InowcometoremarkontheremainingpartofthequotationIhavemadefromMr。Burke。
\"If,\"sayshe,\"suchwritingsshallbethoughttodeserveanyotherrefutationthanthatofcriminaljustice。\"
Pardoningthepun,itmustbecriminaljusticeindeedthatshouldcondemnaworkasasubstitutefornotbeingabletorefuteit。
Thegreatestcondemnationthatcouldbepasseduponitwouldbearefutation。
ButinproceedingbythemethodMr。Burkealludesto,thecondemnationwould,inthefinalevent,passuponthecriminalityoftheprocessandnotuponthework,andinthiscase,Ihadratherbetheauthor,thanbeeitherthejudgeorthejurythatshouldcondemnit。
Buttocomeatoncetothepoint。Ihavedifferedfromsomeprofessionalgentlemenonthesubjectofprosecutions,andIsincefindtheyarefallingintomyopinion,whichIwillherestateasfully,butasconciselyasIcan。
Iwillfirstputacasewithrespecttoanylaw,andthencompareitwithagovernment,orwithwhatinEnglandis,orhasbeen,calledaconstitution。
Itwouldbeanactofdespotism,orwhatinEnglandiscalledarbitrarypower,tomakealawtoprohibitinvestigatingtheprinciples,goodorbad,onwhichsuchalaw,oranyotherisfounded。
Ifalawbebaditisonethingtoopposethepracticeofit,butitisquiteadifferentthingtoexposeitserrors,toreasononitsdefects,andtoshowcausewhyitshouldberepealed,orwhyanotheroughttobesubstitutedinitsplace。Ihavealwayshelditanopinion（makingitalsomypractice）thatitisbettertoobeyabadlaw,makinguseatthesametimeofeveryargumenttoshowitserrorsandprocureitsrepeal,thanforciblytoviolateit;
becausetheprecedentofbreakingabadlawmightweakentheforce,andleadtoadiscretionaryviolation,ofthosewhicharegood。
Thecaseisthesamewithrespecttoprinciplesandformsofgovernment,ortowhatarecalledconstitutionsandthepartsofwhichtheyare,composed。
Itisforthegoodofnationsandnotfortheemolumentoraggrandisementofparticularindividuals,thatgovernmentoughttobeestablished,andthatmankindareattheexpenseofsupportingit。
Thedefectsofeverygovernmentandconstitutionbothastoprincipleandform,must,onaparityofreasoning,beasopentodiscussionasthedefectsofalaw,anditisadutywhicheverymanowestosocietytopointthemout。Whenthosedefects,andthemeansofremedyingthem,aregenerallyseenbyanation,thatnationwillreformitsgovernmentoritsconstitutionintheonecase,asthegovernmentrepealedorreformedthelawintheother。Theoperationofgovernmentisrestrictedtothemakingandtheadministeringoflaws;butitistoanationthattherightofformingorreforming,generatingorregeneratingconstitutionsandgovernmentsbelong;andconsequentlythosesubjects,assubjectsofinvestigation,arealwaysbeforeacountryasamatterofright,andcannot,withoutinvadingthegeneralrightsofthatcountry,bemadesubjectsforprosecution。OnthisgroundIwillmeetMr。Burkewheneverheplease。Itisbetterthatthewholeargumentshouldcomeoutthantoseektostifleit。Itwashimselfthatopenedthecontroversy,andheoughtnottodesertit。
IdonotbelievethatmonarchyandaristocracywillcontinuesevenyearslongerinanyoftheenlightenedcountriesinEurope。Ifbetterreasonscanbeshownforthemthanagainstthem,theywillstand;
ifthecontrary,theywillnot。Mankindarenotnowtobetoldtheyshallnotthink,ortheyshallnotread;andpublicationsthatgonofartherthantoinvestigateprinciplesofgovernment,toinvitementoreasonandtoreflect,andtoshowtheerrorsandexcellencesofdifferentsystems,havearighttoappear。Iftheydonotexciteattention,theyarenotworththetroubleofaprosecution;andiftheydo,theprosecutionwillamounttonothing,sinceitcannotamounttoaprohibitionofreading。
Thiswouldbeasentenceonthepublic,insteadoftheauthor,andwouldalsobethemosteffectualmodeofmakingorhasteningrevolution。
