Nothingismorestrikinglycharacteristicofprimitivethinkingthantheclosecommunityofnaturewhichitassumesbetweenmanandbrute。Thedoctrineofmetempsychosis，whichisfoundinsomeshapeorotherallovertheworld，impliesafundamentalidentitybetweenthetwo；theHinduistaughttorespecttheflocksbrowsinginthemeadow，andwillonnoaccountlifthishandagainstacow，forwhoknowsbutitmayhehisowngrandmother？TherecentresearchesofMr。M`LennanandMr。HerbertSpencerhaveservedtoconnectthisfeelingwiththeprimevalworshipofancestorsandwiththesavagecustomsoftotemism。[71]
[71]M`Lennan，“TheWorshipofAnimalsandPlants，“
FortnightlyReview，N。S。Vol。VI。pp。407-427，562-582，Vol。
VII。pp194-216；Spencer，“TheOriginofAnimalWorship，“Id。
Vol。VII。pp。535-550，reprintedinhisRecentDiscussionsinScience，etc。，pp。31-56。
Theworshipofancestorsseemstohavebeeneverywheretheoldestsystematizedformoffetichisticreligion。ThereverencepaidtothechieftainofthetribewhilelivingwascontinuedandexaggeratedafterhisdeathTheuncivilizedmaniseverywhereincapableofgraspingtheideaofdeathasitisapprehendedbycivilizedpeople。Hecannotunderstandthatamanshouldpassawaysoastobenolongercapableofcommunicatingwithhisfellows。Theimageofhisdeadchieforcomraderemainsinhismind，andthesavage\'sphilosophicrealismfarsurpassesthatofthemostextravagantmediaevalschoolmen；tohimthepersistenceoftheideaimpliesthepersistenceofthereality。Thedeadman，accordingly，isnotreallydead；hehasthrownoffhisbodylikeahusk，yetstillretainshisoldappearance，andoftenshowshimselftohisoldfriends，especiallyafternightfall。Heisnodoubtpossessedofmoreextensivepowersthanbeforehistransformation，[72]
andmayverylikelyhaveashareinregulatingtheweather，grantingorwithholdingrain。Therefore，arguestheuncivilizedmind，heistobecajoledandpropitiatedmoresedulouslynowthanbeforehisstrangetransformation。
[72]Thusisexplained。thesingularconductoftheHindu，whoslayshimselfbeforehisenemy\'sdoor，inordertoacquiregreaterpowerofinjuringhim。“AcertainBrahman，onwhoselandsaKshatriyarajahadbuiltahouse，rippedhimselfupinrevenge，andbecameademonofthekindcalledBrahmadasyu，whohasbeeneversincetheterrorofthewholecountry，andisthemostcommonvillage-deityinKharakpur。TowardthecloseofthelastcenturythereweretwoBrahmans，outofwhosehouseamanhadwrongfully，astheythought，takenfortyrupees；whereupononeoftheBrahmansproceededtocutoffhisownmother\'shead，withtheprofessedview，entertainedbybothmotherandson，thatherspirit，excitedbythebeatingofalargedrumduringfortydaysmighthaunt，torment，andpursuetodeaththetakeroftheirmoneyandthoseconcernedwithhim。“Tylor，PrimitiveCulture，Vol。II。p。103。
ThiskindofworshipstillmaintainsalanguidexistenceasthestatereligionofChina，anditstillexistsasaportionofBrahmanism；butintheVedicreligionitistobeseeninallitsvigourandinallitsnaivesimplicity。AccordingtotheancientAryan，thepitris，or“Fathers“(Lat。patres)，liveintheskyalongwithYama，thegreatoriginalPitriofmankind。Thisfirstmancamedownfromheaveninthelightning，andbacktoheavenbothhimselfandallhisoffspringmusthavegone。Theretheydistributelightuntomenbelow，andtheyshinethemselvesasstars；andhencetheChristianizedGermanpeasant，fiftycenturieslater，tellshischildrenthatthestarsareangels\'eyes，andtheEnglishcottagerimpressesitontheyouthfulmindthatitiswickedtopointatthestars，thoughwhyhecannottell。ButthePitrisarenotstarsonly，nordotheycontentthemselveswithidlylookingdownontheaffairsofmen，afterthefashionofthelaissez-fairedivinitiesofLucretius。Theyare，onthecontrary，verybusywiththeweather；theysendrain，thunder，andlightning；andtheyespeciallydelightinrushingoverthehousetopsinagreatgaleofwind，ledonbytheirchief，themysterioushuntsman，HermesorOdin。
Ithasbeenelsewhereshownthatthehowlingdog，orwish-houndofHermes，whoseappearanceunderthewindowsofasickpersonissuchanalarmingportent，ismerelythetempestpersonified。ThroughoutallAryanmythologythesoulsofthedeadaresupposedtorideonthenight-wind，withtheirhowlingdogs，gatheringintotheirthrongthesoulsofthosejustdyingastheypassbytheirhouses。[73]Sometimesthewholecomplexconceptioniswrappedupinthenotionofasingledog，themessengerofthegodofshades，whocomestosummonthedepartingsoul。Sometimes，insteadofadog，wehaveagreatraveningwolfwhocomestodevouritsvictimandextinguishthesunlightoflife，asthatoldwolfofthetribeofFenrirdevouredlittleRedRiding-Hoodwithherrobeofscarlettwilight。[74]Thuswearriveatatruewerewolfmyth。
Thestorm-wind，orhowlingRakshasaofHindufolk-lore，is“agreatmisshapengiantwithredbeardandredhair，withpointedprotrudingteeth，readytolacerateanddevourhumanflesh；hisbodyiscoveredwithcoarse，bristlinghair，hishugemouthisopen，helooksfromsidetosideashewalks，lustingafterthefleshandbloodofmen，tosatisfyhisraginghungerandquenchhisconsumingthirst。Towardsnightfallhisstrengthincreasesmanifold；hecanchangehisshapeatwill；hehauntsthewoods，androamshowlingthroughthejungle。“[75]
[73]Hence，inmanypartsofEurope，itisstillcustomarytoopenthewindowswhenapersondies，inorderthatthesoulmaynotbehinderedinjoiningthemysticcavalcade。
[74]ThestoryoflittleRedRiding-Hoodis“mutilatedintheEnglishversion，butknownmoreperfectlybyoldwivesinGermany，whocantellthatthelovelylittlemaidinhershiningredsatincloakwasswallowedwithhergrandmotherbythewolf，tilltheybothcameoutsafeandsoundwhenthehuntercutopenthesleepingbeast。“Tylor，PrimitiveCulture，I。307，wherealsoseethekindredRussianstoryofVasilissatheBeautiful。ComparethecaseofTomThumb，who“wasswallowedbythecowandcameoutunhurt“；thestoryofSaktidevaswallowedbythefishandcutoutagain，inSomadevaBhatta，II。118-184；andthestoryofJonahswallowedbythewhale，intheOldTestament。Allthesearedifferentversionsofthesamemyth，andrefertothealternateswallowingupandcastingforthofDaybyNight，whichiscommonlypersonifiedasawolf，andnowandthenasagreatfish。CompareGrimm\'sstoryoftheWolfandSevenKids，Tylor，loc。cit。，andseeEarlyHistoryofMankind，p。337；Hardy，ManualofBudhism，p。
