexactcollectionsofdetachedpoliticalfactsarebeingaccumulated； andcollectionsofdetachedfacts，iftheyaretobeusedatallinpoliticalreasoning，mustbeusedquantitatively。\'5Sincetheproblemsofpoliticalconductarethusessentiallyquantitative，theycan，intheoryatanyrate，be\'solved\'byscience。\'ThefinaldecisionswhichwillbetakeneitherbytheCommons——orbyParliamentinquestionsofadministrativepolicyandelectoralmachinerymustthereforeinvolvethebalancingofalltheseandmanymoreconsiderationsbyanessentiallyquantitativeprocess。\'6 §；6。Nowhowfarisittruethatanypoliticalproblemisessentiallyquantitativeandsolublebyaquantitativeprocess？itisofcoursetobeadmittedatoncethatthescienceofstatisticswillfeedastatesman\'smindwithavarietyoforderedandmeasuredfacts。Butwillthismind，workingeitherscientificallyorartistically，consciouslyorsubconsciously，gothroughadistinctivelymechanicalprocessofbalancingandmeasuringandregisteraquantitativejudgment？Ascientificsettingoftheprocessmustindeedsopresentit。But，then，ascientificsettingofanyprocesswhatsoeversetsitthusinpurelyquantitativeform。Therealissueishowfarthisscientificsettingiscompetenttointerpretandexplainthefacts，andtodeliverajudgmentwhichshallbeauthoritativefortheconductofanindividualorasociety。 Inordertotestthescientificclaimletustakewhatseemstobeaverydifferentsortofactionfromthatofthepoliticianorthebusinessman，thatoftheartist。Followthemindofthepainterasheplieshisart。Eachofhisoperationstooinvolvesconsiderationsofquantityandmeasurement，scopeandfocus，adjustment，coordination，balance，theapplicationofdefiniteblendsofcolours:optics，anatomy，andothersciencesfeedhismindwithexactknowledge。Adelicateadjustmentofquantitiesinlineandcolourisinvolvedineverypartofhisartisticoperations。Butdoestheoperationconsistofthesequantitativearrangementsandcanitbeunderstoodor\'appreciated\'byanalysingthem？Evidentlynot。Whynot？ Becauseinsuchananalysisorexplanationtheessentiallyqualitativeorcreativeactionoftheartist，whichgivesunityandartisticvaluetothewholeoperation，escapesnotice。Sciencekillsinordertodissect。 Sointhecaseofeveryotherart。Apoeminvolvescertainorderedarrangementsofsoundwhichmaybeexpressedinquantitativetermsofrhythmandprosody。 Butanyattemptto\'resolve\'itintotheseformslosesitsspirit，itsunity，itsvalueasapoem。StudentsofthedramahavesometimesexplainedorinterpretedatragedyofSophoclesorShakespeareintermsofthegradationofintensityofthevariousemotionsinvolved，thelengthofpausesofsuspense，thebalancing，reliefandinterlacingoftheplotsorepisodes，therelativestrengthorheightoftheclimaxesandsubclimaxes，thegrowingrapidityofmovementtowardsthecatastrophe。Butcanitbepretendedthatthis\'mechanics\'ofthedramacanfurnishastandardofappreciation，orsupplylawsaccordingtowhicha\'good\'dramamaybeconstructedorappreciated？ No。Anartisticoperationisessentiallyorganic，creativeandqualitative。 Noneofthesecharacterscanreallybereducedtoquantity。Sciencebyquantitativeanalysiscanonlydealwiththeskeletonnotwiththelifethatinformsit。 Ithinkthiseternalinabilityofscienceadequatelytointerpretvalue，orexplainaworkofart，willbegenerallyadmitted。Itisduetothefactthatthisworkanditsvalueareinherentlyincapableofbeingreducedtoquantities。Thedifferencebetweenonepictureandanother，onepoemandanotherisadifferenceofquality。Itisofcoursetruethatbyamerelylinguisticnecessityweoftenspeakofapictureasbeing\'much\' finerthananother，andcomparethe\'greatness\'ofonepoetwiththatofanother。Butweareawareallthetimethatwearereallycomparingunlikes，dealingwithqualitativedifferences。Onnoothersuppositionindeedcanweunderstandthevaluationsetuponaworkofgeniusascomparedwithoneoftalent。 \"Ohthelittlemore，howmuchitis，Andthelittlelesswhatworldsaway。\" Whatthendoeconomistsmeanwhentheyinsistthatqualitativedifferences，thedesiresandsatisfactionswhichhavesuchwidelydiverseoriginsandnatures，canbeweighedandmeasuredagainstoneanother，andthatproblemsofindustryareessentiallyandultimatelyquantitative？Ourexaminationofartisticactivitieshasshownthatineachcasequantitiesareinvolved，butthatinnocasedoquantitiesconstitutetheproblemofaction。Buthow，itmaybesaid，doyoudisposeoftheadmittedfactsthatbymeansofmonetaryvaluationsthesediversedesiresandsatisfactionsarereducedtoacommonstandard，arecompared，andthatacourseofconductisapparentlybaseduponthesequantitativeconsiderations？ Theansweristhatthisisanentirelyillusoryaccountofthepsychicalprocessbywhichamanlaysouthismoney，orhistime，orhisenergy。 Hedoesnottaketheseveralusestowhichhemightapplythemeansathisdisposal，reducethem，inthoughtorinfeeling，tosomecommonterm，andsomeasuretheamounthewillexpenduponeachobjectthatthe\'marginal\' or\'final\'portionofeachuseshallbeexactlyequalintheutilityityields。The\'marginalist\'7iscorrectinsayingthattheutilityimputedtothelastsovereignIexpendonbreadduringtheyearmustbeconsideredtobeneithergreaternorlessthanthatimputedtothelastsovereign\'sworthoftobacco，orbooks，holidayorcharitablesubscriptions。InpreciselythesamesenseitistruethatthelastbrushfulofgreenandbrownandTurkeyredexpendedonapicturehasthesameart-valuetothepainter。 Perhapstheissuecanbemadeclearerbyreferencetoanartusuallyconsideredless\'fine\'andmorecloselyaffectedbyquantitativeconsiderationsthanpainting，theculinaryart。Thecompositionofadishishereexpressedinproportionsofitsvariousingredients，somuchflour，somanyouncesofraisins，somanyeggs，somuchsugar，etc。Themarginalistwoulddwelluponthecrucialfactthatthelastpennyworthoftheflour，raisins，eggsandsugar，takenseverally，hadanequalvalueforthepudding，andthatthesemarginalorfinalincrementswereinsomewaycausaldeterminantsofthecompositionofthepudding，becauseinusingtheingredientsthecooktookcaretousejustsomuchofeach，andneithermorenorless。 Anditisquitetruethatthedelicacyoftheculinaryartwillinfactbedisplayedindecidingwhethertoputinanotherhandfulofraisins，anotheregg，oraspoonfulmoresugar。But，fromthestandpointoftryingtoappreciatethevirtueorworthofthedishasaculinarycreation，itcannotbeadmittedthatanyspecialimportanceorcausaldeterminationattachestothelastincrementsoftheseveralingredients。Foritisevidentthatthe\'howmuch\'andthereforethe\'margin\'ofeachingredientisitselfdeterminedbytheconceptionofthetoutensembleinthemindofthecreatororinventor。 Andthisevidentlyappliestoeveryformofcompositionembodyingsomeunityofdesignorpurpose，whetherthetreatmentofasubjectinpictorialordramaticart，themakingofanewdish，theconstructionofamachine，thearrangementofabusiness，orthelayingoutofagardenorafortune。 Sofarasaneconomicaluseismadeofmaterialsormeansofanykindfortheattainmentofanyendthismarginalequivalenceisimplied。Thescientificanalysisofanycompositearrangement，mechanical，organic，conscious，involvesthismarginalassumption。Itisanaxiomofall\'economy\'whatsoever。 Butitexplainsnothing。Nay，indealingwithanyorganicbeingonanyplaneofaction，itdarkenscounsel。Itdoessoinseveralways。Firstbyassumingorassertingthatthehumanmindcananddoesgetridofqualitativedifferencesbyreferringthemtoaquantitativestandard:secondly，byassumingorassertingthatorganicunitycanbebrokenupintoitsconstituentpartsandexplainedintermsofthesemeasuredparts；thirdly，byassumingorassertingauniformityofnaturewhichconflictswiththe\'novelties\' inwhichcreativeenergyexpressesitself。