Onallcasesthatapplyuniversallytoanation,withrespecttosystemsofgovernment,ajuryoftwelvemenisnotcompetenttodecide。Wheretherearenowitnessestobeexamined,nofactstobeproved,andwherethewholematterisbeforethewholepublic,andthemeritsordemeritsofitrestingontheiropinion;
andwherethereisnothingtobeknowninacourt,butwhateverybodyknowsoutofit,everytwelvemenisequallyasgoodajuryastheother,andwouldmostprobablyreverseeachother\'sverdict;or,fromthevarietyoftheiropinions,notbeabletoformone。Itisonecase,whetheranationapproveawork,oraplan;butitisquiteanothercase,whetheritwillcommittoanysuchjurythepowerofdeterminingwhetherthatnationhavearightto,orshallreformitsgovernmentornot。ImentionthosecasesthatMr。BurkemayseeIhavenotwrittenonGovernmentwithoutreflectingonwhatisLaw,aswellasonwhatareRights。—Theonlyeffectualjuryinsuchcaseswouldbeaconventionofthewholenationfairlyelected;forinallsuchcasesthewholenationisthevicinage。IfMr。Burkewillproposesuchajury,Iwillwaiveallprivilegesofbeingthecitizenofanothercountry,and,defendingitsprinciples,abidetheissue,providedhewilldothesame;formyopinionis,thathisworkandhisprincipleswouldbecondemnedinsteadofmine。
Astotheprejudiceswhichmenhavefromeducationandhabit,infavourofanyparticularformorsystemofgovernment,thoseprejudiceshaveyettostandthetestofreasonandreflection。Infact,suchprejudicesarenothing。Nomanisprejudicedinfavourofathing,knowingittobewrong。Heisattachedtoitonthebeliefofitsbeingright;andwhenheseesitisnotso,theprejudicewillbegone。Wehavebutadefectiveideaofwhatprejudiceis。Itmightbesaid,thatuntilmenthinkforthemselvesthewholeisprejudice,andnotopinion;forthatonlyisopinionwhichistheresultofreasonandreflection。Iofferthisremark,thatMr。Burkemaynotconfidetoomuchinwhathavebeenthecustomaryprejudicesofthecountry。
IdonotbelievethatthepeopleofEnglandhaveeverbeenfairlyandcandidlydealtby。Theyhavebeenimposeduponbyparties,andbymenassumingthecharacterofleaders。Itistimethatthenationshouldriseabovethosetrifles。Itistimetodismissthatinattentionwhichhassolongbeentheencouragingcauseofstretchingtaxationtoexcess。Itistimetodismissallthosesongsandtoastswhicharecalculatedtoenslave,andoperatetosuffocatereflection。Onallsuchsubjectsmenhavebuttothink,andtheywillneitheractwrongnorbemisled。Tosaythatanypeoplearenotfitforfreedom,istomakepovertytheirchoice,andtosaytheyhadratherbeloadedwithtaxesthannot。Ifsuchacasecouldbeproved,itwouldequallyprovethatthosewhogovernarenotfittogovernthem,fortheyareapartofthesamenationalmass。
ButadmittinggovernmentstobechangedalloverEurope;itcertainlymaybedonewithoutconvulsionorrevenge。Itisnotworthmakingchangesorrevolutions,unlessitbeforsomegreatnationalbenefit:andwhenthisshallappeartoanation,thedangerwillbe,asinAmericaandFrance,tothosewhooppose;andwiththisreflectionIclosemyPreface。
THOMASPAINE
LONDON,Feb。9,1792
IntroductionWhatArchimedessaidofthemechanicalpowers,maybeappliedtoReasonandLiberty。\"Hadwe,\"saidhe,\"aplacetostandupon,wemightraisetheworld。\"
TherevolutionofAmericapresentedinpoliticswhatwasonlytheoryinmechanics。Sodeeplyrootedwereallthegovernmentsoftheoldworld,andsoeffectuallyhadthetyrannyandtheantiquityofhabitestablisheditselfoverthemind,thatnobeginningcouldbemadeinAsia,Africa,orEurope,toreformthepoliticalconditionofman。Freedomhadbeenhuntedroundtheglobe;
reasonwasconsideredasrebellion;andtheslaveryoffearhadmademenafraidtothink。
Butsuchistheirresistiblenatureoftruth,thatallitasks,—andallitwants,—isthelibertyofappearing。Thesunneedsnoinscriptiontodistinguishhimfromdarkness;andnosoonerdidtheAmericangovernmentsdisplaythemselvestotheworld,thandespotismfeltashockandmanbegantocontemplateredress。