501。
[75]Baring-Gould，BookofWerewolves，p。178；Muir，SanskritTexts，II。435。
Nowifthestorm-windisahostofPitris，oronegreatPitriwhoappearsasafearfulgiant，andisalsoapackofwolvesorwish-hounds，orasinglesavagedogorwolf，theinferenceisobvioustothemythopoeicmindthatmenmaybecomewolves，atleastafterdeath。Andtotheuncivilizedthinkerthisinferenceisstrengthened，asMr。Spencerhasshown，byevidenceregisteredonhisowntribaltotemorheraldicemblem。Thebearsandlionsandleopardsofheraldryarethedegeneratedescendantsofthetotemofsavagerywhichdesignatedthetribebyabeast-symbol。Totheuntutoredmindthereiseverythinginaname；andthedescendantofBrownBearorYellowTigerorSilverHyaenacannotbepronouncedunfaithfultohisownstyleofphilosophizing，ifheregardshisancestors，whocareerabouthishutinthedarknessofnight，asbelongingtowhateverorderofbeastshistotemassociationsmaysuggest。
Thuswenotonlyseearayoflightthrownonthesubjectofmetempsychosis，butwegetaglimpseofthecuriousprocessbywhichtheintenselyrealisticmindofantiquityarrivedatthenotionthatmencouldbetransformedintobeasts。Forthebeliefthatthesoulcantemporarilyquitthebodyduringlifetimehasbeenuniversallyentertained；andfromtheconceptionofwolf-likeghostsitwasbutashortsteptotheconceptionofcorporealwerewolves。IntheMiddleAgesthephenomenaoftranceandcatalepsywerecitedinproofofthetheorythatthesoulcanleavethebodyandafterwardsreturntoit。Henceitwasverydifficultforapersonaccusedofwitchcrafttoproveanalibi；fortoanyamountofevidenceshowingthatthebodywasinnocentlyreposingathomeandinbed，therejoinderwasobviousthatthesoulmayneverthelesshavebeeninattendanceatthewitches\'Sabbathorbusiedinmaiminganeighbour\'scattle。Accordingtoonemediaevalnotion，thesoulofthewerewolfquititshumanbody，whichremainedinatranceuntilitsreturn。[76]
[76]Inthosedaysevenanafter-dinnernapseemstohavebeenthoughtuncanny。SeeDasent，BurntNjal，I。xxi。
Themythologicalbasisofthewerewolfsuperstitionisnow，I
believe，sufficientlyindicated。Thebelief，however，didnotreachitscompletedevelopment，oracquireitsmosthorriblefeatures，untilthepaganhabitsofthoughtwhichhadoriginateditweremodifiedbycontactwithChristiantheology。Totheancienttherewasnothingnecessarilydiabolicalinthetransformationofamanintoabeast。ButChristianity，whichretainedsuchahostofpaganconceptionsundersuchstrangedisguises，whichdegradedthe“All-father“
OdinintotheogreofthecastletowhichJackclimbedonhisbean-stalk，andwhichblendedthebeneficentlightning-godThorandthemischievousHermesandthefaun-likePanintothegrotesqueTeutonicDevil，didnotfailtoimpartanewandfearfulcharactertothebeliefinwerewolves。Lycanthropybecameregardedasaspeciesofwitchcraft；thewerewolfwassupposedtohaveobtainedhispeculiarpowersthroughthefavourorconnivanceoftheDevil；andhundredsofpersonswereburnedaliveorbrokenonthewheelforhavingavailedthemselvesoftheprivilegeofbeast-metamorphosis。Thesuperstition，thuswidelyextendedandgreatlyintensified，wasconfirmedbymanysingularphenomenawhichcannotbeomittedfromanythoroughdiscussionofthenatureandcausesoflycanthropy。
ThefirstofthesephenomenaistheBerserkerinsanity，characteristicofScandinavia，butnotunknowninothercountries。Intimeswhenkillingone\'senemiesoftenformedapartofthenecessarybusinessoflife，personswerefrequentlyfoundwhokilledforthemereloveofthething；
withwhomslaughterwasanenddesirableinitself，notmerelyameanstoadesirableend。Whatthemiserisinanagewhichworshipsmammon，suchwastheBerserkerinanagewhenthecurrentideaofheavenwasthatofaplacewherepeoplecouldhackeachothertopiecesthroughalleternity，andwhenthemanwhorefusedachallengewaspunishedwithconfiscationofhisestates。WiththeseNorthmen，intheninthcentury，thechiefbusinessandamusementinlifewastosetsailforsomepleasantcountry，likeSpainorFrance，andmakeallthecoastsandnavigablerivershideouswithrapineandmassacre。
Whenathome，intheintervalsbetweentheirfreebootingexpeditions，theywereliabletobecomepossessedbyastrangehomicidalmadness，duringwhichtheywouldarraythemselvesintheskinsofwolvesorbears，andsallyforthbynighttocrackthebackbones，smashtheskulls，andsometimestodrinkwithfiendishgleethebloodofunwarytravellersorloiterers。Thesefitsofmadnesswereusuallyfollowedbyperiodsofutterexhaustionandnervousdepression。[77]
[77]SeeDasent，BurntNjai，Vol。I。p。xxii。；GrettisSaga，byMagnussonandMorris，chap。xix。；VigaGlum\'sSaga，bySirEdmundHead，p。13，note，wheretheBerserkersaresaidtohavemaddenedthemselveswithdrugs。DasentcomparesthemwiththeMalays，whoworkthemselvesintoafrenzybymeansofarrack，orhasheesh，andrunamuck。
Such，accordingtotheunanimoustestimonyofhistorians，wasthecelebrated“Berserkerrage，“notpeculiartotheNorthland，althoughtheremostconspicuouslymanifested。
Takingnowastepinadvance，wefindthatincomparativelycivilizedcountriestherehavebeenmanycasesofmonstroushomicidalinsanity。Thetwomostcelebratedcases，amongthosecollectedbyMr。Baring-Gould，arethoseoftheMarechaldeRetz，in1440，andofElizabeth，aHungariancountess，intheseventeenthcentury。TheCountessElizabethenticedyounggirlsintoherpalaceondiverspretexts，andthencoollymurderedthem，forthepurposeofbathingintheirblood。Thespectacleofhumansufferingbecameatlastsuchadelighttoher，thatshewouldapplywithherownhandsthemostexcruciatingtortures，relishingtheshrieksofhervictimsastheepicurerelisheseachsipofhisoldChateauMargaux。Inthiswaysheissaidtohavemurderedsixhundredandfiftypersonsbeforeherevilcareerwasbroughttoanend；though，whenonerecollectsthefamousmeninbuckramandthenotorioustrioofcrows，oneisinclinedtostrikeoffacipher，andregardsixty-fiveasasufficientlyimposingandfarlessimprobablenumber。ButthecaseoftheMarechaldeRetzisstillmorefrightful。AmarshalofFrance，ascholarlyman，apatriot，andamanofholylife，hebecamesuddenlypossessedbyanuncontrollabledesiretomurderchildren。