Allthesefallaciesarejustasmuchinvolvedintheattempttoexplaintheexpenditureofanincomeasapurelyquantitativeproblem，asintheattempttoexplaintheart-valueofapictureintermsoftherespectivequantitiesoflineandcolour。 Ineachcasetherootfallacyisthesame，theillicitsubstitutionoftheabstract\'quantity\'fortheactualstuff，whichisalwaysqualitativeandisneveridenticalinanytwocases，oratanytwotimes。 §；7。Inlayingoutmyincome，Idonotinfactcompareallmyseveralneedsortastes，andhavingassignedsomuchutilityordesirabilitytoeach，planmyexpendituresoastospendoneachjustasmuchasitisworth，equalisingallexpenditureatthemarginssoastomaximisetheaggregate。EvenBenjaminFranklinorSamuelSmileswouldnotreallydothis，thoughtheymightthinktheydid，andperhapsdrawupschedulestoenforcethenotion。SofarasIactlikeafree，rationalbeing，notacreatureofblindcustomorroutine，Iemployallmypersonalresourcesofknowledge，taste，affection，energy，time，andcommandofmaterialresources，intryingtorealisemyidealofagoodordesirablelife。Intheexecutionofthisdesign，howeveritberegarded，self-realisationorcareer，Iutilisemyvariousresourcesinamannerstrictlyanalogoustothatinwhichtheartistemploysthematerialsandinstrumentsofhisart。UponthecanvasoftimeIpaintmyself，usingallthemeansatmydisposaltorealisemyideal。Amongthesemeansismymoneyincome。Itsexpendituregoesintotheexecutionofmydesign。SofarasIamjustifiedinseparatingmyexpenditureofmoneyfromtheexpenditureofmytimeandotherresources，andinregardingthedesignasan\'economicpicture，\'Icanreadilyperceivethattheunityofmyartisticpurposeinvolvesanddeterminestheexpenditureofmyincomeindefiniteproportionsuponthevariousobjectswhose\'consumption\'contributestothedesign。Buttheseproportionsarenotdeterminedbyacalculationoftheseparatevaluesofthevariousitems。For，strictlyspeaking，theyhavenoseparatevalue，anymorethanhavethelinesorcoloursinapicture。 Onlybyconsiderationofwhatwemaytermindifferentlytheartisticororganicpurposeofthewholecanatrueappreciationorvaluationbeattained。 Thefullabsurdityofsuggestingthatanythingislearned，eitherinthewayofvaluationorofguidance，bythequantitativeanalysis，orthewonderfuldiscoveryofequivalenceofvalueatthemargins，willnowbeapparent。 Thismathematicalanalysiscandonomoretowardsexplainingtheexpenditureofincomethanexplainingtheexpenditureofpaint。Ofcourse，theexpenditureatthemarginsappearstoproduceanequalutility:thattruthisobviouslycontainedintheverylogicofthequantitativeanalysis。Butthatquantitativeanalysis，necessarilyignoring，asitdoes，thequalitativecharacterwhichtheorganicunityofthewholeconfersuponitsparts，failstoperformthepsychologicalinterpretationclaimedforit。 Sofarasitistruethatthelastsovereignofmyexpenditureinbreadequalsinutilitythelastsovereignofmyexpenditureinbooks，thatfactproceedsnotfromacomparison，consciousorunconscious，oftheseseparateitemsatthismargin，butfromthepartsassignedrespectivelytobreadandbooksintheorganicplanofmylife。Quantitativeanalysis，inherentlyincapableofcomprehendingqualitativeunityorqualitativedifferences，canonlypretendtoreducethelattertoquantitativedifferences。Whatitactuallydoesistoignorealiketheunityofthewholeandthequalitativenessoftheparts。 Noristhisall。Itisnoteventruethatanapplicationofquantitativeanalysisdoesfindexactequivalenceofvaluesatthemargins。Takingaconcreteinstance，itisnottruethatthelastsovereignofmyexpenditureinbooksequals，oreventendsexactlytoequal，inutility，thatofmylastsovereign\'sexpenditureonbread。Thiswouldbethecaseifthefuturetendedpreciselytorepeatthepast。Inthateventmyexperienceoftheeconomyoflastyear\'sexpenditurewouldprogressivelycorrectanyerrors，andIshouldcometoemploymyresourceswithgreatereconomyorexactitudetotheattainmentofthesamedesign。