TheindependenceofAmerica,consideredmerelyasaseparationfromEngland,wouldhavebeenamatterbutoflittleimportance,haditnotbeenaccompaniedbyarevolutionintheprinciplesandpracticeofgovernments。Shemadeastand,notforherselfonly,butfortheworld,andlookedbeyondtheadvantagesherselfcouldreceive。EventheHessian,thoughhiredtofightagainsther,maylivetoblesshisdefeat;andEngland,condemningtheviciousnessofitsgovernment,rejoiceinitsmiscarriage。
AsAmericawastheonlyspotinthepoliticalworldwheretheprincipleofuniversalreformationcouldbegin,soalsowasitthebestinthenaturalworld。Anassemblageofcircumstancesconspired,notonlytogivebirth,buttoaddgiganticmaturitytoitsprinciples。Thescenewhichthatcountrypresentstotheeyeofaspectator,hassomethinginitwhichgeneratesandencouragesgreatideas。Natureappearstohiminmagnitude。Themightyobjectshebeholds,actuponhismindbyenlargingit,andhepartakesofthegreatnesshecontemplates。—ItsfirstsettlerswereemigrantsfromdifferentEuropeannations,andofdiversifiedprofessionsofreligion,retiringfromthegovernmentalpersecutionsoftheoldworld,andmeetinginthenew,notasenemies,butasbrothers。Thewantswhichnecessarilyaccompanythecultivationofawildernessproducedamongthemastateofsociety,whichcountrieslongharassedbythequarrelsandintriguesofgovernments,hadneglectedtocherish。Insuchasituationmanbecomeswhatheought。Heseeshisspecies,notwiththeinhumanideaofanaturalenemy,butaskindred;andtheexampleshowstotheartificialworld,thatmanmustgobacktoNatureforinformation。
FromtherapidprogresswhichAmericamakesineveryspeciesofimprovement,itisrationaltoconcludethat,ifthegovernmentsofAsia,Africa,andEuropehadbegunonaprinciplesimilartothatofAmerica,orhadnotbeenveryearlycorruptedtherefrom,thosecountriesmustbythistimehavebeeninafarsuperiorconditiontowhattheyare。Ageafteragehaspassedaway,fornootherpurposethantobeholdtheirwretchedness。
Couldwesupposeaspectatorwhoknewnothingoftheworld,andwhowasputintoitmerelytomakehisobservations,hewouldtakeagreatpartoftheoldworldtobenew,juststrugglingwiththedifficultiesandhardshipsofaninfantsettlement。
Hecouldnotsupposethatthehordesofmiserablepoorwithwhicholdcountriesaboundcouldbeanyotherthanthosewhohadnotyethadtimetoprovideforthemselves。Littlewouldhethinktheyweretheconsequenceofwhatinsuchcountriestheycallgovernment。
If,fromthemorewretchedpartsoftheoldworld,welookatthosewhichareinanadvancedstageofimprovementwestillfindthegreedyhandofgovernmentthrustingitselfintoeverycornerandcreviceofindustry,andgraspingthespoilofthemultitude。Inventioniscontinuallyexercisedtofurnishnewpretencesforrevenueandtaxation。Itwatchesprosperityasitsprey,andpermitsnonetoescapewithoutatribute。
Asrevolutionshavebegun（andastheprobabilityisalwaysgreateragainstathingbeginning,thanofproceedingafterithasbegun）,itisnaturaltoexpectthatotherrevolutionswillfollow。
Theamazingandstillincreasingexpenseswithwhicholdgovernmentsareconducted,thenumerouswarstheyengageinorprovoke,theembarrassmentstheythrowinthewayofuniversalcivilisationandcommerce,andtheoppressionandusurpationactedathome,haveweariedoutthepatience,andexhaustedthepropertyoftheworld。Insuchasituation,andwithsuchexamplesalreadyexisting,revolutionsaretobelookedfor。Theyarebecomesubjectsofuniversalconversation,andmaybeconsideredastheOrderoftheday。
Ifsystemsofgovernmentcanbeintroducedlessexpensiveandmoreproductiveofgeneralhappinessthanthosewhichhaveexisted,allattemptstoopposetheirprogresswillintheendbefruitless。