Duringsevenyearshecontinuedtoinveiglelittleboysandgirlsintohiscastle，attherateofaboutTWOEACHWEEK，(？)
andthenputthemtodeathinvariousways，thathemightwitnesstheiragoniesandbatheintheirblood；experiencingaftereachoccasionthemostdreadfulremorse，butledonbyanirresistiblecravingtorepeatthecrime。Whenthisunparallelediniquitywasfinallybroughttolight，thecastlewasfoundtocontainbinsfullofchildren\'sbones。ThehorribledetailsofthetrialaretobefoundinthehistoriesofFrancebyMicheletandMartin。
Goingastepfurther，wefindcasesinwhichthepropensitytomurderhasbeenaccompaniedbycannibalism。In1598atailorofChalonswassentencedbytheparliamentofParistobeburnedaliveforlycanthropy。“Thiswretchedmanhaddecoyedchildrenintohisshop，orattackedtheminthegloamingwhentheystrayedinthewoods，hadtornthemwithhisteethandkilledthem，afterwhichheseemscalmlytohavedressedtheirfleshasordinarymeat，andtohaveeatenitwithagreatrelish。Thenumberoflittleinnocentswhomhedestroyedisunknown。Awholecaskfulofboneswasdiscoveredinhishouse。“[78]About1850abeggarinthevillageofPolomyia，inGalicia，wasprovedtohavekilledandeatenfourteenchildren。Ahousehadonedaycaughtfireandburnttotheground，roastingoneoftheinmates，whowasunabletoescape。
Thebeggarpassedbysoonafter，and，ashewassufferingfromexcessivehunger，couldnotresistthetemptationofmakingamealoffthecharredbody。Fromthatmomenthewastormentedbyacravingforhumanflesh。Hemetalittleorphangirl，aboutnineyearsold，andgivingherapinchbeckringtoldhertoseekforotherslikeitunderatreeintheneighbouringwood。Shewasslain，carriedtothebeggar\'shovel，andeaten。
Inthecourseofthreeyearsthirteenotherchildrenmysteriouslydisappeared，butnooneknewwhomtosuspect。Atlastaninnkeepermissedapairofducks，andhavingnogoodopinionofthisbeggar\'shonesty，wentunexpectedlytohiscabin，burstsuddenlyinatthedoor，andtohishorrorfoundhimintheactofhidingunderhiscloakaseveredhead；abowloffreshbloodstoodundertheoven，andpiecesofathighwerecookingoverthefire。[79]
[78]Baring-Gould，Werewolves，p。81。
[79]Baring-Gould，op。cit。chap。xiv。
Thisoccurredonlyabouttwentyyearsago，andthecriminal，thoughruledbyaninsaneappetite，isnotknowntohavebeensubjecttoanymentaldelusion。Buttherehavebeenagreatmanysimilarcases，inwhichthehomicidalorcannibalcravinghasbeenaccompaniedbygenuinehallucination。Formsofinsanityinwhichtheafflictedpersonsimaginethemselvestobebruteanimalsarenotperhapsverycommon，buttheyarenotunknown。Ionceknewapoordementedoldmanwhobelievedhimselftobeahorse，andwouldstandbythehourtogetherbeforeamanger，nibblinghay，ordeludinghimselfwiththepresenceofsodoing。ManyofthecannibalswhosecasesarerelatedbyMr。Baring-Gould，inhischapterofhorrors，actuallybelievedthemselvestohavebeentransformedintowolvesorotherwildanimals。JeanGrenierwasaboyofthirteen，partiallyidiotic，andofstronglymarkedcaninephysiognomy；hisjawswerelargeandprojectedforward，andhiscanineteethwereunnaturallylong，soastoprotrudebeyondthelowerlip。Hebelievedhimselftobeawerewolf。
Oneevening，meetinghalfadozenyounggirls，hescaredthemoutoftheirwitsbytellingthemthatassoonasthesunhadsethewouldturnintoawolfandeatthemforsupper。Afewdayslater，onelittlegirl，havinggoneoutatnightfalltolookafterthesheep，wasattackedbysomecreaturewhichinherterrorshemistookforawolf，butwhichafterwardsprovedtobenoneotherthanJeanGrenier。Shebeathimoffwithhersheep-staff，andfledhome。Asseveralchildrenhadmysteriouslydisappearedfromtheneighbourhood，Grenierwasatoncesuspected。BeingbroughtbeforetheparliamentofBordeaux，hestatedthattwoyearsagohehadmettheDevilonenightinthewoodsandhadsignedacompactwithhimandreceivedfromhimawolf-skin。Sincethenhehadroamedaboutasawolfafterdark，resuminghishumanshapebydaylight。Hehadkilledandeatenseveralchildrenwhomhehadfoundaloneinthefields，andononeoccasionhehadenteredahousewhilethefamilywereoutandtakenthebabyfromitscradle。
Acarefulinvestigationprovedthetruthofthesestatements，sofarasthecannibalismwasconcerned。ThereisnodoubtthatthemissingchildrenwereeatenbyJeanGrenier，andthereisnodoubtthatinhisownmindthehalfwittedboywasfirmlyconvincedthathewasawolf。Herethelycanthropywascomplete。
Intheyear1598，“inawildandunfrequentedspotnearCaude，somecountrymencameonedayuponthecorpseofaboyoffifteen，horriblymutilatedandbespatteredwithblood。Asthemenapproached，twowolves，whichhadbeenrendingthebody，boundedawayintothethicket。Themengavechaseimmediately，followingtheirbloodytrackstilltheylostthem；when，suddenlycrouchingamongthebushes，histeethchatteringwithfear，theyfoundamanhalfnaked，withlonghairandbeard，andwithhishandsdyedinblood。Hisnailswerelongasclaws，andwereclottedwithfreshgoreandshredsofhumanflesh。“[80]
[80]Baring-Gould，op。cit。p。82。
Thisman，JacquesRoulet，wasapoor，half-wittedcreatureunderthedominionofacannibalappetite。Hewasemployedintearingtopiecesthecorpseoftheboywhenthesecountrymencameup。Whethertherewereanywolvesinthecase，exceptwhattheexcitedimaginationsofthemenmayhaveconjuredup，Iwillnotpresumetodetermine；butitiscertainthatRouletsupposedhimselftobeawolf，andkilledandateseveralpersonsundertheinfluenceofthedelusion。Hewassentencedtodeath，buttheparliamentofParisreversedthesentence，andcharitablyshuthimupinamadhouse。