ButIamnotthesamethisyearaslast，myenvironmentisnotthesame，myresourcesarenotthesame，andtheplanoflifeImakewillnotbethesame。ThisawkwardfactorofNovelty，involvedinorganicnature，belongstoeverycreativeart，beingindeedoftheveryessencealikeofartandofcreation，andimpairstoanincalculableextentthequantitativecalculusanditsmarginalinterpretation。Anadditionof£；100tomyincomethisyearcannotbelaidoutbycalculationsoastoincreaseeachsortofexpendituretoanextentwhichwillsecuremarginalequivalenceofutility。Thatistosay，Icannottellwhatwillbethebestemploymentofmylargerincome，untilIhavetried。Thelargerincomewillproducenowhereastrictlyproportionateincreaseofexpenditureonanumberofseveralobjects。Itwouldshiftmyeconomicplanoflife，makinganewkindoflife，andinvolvingallsortsofchangesintheitems，whichfollowasconsequencesfromthechangedorganicplan。ThisnewplanIcannotaccuratelycalculateorforecast。ItwillworkitselfoutasI proceed。Itsexecutioninvolvesnodoubtelementsofforethoughtandevencalculation，butthecentralandessentialchangewillproceedfromsomenoveltyofconception，somequalitativechangeofpurpose。Inaword，itisthecreativepowerofman，theartist，inspiration，faithandthatiseveratwork，andtheartfacultiesofadventurewillleadhimtoexperimentanewwithhisresources。Asamangainsmoreintelligence，undergoessomenewcriticalexperienceofhisouterorhisinnerlife，encounterssomenewpersonalinfluence，hisentiremodeoflivingwillchange，andinnumerablealterationsintheoutlayofhisincomewilltakeplace。Somearticlesofearlierexpenditurewilldisappear，newarticleswilltaketheirplace，andtherespectiveimportanceofmanyarticlesremainingintheexpenditurewillbeshifted。Achangeofresidencefromcountrytotown，a\'conversion，\' religiousordietetic，atransferfromanoutdoormanualtoanindoorsedentaryemployment，marriage，oranyothercriticalevent，mustbringaboutsomesuchlargecomplexorganicalteration。Acomparisonoftheitemsofexpenditurebeforeandafterwillshedinterestinglightupontheresultsofthepsycho-economicchangeofwhichtheyaffordaquantitativeregister，butitcannotberegardedasanexplanationofthechangeofheartorofoutlookwhichisthedeterminantactfromwhichtheseshiftsofvaluesflow。 §；8。Thelifeofasocietypresentsthissameproblemonalargerscale。Ontheplaneofeconomicconductwhichdirectlyconcernsus，everyoneoftheinnumerableandincessantalterationsinmethodsofproductionandconsumptionranksasanorganicnovelty，and，insofarasitisnovel，necessarilybafflesquantitativeanalysisandscientificprediction。Itwould，ofcourse，beincorrect，eitherinthecaseofanindividualorofasociety，torepresentanychangeasentirelynovel。Organicgrowthitselfislargelyaquantitativeconception:thechangesareproportionateinsizetoformerchanges，andareindefinitequantitativerelationstooneanother。Thedoctrineofcontinuitythusenablesustogofarincalculatingthecharacteroffuturechanges。Sofarthescientificinterpretationofuniformityofnaturecarriesus。Butquantitativegrowth，oranyothersetofquantitativechanges，howevercalculable，alwayscarriessomequalitativeandessentiallyincalculableelementsofchange。Thesearewhatwesignifybynovelty。Itistheiroccurrenceinevolutionthatbafflesthecleanlogicofthegeologist，stillmoreofthebiologist，andfarmoreofthepsychologist。Whethertheyshowthemselvesas\'faults\'or\'sports\'or\'mutations，\' theyrepresentthedisabilityofpastexperiencetofurnish\'laws\'fortheircalculation，andthepracticalimportancewhichattachestotheseincalculableorqualitativechangesisveryconsiderable。Thoughtheymaybecomparativelyinfrequentandmayappearonfirstinspectionalmostnegligiblebreaksintheotherwisecalculablecontinuityoftheevolutionaryprocess，theirdeterminantimportanceisreceivingevergreaterrecognition。