Reason,liketime,willmakeitsownway,andprejudicewillfallinacombatwithinterest。Ifuniversalpeace,civilisation,andcommerceareevertobethehappylotofman,itcannotbeaccomplishedbutbyarevolutioninthesystemofgovernments。
Allthemonarchicalgovernmentsaremilitary。Waristheirtrade,plunderandrevenuetheirobjects。Whilesuchgovernmentscontinue,peacehasnottheabsolutesecurityofaday。
Whatisthehistoryofallmonarchicalgovernmentsbutadisgustfulpictureofhumanwretchedness,andtheaccidentalrespiteofafewyears\'repose？Weariedwithwar,andtiredwithhumanbutchery,theysatdowntorest,andcalleditpeace。Thiscertainlyisnottheconditionthatheavenintendedforman;andifthisbemonarchy,wellmightmonarchybereckonedamongthesinsoftheJews。
Therevolutionswhichformerlytookplaceintheworldhadnothinginthemthatinterestedthebulkofmankind。Theyextendedonlytoachangeofpersonsandmeasures,butnotofprinciples,androseorfellamongthecommontransactionsofthemoment。Whatwenowbeholdmaynotimproperlybecalleda\"counter—revolution。\"
Conquestandtyranny,atsomeearlierperiod,dispossessedmanofhisrights,andheisnowrecoveringthem。
Andasthetideofallhumanaffairshasitsebbandflowindirectionscontrarytoeachother,soalsoisitinthis。Governmentfoundedonamoraltheory,onasystemofuniversalpeace,ontheindefeasiblehereditaryRightsofMan,isnowrevolvingfromwesttoeastbyastrongerimpulsethanthegovernmentoftheswordrevolvedfromeasttowest。Itinterestsnotparticularindividuals,butnationsinitsprogress,andpromisesaneweratothehumanrace。
Thedangertowhichthesuccessofrevolutionsismostexposedisthatofattemptingthembeforetheprinciplesonwhichtheyproceed,andtheadvantagestoresultfromthem,aresufficientlyseenandunderstood。Almosteverythingappertainingtothecircumstancesofanation,hasbeenabsorbedandconfoundedunderthegeneralandmysteriouswordgovernment。Thoughitavoidstakingtoitsaccounttheerrorsitcommits,andthemischiefsitoccasions,itfailsnottoarrogatetoitselfwhateverhastheappearanceofprosperity。Itrobsindustryofitshonours,bypedanticallymakingitselfthecauseofitseffects;andpurloinsfromthegeneralcharacterofman,themeritsthatappertaintohimasasocialbeing。
Itmaythereforebeofuseinthisdayofrevolutionstodiscriminatebetweenthosethingswhicharetheeffectofgovernment,andthosewhicharenot。Thiswillbestbedonebytakingareviewofsocietyandcivilisation,andtheconsequencesresultingtherefrom,asthingsdistinctfromwhatarecalledgovernments。Bybeginningwiththisinvestigation,weshallbeabletoassigneffectstotheirpropercausesandanalysethemassofcommonerrors。
CHAPTERI
OfSocietyandCivilisationGreatpartofthatorderwhichreignsamongmankindisnottheeffectofgovernment。Ithasitsoriginintheprinciplesofsocietyandthenaturalconstitutionofman。Itexistedpriortogovernment,andwouldexistiftheformalityofgovernmentwasabolished。Themutualdependenceandreciprocalinterestwhichmanhasuponman,andallthepartsofcivilisedcommunityuponeachother,createthatgreatchainofconnectionwhichholdsittogether。Thelandholder,thefarmer,themanufacturer,themerchant,thetradesman,andeveryoccupation,prospersbytheaidwhicheachreceivesfromtheother,andfromthewhole。
Commoninterestregulatestheirconcerns,andformstheirlaw;andthelawswhichcommonusageordains,haveagreaterinfluencethanthelawsofgovernment。Infine,societyperformsforitselfalmosteverythingwhichisascribedtogovernment。
Tounderstandthenatureandquantityofgovernmentproperforman,itisnecessarytoattendtohischaracter。AsNaturecreatedhimforsociallife,shefittedhimforthestationsheintended。
Inallcasesshemadehisnaturalwantsgreaterthanhisindividualpowers。Noonemaniscapable,withouttheaidofsociety,ofsupplyinghisownwants,andthosewants,actinguponeveryindividual,impelthewholeofthemintosociety,asnaturallyasgravitationactstoacentre。