TheannalsoftheMiddleAgesfurnishmanycasessimilartotheseofGrenierandRoulet。Theirshareinmaintainingthewerewolfsuperstitionisundeniable；butmodernsciencefindsinthemnothingthatcannotbereadilyexplained。Thatstupendousprocessofbreeding，whichwecallcivilization，hasbeenforlongagesstrengtheningthosekindlysocialfeelingsbythepossessionofwhichwearechieflydistinguishedfromthebrutes，leavingourprimitivebestialimpulsestodieforwantofexercise，orcheckingineverypossiblewaytheirfurtherexpansionbylegislativeenactments。Butthisprocess，whichistransformingusfromsavagesintocivilizedmen，isaveryslowone；andnowandthenthereoccurcasesofwhatphysiologistscallatavism，orreversiontoanancestraltypeofcharacter。Nowandthenpersonsareborn，incivilizedcountries，whoseintellectualpowersareonalevelwiththoseofthemostdegradedAustraliansavage，andthesewecallidiots。Andnowandthenpersonsarebornpossessedofthebestialappetitesandcravingsofprimitiveman，hisfiendishcrueltyandhislikingforhumanflesh。Modernphysiologyknowshowtoclassifyandexplaintheseabnormalcases，buttotheunscientificmediaevalmindtheywereexplicableonlyonthehypothesisofadiabolicalmetamorphosis。Andthereisnothingstrangeinthefactthat，inanagewhentheprevailinghabitsofthoughtrenderedthetransformationofmenintobeastsaneasilyadmissiblenotion，thesemonstersofcrueltyanddepravedappetiteshouldhavebeenregardedascapableoftakingonbestialforms。Norisitstrangethatthehallucinationunderwhichtheseunfortunatewretcheslabouredshouldhavetakensuchashapeastoaccounttotheirfeebleintelligencefortheexistenceoftheappetiteswhichtheywereconsciousofnotsharingwiththeirneighboursandcontemporaries。Ifamythisapieceofunscientificphilosophizing，itmustsometimesbeappliedtotheexplanationofobscurepsychologicalaswellasofphysicalphenomena。Wherethemoderncalmlytapshisforeheadandsays，“Arresteddevelopment，“theterrifiedancientmadethesignofthecrossandcried，“Werewolf。“
Weshallbeassistedinthisexplanationbyturningasideforamomenttoexaminethewildsuperstitionsabout“changelings，“whichcontributed，alongwithsomanyothers，tomakethelivesofourancestorsanxiousandmiserable。
Thesesuperstitionswereforthemostpartattemptstoexplainthephenomenaofinsanity，epilepsy，andotherobscurenervousdiseases。Amanwhohashithertoenjoyedperfecthealth，andwhoseactionshavebeenconsistentandrational，suddenlylosesallself-controlandseemsactuatedbyawillforeigntohimself。Modernsciencepossessesthekeytothisphenomenon；
butinformertimesitwasexplicableonlyonthehypothesisthatademonhadenteredthebodyofthelunatic，orelsethatthefairieshadstolentherealmanandsubstitutedforhimadiabolicalphantomexactlylikehiminstatureandfeatures。
Hencethenumerouslegendsofchangelings，someofwhichareverycurious。InIrishfolk-lorewefindthestoryofoneRickard，surnamedtheRake，fromhisworthlesscharacter。A
good-natured，idlefellow，hespentallhiseveningsindancing，——anaccomplishmentinwhichnooneinthevillagecouldrivalhim。Onenight，inthemidstofalivelyreel，hefelldowninafit。“He\'sstruckwithafairy-dart，“
exclaimedallthefriends，andtheycarriedhimhomeandnursedhim；buthisfacegrewsothinandhismannersomorosethatbyandbyallbegantosuspectthatthetrueRickardwasgoneandachangelingputinhisplace。Rickard，withallhisaccomplishments，wasnomusician；andso，inordertoputthemattertoacrucialtest，abagpipewasleftintheroombythesideofhisbed。Thetricksucceeded。Onehotsummer\'sday，whenallweresupposedtobeinthefieldmakinghay，somemembersofthefamilysecretedinaclothes-presssawthebedroomdooropenalittleway，andalean，foxyface，withapairofdeep-sunkeneyes，peeranxiouslyaboutthepremises。
Havingsatisfieditselfthatthecoastwasclear，thefacewithdrew，thedoorwasclosed，andpresentlysuchravishingstrainsofmusicwereheardasneverproceededfromabagpipebeforeorsincethatday。Soonwasheardtherustleofinnumerablefairies，cometodancetothechangeling\'smusic。
Thenthe“fairy-man“ofthevillage，whowaskeepingwatchwiththefamily，heatedapairoftongsred-hot，andwithdeafeningshoutsallburstatonceintothesick-chamber。Themusichadceasedandtheroomwasempty，butinatthewindowglaredafiendishface，withsuchfearfullooksofhatred，thatforamomentallstoodmotionlesswithterror。Butwhenthefairy-man，recoveringhimself，advancedwiththehottongstopinchitsnose，itvanishedwithanunearthlyyell，andthereonthebedwasRickard，safeandsound，andcuredofhisepilepsy。[81]
[81]Kennedy，FictionsoftheIrishCelts，p。90。
Comparingthislegendwithnumerousothersrelatingtochangelings，andstrippingoffthefantasticgarboffairy-lorewithwhichpopularimaginationhasinvestedthem，itseemsimpossibletodoubtthattheyhavearisenfrommythsdevisedforthepurposeofexplainingtheobscurephenomenaofmentaldisease。Ifthisbeso，theyaffordanexcellentcollateralillustrationofthebeliefinwerewolves。Thesamementalhabitswhichledmentoregardtheinsaneorepilepticpersonasachangeling，andwhichallowedthemtoexplaincatalepsyasthetemporarydepartureofawitch\'ssoulfromitsbody，wouldenablethemtoattributeawolf\'snaturetothemaniacoridiotwithcannibalappetites。Andwhenthemyth-formingprocesshadgotthusfar，itwouldnotstopshortofassigningtotheunfortunatewretchatangiblelupinebody；
forallancientmythologyteemedwithprecedentsforsuchatransformation。
Itremainsforustosumup，——totieintoabunchthekeyswhichhavehelpedustopenetrateintothesecretcausesofthewerewolfsuperstition。Inapreviouspaperwesawwhatahostofmyths，fairy-tales，andsuperstitiousobservanceshavesprungfromattemptstointerpretonesimplenaturalphenomenon，——thedescentoffirefromtheclouds。Here，ontheotherhand，weseewhataheterogeneousmultitudeofmythicalelementsmaycombinetobuildupincourseoftimeasingleenormoussuperstition，andweseehowcuriouslyfactandfancyhaveco-operatedinkeepingthesuperstitionfromfalling。Inthefirstplacetheworshipofdeadancestorswithwolftotemsoriginatedthenotionofthetransformationofmenintodivineorsuperhumanwolves；andthisnotionwasconfirmedbytheambiguousexplanationofthestorm-windastherushingofatroopofdeadmen\'ssoulsorasthehowlingofwolf-likemonsters。MediaevalChristianityretainedtheseconceptions，merelychangingthesuperhumanwolvesintoevildemons；andfinallytheoccurrenceofcasesofBerserkermadnessandcannibalism，accompaniedbylycanthropichallucinations，beinginterpretedasduetosuchdemoniacalmetamorphosis，gaverisetothewerewolfsuperstitionoftheMiddleAges。Theetymologicalproceedings，towhichMr。Coxwouldincontinentlyascribetheoriginoftheentiresuperstition，seemedtometohaveplayedaverysubordinatepartinthematter。TosupposethatJeanGrenierimaginedhimselftobeawolf，becausetheGreekwordforwolfsoundedlikethewordforlight，andthusgaverisetothestoryofalight-deitywhobecameawolf，seemstomequiteinadmissible。Yetasfarassuchverbalequivocationsmayhaveprevailed，theydoubtlesshelpedtosustainthedelusion。