Inhumanconduct，individualorsocial，thesemutationsseemtoplayalargerpart，chieflybyreasonoftheoperationoftheso-called\'freedom\'ofthehumanwill。Forwhateverphilosophicviewbeheldregardingthedeterminationoftheactsofthewill，itsoperationscattersmutationsthicklyovertherealmofhumanconduct。Henceitremainstruethatsciencecandosomuchlessinexplainingandpredictinghumanhistorythaninanyotherdepartmentofnature。Nodoubthere，aselsewhere，sciencehopestoapplyquantitativeanalysisofsuchincreasingaccuracyastoenableittodetermineandpredictalargernumberofsuchmutations。Sincetheredoubtlessexistquantitativeconditionsforeveryqualitativechange，itmayseemtheoreticallypossibleforsciencesomedaytocatchupwith\'theartofcreation。\'Thissupposition，however，assumesthatthenumberofpermutationsandcombinationsin\'nature\'islimited，andthat，therefore，insomeextensiverunhistorydoesrepeatitself。Thefinalvictoryofsciencethusseemstodependupontheadoptionofacyclicalviewofthehistoryoftheuniverse。But，forallpresentpracticalpurposesofsocialprocesses，scienceissofarremovedfromthisperfectionthattheeconomistandthesociologistarecontinuallycompelledtoallowforunpredictablechangesofsuchfrequencyandofsuchdeterminantimportancethattheirclaimtodirect\'thegeneralwill\'andtomouldtheconsciouspolicyofasocietymustbeverymodestlyexpressed。 Suchlawsofcausationastheyderivefrompastobservationandexperimentmustusuallybeconceivedaslawsoftendencies，seldomendowedwithanyrigorousauthorityofclosedetermination，andstillmoreseldomwithaccuracyofquantitativeprediction。 §；9。Itissometimessupposedthatthishamperingeffectoftheuniqueness，irregularity，noveltyandfreedomoftheindividualandsocialorganismscanbegotridofbyaprocessofmultiplicationinwhichparticulareccentricitieswillcancel。Toeconomists，inparticular，thereisastrongtemptationtofallbackupontheaverageman，inthebeliefthatscientificdeterminismjustifiesitselfthroughaverages。Nowtheradicaldefectofmeasurementbyaverages，asamodeofsocialvaluation，hasalreadybeendisclosed。Theascertainedfactthattheaveragemoneyincome，oreventheaveragerealincome，oftheBritishpeoplemayhaverisen10%withinthelastdecade，disablesitself，bytheveryprocessofaveraging，frominformingusastotheeffectofthisincreaseofnationalwealthuponnationalwelfare。Forthiseffectdependsuponthedistributionoftheincrease，andtheprocessofaveragingconsistsinignoringthisvitalfactofdistribution。 Thisdefectofaveragesforpurposesofinterpretation，ofcourse，involvesaconsequentdefectforpurposesofguidanceineconomicconduct。 Thecalculationthatagivencourseofnationalconduct，e。g。，theexpenditureofsomanymillionsuponimprovedtransport，willraisethenationaloraverageincomebysomuch，losesalltheworthofitssuperficialexactitudeunlessweknowhowmuchoftheincreaseisgoingtothelandlordinrisingrent，howmuchtothelabourerinrisingwages。 This，ofcourse，involvesnorepudiationofthetrueutilityofaverages，butonlyofthespuriousaccuracywhichtheirformssuggest。TheexactstatementthattheaverageincomeofanEnglishfamilyhasrisen10%inthelastdecadedoesimplyareasonableprobabilitythatanincreaseoftotalnationalwelfarehastakenplace。8Butitgivesnoinformationastotheamountofthatincrease，andisconsistentwiththefactthattheremayhavebeenadecrease，owingtoaworseningofthedistributionofthegrowingincome，orofthelabourandothercostsinvolvedinitsproduction。 §；10。Sofaruponthesuppositionthatwelfareisaquantity。Itwilloccurtostatisticiansthattheinformationtobegotfromaveragesofincomemaybejustifiedbynicerdiscrimination。