Butshehasgonefurther。Shehasnotonlyforcedmanintosocietybyadiversityofwantswhichthereciprocalaidofeachothercansupply,butshehasimplantedinhimasystemofsocialaffections,which,thoughnotnecessarytohisexistence,areessentialtohishappiness。Thereisnoperiodinlifewhenthisloveforsocietyceasestoact。Itbeginsandendswithourbeing。
Ifweexaminewithattentionintothecompositionandconstitutionofman,thediversityofhiswants,andthediversityoftalentsindifferentmenforreciprocallyaccommodatingthewantsofeachother,hispropensitytosociety,andconsequentlytopreservetheadvantagesresultingfromit,weshalleasilydiscover,thatagreatpartofwhatiscalledgovernmentismereimposition。
Governmentisnofarthernecessarythantosupplythefewcasestowhichsocietyandcivilisationarenotconvenientlycompetent;andinstancesarenotwantingtoshow,thateverythingwhichgovernmentcanusefullyaddthereto,hasbeenperformedbythecommonconsentofsociety,withoutgovernment。
ForupwardsoftwoyearsfromthecommencementoftheAmericanWar,andtoalongerperiodinseveraloftheAmericanStates,therewerenoestablishedformsofgovernment。Theoldgovernmentshadbeenabolished,andthecountrywastoomuchoccupiedindefencetoemployitsattentioninestablishingnewgovernments;yetduringthisintervalorderandharmonywerepreservedasinviolateasinanycountryinEurope。Thereisanaturalaptnessinman,andmoresoinsociety,becauseitembracesagreatervarietyofabilitiesandresource,toaccommodateitselftowhateversituationitisin。Theinstantformalgovernmentisabolished,societybeginstoact:ageneralassociationtakesplace,andcommoninterestproducescommonsecurity。
Sofarisitfrombeingtrue,ashasbeenpretended,thattheabolitionofanyformalgovernmentisthedissolutionofsociety,thatitactsbyacontraryimpulse,andbringsthelattertheclosertogether。
Allthatpartofitsorganisationwhichithadcommittedtoitsgovernment,devolvesagainuponitself,andactsthroughitsmedium。
Whenmen,aswellfromnaturalinstinctasfromreciprocalbenefits,havehabituatedthemselvestosocialandcivilisedlife,thereisalwaysenoughofitsprinciplesinpracticetocarrythemthroughanychangestheymayfindnecessaryorconvenienttomakeintheirgovernment。Inshort,manissonaturallyacreatureofsocietythatitisalmostimpossibletoputhimoutofit。
Formalgovernmentmakesbutasmallpartofcivilisedlife;andwheneventhebestthathumanwisdomcandeviseisestablished,itisathingmoreinnameandideathaninfact。Itistothegreatandfundamentalprinciplesofsocietyandcivilisation—tothecommonusageuniversallyconsentedto,andmutuallyandreciprocallymaintained—totheunceasingcirculationofinterest,which,passingthroughitsmillionchannels,invigoratesthewholemassofcivilisedman—itistothesethings,infinitelymorethantoanythingwhicheventhebestinstitutedgovernmentcanperform,thatthesafetyandprosperityoftheindividualandofthewholedepends。
Themoreperfectcivilisationis,thelessoccasionhasitforgovernment,becausethemoredoesitregulateitsownaffairs,andgovernitself;butsocontraryisthepracticeofoldgovernmentstothereasonofthecase,thattheexpensesofthemincreaseintheproportiontheyoughttodiminish。Itisbutfewgenerallawsthatcivilisedliferequires,andthoseofsuchcommonusefulness,thatwhethertheyareenforcedbytheformsofgovernmentornot,theeffectwillbenearlythesame。Ifweconsiderwhattheprinciplesarethatfirstcondensemenintosociety,andwhatarethemotivesthatregulatetheirmutualintercourseafterwards,weshallfind,bythetimewearriveatwhatiscalledgovernment,thatnearlythewholeofthebusinessisperformedbythenaturaloperationofthepartsuponeachother。