Thusweneednolongerregardourwerewolfasaninexplicablecreatureofundeterminedpedigree。Butanyaccountofhimwouldbequiteimperfectwhichshouldomitallconsiderationofthemethodsbywhichhischangeofformwasaccomplished。
BytheancientRomansthewerewolfwascommonlycalleda“skin-changer“or“turn-coat“(versipellis)，andsimilarepithetswereappliedtohimintheMiddleAgesThemediaevaltheorywasthat，whilethewerewolfkepthishumanform，hishairgrewinwards；whenhewishedtobecomeawolf，hesimplyturnedhimselfinsideout。Inmanytrialsonrecord，theprisonerswerecloselyinterrogatedastohowthisinversionmightbeaccomplished；butIamnotawarethatanyoneofthemevergaveasatisfactoryanswer。Atthemomentofchangetheirmemoriesseemtohavebecometemporarilybefogged。Nowandthenapoorwretchhadhisarmsandlegscutoff，orwaspartiallyflayed，inorderthattheingrowinghairmightbedetected。[82]Anothertheorywas，thatthepossessedpersonhadmerelytoputonawolf\'sskin，inordertoassumeinstantlythelupineformandcharacter；andinthismayperhapsbeseenavaguereminiscenceoftheallegedfactthatBerserkerswereinthehabitofhauntingthewoodsbynight，clothedinthehidesofwolvesorbears。[83]SuchawolfskinwaskeptbytheboyGrenier。Roulet，ontheotherhand，confessedtousingamagicsalveorointment。Afourthmethodofbecomingawerewolfwastoobtainagirdle，usuallymadeofhumanskin。SeveralcasesarerelatedinThorpe\'s“NorthernMythology。“Onehotdayinharvest-timesomereaperslaydowntosleepintheshade；whenoneofthem，whocouldnotsleep，sawthemannexthimarisequietlyandgirdhimwithastrap，whereuponheinstantlyvanished，andawolfjumpedupfromamongthesleepersandranoffacrossthefields。Anotherman，whopossessedsuchagirdle，oncewentawayfromhomewithoutrememberingtolockitup。Hislittlesonclimbeduptothecupboardandgotit，andasheproceededtobuckleitaroundhiswaist，hebecameinstantlytransformedintoastrange-lookingbeast。Justthenhisfathercamein，andseizingthegirdlerestoredthechildtohisnaturalshape。
Theboysaidthatnosoonerhadhebuckleditonthanhewastormentedwitharaginghunger。
[82]“En1541，aPadoue，ditWier，unhommequisecroyaitchangeenloupcouraitlacampagne，attaquantetmettantamortceuxqu\'ilrencontrait。Apresbiendesdifficultes，onparvints\'emparerdelui。Ilditenconfidenceaceuxquil\'arreterent:Jesuisvraimentunloup，etsimapeauneparaitpasetrecelled\'unloup，c\'estparcequ\'elleestretourneeetquelespoilssontendedans——Pours\'assurerdufait，oncoupalemalheureuxauxdifferentespartiesducorps，onluiemportalesbrasetlesjambes。“——Taine，Del\'Intelligence，Tom。II。p。203。SeetheaccountofSlavonicwerewolvesinRalston，SongsoftheRussianPeople，pp。
404-418。
[83]Mr。Cox，whosescepticismonobscurepointsinhistoryrathersurpassesthatofSirG。C。Lewis，dismisseswithasneerthesubjectoftheBerserkermadness，observingthat“theunanimoustestimonyoftheNorsehistoriansisworthasmuchandaslittleastheconvictionsofGlanvilandHaleontherealityofwitchcraft。“Ihavenotthespecialknowledgerequisiteforpronouncinganopiniononthispoint，butMr。
Cox\'sordinarymethodsofdisposingofsuchquestionsarenotsuchastomakeonefeelobligedtoaccepthisbareassertion，unaccompaniedbycriticalarguments。Themadnessofthebearsarksmay，nodoubt，bethesamethingusthefrenzyofHerakles；butsomethingmorethanmeredogmatismisneededtoproveit。
Sometimesthewerewolftransformationledtounluckyaccidents。AtCaseburg，asamanandhiswifeweremakinghay，thewomanthrewdownherpitchforkandwentaway，tellingherhusbandthatifawildbeastshouldcometohimduringherabsencehemustthrowhishatatit。Presentlyashe-wolfrushedtowardshim。Themanthrewhishatatit，butaboycameupfromanotherpartofthefieldandstabbedtheanimalwithhispitchfork，whereuponitvanished，andthewoman\'sdeadbodylayathisfeet。
Aparallellegendshowsthatthiswomanwishedtohavethehatthrownather，inorderthatshemightbehenceforthfreefromherliabilitytobecomeawerewolf。Amanwasonenightreturningwithhiswifefromamerry-makingwhenhefeltthechangecomingon。Givinghiswifethereins，hejumpedfromthewagon，tellinghertostrikewithherapronatanyanimalwhichmightcometoher。Inafewmomentsawolfranuptothesideofthevehicle，and，asthewomanstruckoutwithherapron，itbitoffapieceandranaway。Presentlythemanreturnedwiththepieceofaproninhismouthandconsoledhisterrifiedwifewiththeinformationthattheenchantmenthadlefthimforever。
AterriblecaseatavillageinAuvergnehasfounditswayintotheannalsofwitchcraft。“Agentlemanwhilehuntingwassuddenlyattackedbyasavagewolfofmonstroussize。
Impenetrablebyhisshot，thebeastmadeaspringuponthehelplesshuntsman，whointhestruggleluckily，orunluckilyfortheunfortunatelady，contrivedtocutoffoneofitsfore-paws。Thistrophyheplacedinhispocket，andmadethebestofhiswayhomewardsinsafety。Ontheroadhemetafriend，towhomheexhibitedableedingpaw，orrather(asitnowappeared)awoman\'shand，uponwhichwasawedding-ring。
Hiswife\'sringwasatoncerecognizedbytheother。Hissuspicionsaroused，heimmediatelywentinsearchofhiswife，whowasfoundsittingbythefireinthekitchen，herarmhiddenbeneathherapron，whenthehusband，seizingherbythearm，foundhisterriblesuspicionsverified。Thebleedingstumpwasthere，evidentlyjustfreshfromthewound。Shewasgivenintocustody，andintheeventwasburnedatRiom，inpresenceofthousandsofspectators。“[84]