If，inadditiontolearningthattheaverageincomeofallfamilieshasrisen10%，wediscoveredthedifferentpercentageswhichhadbeenaddedtorent，interest，profitsandwages，or，betterstill，theratioofincreaseforthedifferentincomelevels，weshouldsurelythen，bythisextendeduseofaverages，getnearertowardsaquantitativeestimateoftheincreaseofwelfarethathadbeenachieved! Thismustcertainlybeadmitted。Bythenicerandmorecomplexapplicationofthesemeasures，weshouldapproachamoreaccurateaccountofwelfare，sofarasitisultimatelyexpressibleintermsofquantity。Ifwediscoveredthataproposedcourseofnationalpolicywouldnotonlyincreasetheaverageincomeby10%butwouldincreasethelowerincomesofthepopulationinahigherratio，weshouldseemtohavegotascientificwarrantforthepolicy。Buteventhisdegreeofscientificauthoritywouldbepurchasedtosomeextentbyanartificialsimplificationoftheactualproblemofsocial-economy。Tothestatesmannoproblemofactualfinanceiscapableofbeingsetinsuchdistinctivelyquantitativeterms。NotmerelycannotanearthlyChancelloroftheExchequerknowhowmuchcanbeaddedtotheincomesoftheseveralclassesbytheexpenditureofsomanymillionsupontransport，oruponanyothersingleservice，but，ifhecould，hewouldnotbemuchnearertothestandardherequires。Therearemanydifferentwaysofraisingtherevenueinquestionandaninfinitenumberofcombinationsoftheseways。Thesameholdsofexpenditure。Totakethesimplestcase； thetenmillionsthatheraisesmaybeappliedtotransport，ortoeducation，ortodefence，allthesumoranyproportion，toeach。Eachexpenditureclaimstobebeneficial，anoutlayforpublicwelfare。Butthebenefitintheseveraloutlaysisnotequallypresentableintermsofmoneyincome，and，sofarasdefinitelyeconomicgainsaccrue，theyarenotequallyimmediateorequallyassured。Itisevidentthatnoamountofpossessionofstatisticalknowledgecanpossiblyreducetheproblementirely，orevenmainly，tooneofquantitativecalculation。Itisequallytruethatwhentheproblemissolved，itssolutionwillappearinquantitativeshape，i。e。，somuchmoneyfortransport，somuchforeducation，somuchfordefence。Itwillseemtohavebeenworkedoutbyreducingthethreeformsofdesiredbenefitstocommonterms，andthendividingthetenmillionsamongthemsoastosecureanequivalenceofgainsatthemargins。Economistswillpointouttriumphantlytheallegedfactthatthelast£；100spentoneducationproducesanationalreturnofwelfareexactlyequaltothatobtainedbythelast£；100spentongunboats，thoughhisassertionremainsinherentlyinsusceptibleofproof。Intruth，theChancellor\'sminddoesnotworkinthisway。Sofarashisstatecraftisdisinterested，orevenallowingforeveryformofbias，hismindformsanidealofsocialprogress，ofahappierorbetterstateofthings，andallotstheoutlayofhistenmillionsinanendeavourtoassistinrealisingthisideal。Nowtheidealitselfisnotchieflyaproductofquantitativecalculus，butofhismoreorlessinformedimagination，andhismoreorlesswholesomesympathies。Hisviewsastothemeansofrealisingthisidealcanneverbepurelyscientific，thoughsciencemayherebeofconsiderableassistance。 If，treatingexpendituremorewidelyasanactofpublicpolicy，weconsideritasanoperationofthegeneralwillofthecommunity，atrueactofpoliticaleconomy，theproblemremainsessentiallythesame。Whenlookedatthroughscientificspectacles，itisapurelyquantitativeandmechanicallyorderedact，becausethescientificmethodbyitsverymodusoperandiignoresthequalitativefactors。Sothenationissupposedtobalancethisgainagainstanother，andtolayoutitsrevenuesoastogetthelargestaggregateofsomecommonhomogeneousstuffcalled\'welfare\'，insuchawaythatthelast£；100spentoneducationisequivalentinitsyieldofthis\'welfare\'tothelast£；100spentonthelatestsuper-dreadnaught，orthelastlotofold-agepensions。Intruth，thecommonwillnomorefunctionsinthisfashionthanthepersonalwilloftheChancellor。