Man,withrespecttoallthosematters,ismoreacreatureofconsistencythanheisaware,orthangovernmentswouldwishhimtobelieve。Allthegreatlawsofsocietyarelawsofnature。Thoseoftradeandcommerce,whetherwithrespecttotheintercourseofindividualsorofnations,arelawsofmutualandreciprocalinterest。Theyarefollowedandobeyed,becauseitistheinterestofthepartiessotodo,andnotonaccountofanyformallawstheirgovernmentsmayimposeorinterpose。
Buthowoftenisthenaturalpropensitytosocietydisturbedordestroyedbytheoperationsofgovernment！Whenthelatter,insteadofbeingingraftedontheprinciplesoftheformer,assumestoexistforitself,andactsbypartialitiesoffavourandoppression,itbecomesthecauseofthemischiefsitoughttoprevent。
IfwelookbacktotheriotsandtumultswhichatvarioustimeshavehappenedinEngland,weshallfindthattheydidnotproceedfromthewantofagovernment,butthatgovernmentwasitselfthegeneratingcause;insteadofconsolidatingsocietyitdividedit;itdepriveditofitsnaturalcohesion,andengendereddiscontentsanddisorderswhichotherwisewouldnothaveexisted。Inthoseassociationswhichmenpromiscuouslyformforthepurposeoftrade,orofanyconcerninwhichgovernmentistotallyoutofthequestion,andinwhichtheyactmerelyontheprinciplesofsociety,weseehownaturallythevariouspartiesunite;andthisshows,bycomparison,thatgovernments,sofarfrombeingalwaysthecauseormeansoforder,areoftenthedestructionofit。Theriotsof1780hadnoothersourcethantheremainsofthoseprejudiceswhichthegovernmentitselfhadencouraged。ButwithrespecttoEnglandtherearealsoothercauses。
Excessandinequalityoftaxation,howeverdisguisedinthemeans,neverfailtoappearintheireffects。Asagreatmassofthecommunityarethrowntherebyintopovertyanddiscontent,theyareconstantlyonthebrinkofcommotion;anddeprived,astheyunfortunatelyare,ofthemeansofinformation,areeasilyheatedtooutrage。Whatevertheapparentcauseofanyriotsmaybe,therealoneisalwayswantofhappiness。Itshowsthatsomethingiswronginthesystemofgovernmentthatinjuresthefelicitybywhichsocietyistobepreserved。
Butasafactissuperiortoreasoning,theinstanceofAmericapresentsitselftoconfirmtheseobservations。Ifthereisacountryintheworldwhereconcord,accordingtocommoncalculation,wouldbeleastexpected,itisAmerica。Madeupasitisofpeoplefromdifferentnations,*[16]accustomedtodifferentformsandhabitsofgovernment,speakingdifferentlanguages,andmoredifferentintheirmodesofworship,itwouldappearthattheunionofsuchapeoplewasimpracticable;butbythesimpleoperationofconstructinggovernmentontheprinciplesofsocietyandtherightsofman,everydifficultyretires,andallthepartsarebroughtintocordialunison。Therethepoorarenotoppressed,thericharenotprivileged。Industryisnotmortifiedbythesplendidextravaganceofacourtriotingatitsexpense。Theirtaxesarefew,becausetheirgovernmentisjust:andasthereisnothingtorenderthemwretched,thereisnothingtoengenderriotsandtumults。
Ametaphysicalman,likeMr。Burke,wouldhavetorturedhisinventiontodiscoverhowsuchapeoplecouldbegoverned。Hewouldhavesupposedthatsomemustbemanagedbyfraud,othersbyforce,andallbysomecontrivance;thatgeniusmustbehiredtoimposeuponignorance,andshowandparadetofascinatethevulgar。Lostintheabundanceofhisresearches,hewouldhaveresolvedandre—resolved,andfinallyoverlookedtheplainandeasyroadthatlaydirectlybeforehim。
OneofthegreatadvantagesoftheAmericanRevolutionhasbeen,thatitledtoadiscoveryoftheprinciples,andlaidopentheimposition,ofgovernments。Alltherevolutionstillthenhadbeenworkedwithintheatmosphereofacourt,andneveronthegrandfloorofanation。Thepartieswerealwaysoftheclassofcourtiers;
andwhateverwastheirrageforreformation,theycarefullypreservedthefraudoftheprofession。