[84]Williams，SuperstitionsofWitchcraft，p。179。Seeaparallelcaseofacat-woman，inThorpe\'sNorthernMythology，II。26。“CertainwitchesatThursoforalongtimetormentedanhonestfellowundertheusualformofcats，tillonenightheputthemtoflightwithhisbroadsword，andcutoffthelegofonelessnimblethantherest；takingitup，tohisamazementhefoundittobeawoman\'sleg，andnextmorninghediscoveredtheoldhagitsownerwithbutonelegleft。“——Tylor，PrimitiveCulture，I。283。
Sometimesawerewolfwascuredmerelybyrecognizinghimwhileinhisbruteshape。ASwedishlegendtellsofacottagerwho，onenteringtheforestonedaywithoutrecollectingtosayhisPatterNoster，gotintothepowerofaTroll，whochangedhimintoawolf。Formanyyearshiswifemournedhimasdead。ButoneChristmasevetheoldTroll，disguisedasabeggarwoman，cametothehouseforalms；andbeingtakeninandkindlytreated，toldthewomanthatherhusbandmightverylikelyappeartoherinwolf-shape。Goingatnighttothepantrytolayasideajointofmeatfortomorrow\'sdinner，shesawawolfstandingwithitspawsonthewindow-sill，lookingwistfullyinather。“Ah，dearest，“saidshe，“ifIknewthatthouwertreallymyhusband，Iwouldgivetheeabone。“
Whereuponthewolf-skinfelloff，andherhusbandstoodbeforeherinthesameoldclotheswhichhehadonthedaythattheTrollgotholdofhim。
InDenmarkitwasbelievedthatifawomanweretocreepthroughacolt\'splacentalmembranestretchedbetweenfoursticks，shewouldfortherestofherlifebringforthchildrenwithoutpainorillness；butalltheboyswouldinsuchcasebewerewolves，andallthegirlsMaras，ornightmares。Inthisgrotesquesuperstitionappearsthatcuriouskinshipbetweenthewerewolfandthewifeormaidenofsupernaturalrace，whichservesadmirablytoillustratethenatureofbothconceptions，andtheelucidationofwhichshalloccupyusthroughouttheremainderofthispaper。
Itis，perhaps，needlesstostatethatinthepersonalityofthenightmare，orMara，therewasnothingequine。TheMarawasafemaledemon，[85]whowouldcomeatnightandtormentmenorwomenbycrouchingontheirchestsorstomachsandstoppingtheirrespiration。ThesceneiswellenoughrepresentedinFuseli\'spicture，thoughthefrenzied-lookinghorsewhichthereaccompaniesthedemonhasnoplaceintheoriginalsuperstition。ANetherlandishstoryillustratesthecharacteroftheMara。Twoyoungmenwereinlovewiththesamedamsel。
Oneofthem，beingtormentedeverynightbyaMara，soughtadvicefromhisrival，anditwasatreacherouscounselthathegot。“Holdasharpknifewiththepointtowardsyourbreast，andyou\'llneverseetheMaraagain，“saidthisfalsefriend。Theladthankedhim，butwhenhelaydowntoresthethoughtitaswelltobeonthesafeside，andsoheldtheknifehandledownward。SowhentheMaracame，insteadofforcingthebladeintohisbreast，shecutherselfbadly，andfledhowling；andletushope，thoughthelegendhereleavesusinthedark，thatthispooryouth，whoissaidtohavebeenthecomelierofthetwo，revengedhimselfonhismaliciousrivalbymarryingtheyounglady。
[85]“Themareinnightmaremeansspirit，elf，ornymph；
compareAnglo-Saxonwudurmaere(wood-mare)=echo。“——Tylor，PrimitiveCulture，Vol。II。p。173。
ButtheMarasometimesappearedinlessrevoltingshape，andbecamethemistressoreventhewifeofsomemortalmantowhomshehappenedtotakeafancy。Insuchcasesshewouldvanishonbeingrecognized。Thereisawell-toldmonkishtaleofapiousknightwho，journeyingonedaythroughtheforest，foundabeautifulladystrippednakedandtiedtoatree，herbackallcoveredwithdeepgashesstreamingwithblood，fromafloggingwhichsomebanditshadgivenher。Ofcoursehetookherhometohiscastleandmarriedher，andforawhiletheylivedveryhappilytogether，andthefameofthelady\'sbeautywassogreatthatkingsandemperorsheldtournamentsinhonorofher。ButthispiousknightusedtogotomasseverySunday，andgreatlywashescandalizedwhenhefoundthathiswifewouldneverstaytoassistintheCredo，butwouldalwaysgetupandwalkoutofchurchjustasthechoirstruckup。Allherhusband\'scoaxingwasofnouse；threatsandentreatieswerealikepowerlesseventoelicitanexplanationofthisstrangeconduct。Atlastthegoodmandeterminedtouseforce；andsooneSunday，astheladygotuptogoout，accordingtocustom，heseizedherbythearmandsternlycommandedhertoremain。
Herwholeframewassuddenlyconvulsed，andherdarkeyesgleamedwithweird，unearthlybrilliancy。Theservicespausedforamoment，andalleyeswereturnedtowardtheknightandhislady。“InGod\'sname，tellmewhatthouart，“shoutedtheknight；andinstantly，saysthechronicler，“thebodilyformoftheladymeltedaway，andwasseennomore；whilst，withacryofanguishandofterror，anevilspiritofmonstrousformrosefromtheground，clavethechapelroofasunder，anddisappearedintheair。“
InaDanishlegend，theMarabetraysheraffinitytotheNixies，orSwan-maidens。ApeasantdiscoveredthathissweetheartwasinthehabitofcomingtohimbynightasaMara。Hekeptstrictwatchuntilhediscoveredhercreepingintotheroomthroughasmallknot-holeinthedoor。Nextdayhemadeapeg，andaftershehadcometohim，droveinthepegsothatshewasunabletoescape。Theyweremarriedandlivedtogethermanyyears；butonenightithappenedthattheman，jokingwithhiswifeaboutthewayinwhichhehadsecuredher，drewthepegfromtheknot-hole，thatshemightseehowshehadenteredhisroom。Asshepeepedthrough，shebecamesuddenlyquitesmall，passedout，andwasneverseenagain。
Thewell-knownpathologicalphenomenaofnightmarearesufficienttoaccountforthemediaevaltheoryofafiendwhositsuponone\'sbosomandhindersrespiration；butaswecomparethesevariouslegendsrelatingtotheMara，weseethatamorereconditeexplanationisneededtoaccountforallherpeculiarities。Indigestionmayinterferewithourbreathing，butitdoesnotmakebeautifulwomencrawlthroughkeyholes，nordoesitbringwivesfromthespirit-world。TheMarabelongstoanancientfamily，andinpassingfromtheregionsofmonkishsuperstitiontothoseofpuremythologywefindthat，likeherkinsmanthewerewolf，shehadonceseenbetterdays。ChristianitymadeademonoftheMara，andadoptedthetheorythatSatanemployedtheseseductivecreaturesasagentsforruininghumansouls。Suchisthecharacteroftheknight\'swife，inthemonkishlegendjustcited。ButintheDanishtaletheMaraappearsasoneofthatlargefamilyofsupernaturalwiveswhoarepermittedtolivewithmortalmenundercertainconditions，butwhoarecompelledtofleeawaywhentheseconditionsarebroken，asisalwayssuretobethecase。TheeldestandoneoftheloveliestofthisfamilyistheHindunymphUrvasi，whoseloveadventureswithPururavasarenarratedinthePuranas，andformthesubjectofthewell-knownandexquisiteSanskritdramabyKalidasa。UrvasiisallowedtolivewithPururavassolongasshedoesnotseehimundressed。Butonenightherkinsmen，theGandharvas，orcloud-demons，vexedatherlongabsencefromheaven，resolvedtogetherawayfromhermortalcompanion，Theystoleapetlambwhichhadbeentiedatthefootofhercouch，whereatshebitterlyupbraidedherhusband。
Inrageandmortification，Pururavassprangupwithoutthrowingonhistunic，andgraspinghisswordsoughttherobber。ThenthewickedGandharvassentaflashoflightning，andUrvasi，seeinghernakedhusband，instantlyvanished。
Thedifferentversionsofthislegend，whichhavebeenelaboratelyanalyzedbycomparativemythologists，leavenodoubtthatUrvasiisoneofthedawn-nymphsorbrightfleecycloudsofearlymorning，whichvanishasthesplendourofthesunisunveiled。Wesaw，intheprecedingpaper，thattheancientAryansregardedtheskyasaseaorgreatlake，andthatthecloudswereexplainedvariouslyasPhaiakianshipswithbird-likebeakssailingoverthislake，orasbrightbirdsofdiversshapesandhues。Thelightfleecycirrhiwereregardedasmermaids，orasswans，orasmaidenswithswan\'splumage。InSanskrittheyarecalledApsaras，or“thosewhomoveinthewater，“andtheElvesandMarasofTeutonicmythologyhavethesamesignificance。Urvasiappearsinonelegendasabird；andaSouthGermanprescriptionforgettingridoftheMaraassertsthatifshebewrappedupinthebedclothesandfirmlyheld，awhitedovewillforthwithflyfromtheroom，leavingthebedclothesempty。[86]
[86]SeeKuhn，HerabkunftdesFeuers，p。91；Weber，IndischeStudien。I。197；Wolf，BeitragezurdeutschenMythologie，II。
233-281Muller，Chips，II。114-128。
InthestoryofMelusinathecloud-maidenappearsasakindofmermaid，butinotherrespectsthelegendresemblesthatofUrvasi。Raymond，CountdelaForet，ofPoitou，havingbyanaccidentkilledhispatronandbenefactorduringahuntingexcursion，fledinterroranddespairintothedeeprecessesoftheforest。Alltheafternoonandeveninghewanderedthroughthethickdarkwoods，untilatmidnighthecameuponastrangescene。Allatonce“theboughsofthetreesbecamelessinterlaced，andthetrunksfewer；nextmomenthishorse，crashingthroughtheshrubs，broughthimoutonapleasantglade，whitewithrime，andilluminedbythenewmoon；inthemidstbubbledupalimpidfountain，andflowedawayoverapebbly-floorwithasoothingmurmur。Nearthefountain-headsatthreemaidensinglimmeringwhitedresses，withlongwavinggoldenhair，andfacesofinexpressiblebeauty。“[87]
OneofthemadvancedtomeetRaymond，andaccordingtoallmythologicalprecedent，theywerebetrothedbeforedaybreak。
Induetimethefountain-nymph[88]becameCountessdelaForet，butherhusbandwasgiventounderstandthatallherSaturdayswouldbepassedinstrictestseclusion，uponwhichhemustneverdaretointrude，underpenaltyoflosingherforever。Formanyyearsallwentwell，savethatthefairMelusina\'schildrenwere，withoutexception，misshapenordisfigured。Butafterawhilethisstrangeweeklyseclusiongotbruitedaboutallovertheneighbourhood，andpeopleshooktheirheadsandlookedgraveaboutit。SomanygossipingtalescametotheCount\'sears，thathebegantogrowanxiousandsuspicious，andatlasthedeterminedtoknowtheworst。HewentoneSaturdaytoMelusina\'sprivateapartments，andgoingthroughoneemptyroomafteranother，atlastcametoalockeddoorwhichopenedintoabath；lookingthroughakeyhole，therehesawtheCountesstransformedfromthewaistdownwardsintoafish，disportingherselflikeamermaidinthewater。
Ofcoursehecouldnotkeepthesecret，butwhensometimeafterwardstheyquarrelled，mustneedsaddressheras“avileserpent，contaminatorofhishonourablerace。“Soshedisappearedthroughthewindow，buteverafterwardhoveredaboutherhusband\'scastleofLusignan，likeaBanshee，wheneveroneofitslordswasabouttodie。
[87]Baring-Gould，CuriousMyths，II。207。
[88]Thewordnymphitselfmeans“cloud-maiden，“asisillustratedbythekinshipbetweentheGreeknumphandtheLatinnubes。
Thewell-knownstoryofUndineissimilartothatofMelusina，savethatthenaiad\'sdesiretoobtainahumansoulisaconceptionforeigntothespiritofthemyth，andmarksthedegradationwhichChristianityhadinflicteduponthedenizensoffairy-land。InoneofDasent\'stalesthewater-maidenisreplacedbyakindofwerewolf。Awhitebearmarriesayounggirl，butassumesthehumanshapeatnight。Sheisnevertolookuponhiminhishumanshape，buthowcouldayoungbridebeexpectedtoobeysuchaninjunctionasthat？Shelightsacandlewhileheissleeping，anddiscoversthehandsomestprinceintheworld；unluckilyshedropstallowonhisshirt，andthattellsthestory。ButsheismorefortunatethanpoorRaymond，forafteratiresomejourneytothe“landeastofthesunandwestofthemoon，“andanarduouswashing-matchwithaparcelofuglyTrolls，shewashesoutthespots，andendsherhusband\'senchantment。[89]
[89]ThisissubstantiallyidenticalwiththestoriesofBeautyandtheBeast，ErosandPsyche，GandharbaSena，etc。
Inthemajorityoftheselegends，however，theApsaras，orcloud-maiden，hasashirtofswan\'sfeatherswhichplaysthesamepartasthewolfskincapeorgirdleofthewerewolf。Ifyoucouldgetholdofawerewolf\'ssackandburnit，apermanentcurewaseffected。Nodangerofarelapse，unlesstheDevilfurnishedhimwithanewwolfskin。Sotheswan-maidenkeptherhumanform，aslongasshewasdeprivedofhertunicoffeathers。Indo-Europeanfolk-loreteemswithstoriesofswan-maidensforciblywooedandwonbymortalswhohadstolentheirclothes。Amantravellingalongtheroadpassesbyalakewhereseverallovelygirlsarebathing；theirdresses，madeoffeatherscuriouslyanddaintilywoven，lieontheshore。Heapproachestheplacecautiouslyandstealsoneofthesedresses。[90]Whenthegirlshavefinishedtheirbathing，theyallcomeandgettheirdressesandswimawayasswans；buttheonewhosedressisstolenmustneedsstayonshoreandmarrythethief。Itisneedlesstoaddthattheylivehappilytogetherformanyyears，orthatfinallythegoodmanaccidentallyleavesthecupboarddoorunlocked，whereuponhiswifegetsbackherswan-shirtandfliesawayfromhim，nevertoreturn。Butitisnotalwaysashirtoffeathers。InoneGermanstory，anoblemanhuntingdeerfindsamaidenbathinginaclearpoolintheforest。Herunsstealthilyuptoherandseizeshernecklace，atwhichshelosesthepowertoflee。Theyaremarried，andshebearssevensonsatonce，allofwhomhavegoldchainsabouttheirnecks，andareabletotransformthemselvesintoswanswhenevertheylike。A
FlemishlegendtellsofthreeNixies，orwater-sprites，whocameoutoftheMeuseoneautumnevening，andhelpedthevillagerscelebratetheendofthevintage。SuchgracefuldancershadneverbeenseeninFlanders，andtheycouldsingaswellastheycoulddance。Asthenightwaswarm，oneofthemtookoffherglovesandgavethemtoherpartnertoholdforher。Whentheclockstrucktwelvetheothertwostartedoffinhothaste，andthentherewasahueandcryforgloves。
Theladwouldkeepthemaslove-tokens，andsothepoorNixiehadtogohomewithoutthem；butshemusthavediedontheway，fornextmorningthewatersoftheMeusewereblood-red，andthosedamselsneverreturned。
[90]Thefeather-dressreappearsintheArabianstoryofHasssnofEl-Basrah，whobystealingitsecurespossessionoftheJinniya。SeeLane\'sArabianNights，Vol。III。p。380。
Ralston，SongsoftheRussianPeople，p。179。
IntheFaroIslandsitisbelievedthatsealscastofftheirskinseveryninthnight，assumehumanforms，andsinganddancelikemenandwomenuntildaybreak，whentheyresumetheirskinsandtheirsealnatures。Ofcourseamanoncefoundandhidoneofthesesealskins，andsogotamermaidforawife；andofcoursesherecoveredtheskinandescaped。[91]OnthecoastsofIrelanditissupposedtobequiteanordinarythingforyoungsea-fairiestogethumanhusbandsinthisway；
thebrazenthingsevencometoshoreonpurpose，andleavetheirredcapslyingaroundforyoungmentopickup；butitbehoovesthehusbandtokeepastrictwatchovertheredcap，ifhewouldnotseehischildrenleftmotherless。
[91]Thorpe，NorthernMythology，III。173；Kennedy，FictionsoftheIrishCelts，p。123。
Thismermaid\'scaphascontributeditsquotatothesuperstitionsofwitchcraft。AnIrishstorytellshowRedJameswasarousedfromsleeponenightbynoisesinthekitchen。Goingdowntothedoor，hesawalotofoldwomendrinkingpuncharoundthefireplace，andlaughingandjokingwithhishousekeeper。Whenthepunchbowlwasempty，theyallputonredcaps，andsinging“Byyarrowandrue，Andmyredcaptoo，HiemeovertoEngland，“
theyflewupchimney。SoJimmyburstintotheroom，andseizedthehousekeeper\'scap，andwentalongwiththem。TheyflewacrosstheseatoacastleinEngland，passedthroughthekeyholesfromroomtoroomandintothecellar，wheretheyhadafamouscarouse。UnluckilyJimmy，beingunusedtosuchgoodcheer，gotdrunk，andforgottoputonhiscapwhentheothersdid。Sonextmorningthelord\'sbutlerfoundhimdead-drunkonthecellarfloor，surroundedbyemptycasks。Hewassentencedtobehungwithoutanytrialworthspeakingof；butashewascartedtothegallowsanoldwomancriedout，“Ach，Jimmyalanna！Wouldyoubeaftherdyin\'inastrangelandwithoutyourredbirredh？“Thelordmadenoobjections，andsotheredcapwasbroughtandputonhim。AccordinglywhenJimmyhadgottothegallowsandwasmakinghislastspeechfortheedificationofthespectators，heunexpectedlyandsomewhatirrelevantlyexclaimed，“Byyarrowandrue，“etc。，andwasofflikearocket，shootingthroughtheblueairenrouteforoldIreland。[92]
[92]Kennedy，FictionsoftheIrishCelts，p。168。
InanotherIrishlegendanenchantedasscomesintothekitchenofagreathouseeverynight，andwashesthedishesandscoursthetins，sothattheservantsleadaneasylifeofit。Afterawhileintheirexuberantgratitudetheyofferhimanypresentforwhichhemayfeelinclinedtoask。Hedesiresonly“anouldcoat，tokeepthechilloffofhimthesecouldnights“；butassoonashegetsintothecoatheresumeshishumanformandbidsthemgoodby，andthenceforththeymaywashtheirowndishesandscourtheirowntins，forallhim。
Butwearedivergingfromthesubjectofswan-maidens，andareindangeroflosingourselvesinthatlabyrinthofpopularfancieswhichismoreintricatethananythatDaidaloseverplanned。Thesignificanceofallthesesealskinsandfeather-dressesandmermaidcapsandwerewolf-girdlesmaybestbesoughtintheetymologyofwordsliketheGermanleichnam，inwhichthebodyisdescribedasagarmentoffleshforthesoul。[93]Inthenaivephilosophyofprimitivethinkers，thesoul，inpassingfromonevisibleshapetoanother，hadonlytoputontheoutwardintegumentofthecreatureinwhichitwishedtoincarnateitself。Withrespecttothemodeofmetamorphosis，thereislittledifferencebetweenthewerewolfandtheswan-maiden；andthesimilarityisnolessstrikingbetweenthegenesisofthetwoconceptions。Theoriginalwerewolfisthenight-wind，regardednowasamanlikedeityandnowasahowlinglupinefiend；andtheoriginalswan-maidenisthelightfleecycloud，regardedeitherasawoman-likegoddessorasabirdswimmingintheskysea。Theoneconceptionhasbeenproductiveoflittleelsebuthorrors；
theotherhasgivenrisetoagreatvarietyoffancifulcreations，fromthetreacherousmermaidandthefiendishnightmaretothegentleUndine，thecharmingNausikaa，andthestatelyMuseofclassicantiquity。
[93]Baring-Gould，BookofWerewolves，p。133。
Wehaveseenthattheoriginalwerewolf，howlinginthewintryblast，isakindofpsychopomp，orleaderofdepartedsouls；
heisthewildancestorofthedeath-dog，whosevoiceunderthewindowofasick-chamberisevennowasoundofill-omen。
Theswan-maidenhasalsobeensupposedtosummonthedyingtoherhomeinthePhaiakianland。TheValkyries，withtheirshirtsofswan-plumage，whohoveredoverScandinavianbattle-fieldstoreceivethesoulsoffallingheroes，wereidenticalwiththeHinduApsaras；andtheHourisoftheMussulmanbelongtothesamefamily。Evenfortheangels，——womenwithlargewings，whoareseeninpopularpicturesbearingmortalsonhightowardsheaven，——wecanhardlyclaimadifferentkinship。Melusina，whensheleavesthecastleofLusignan，becomesaBanshee；andithasbeenacommonsuperstitionamongsailors，thattheappearanceofamermaid，withhercombandlooking-glass，foretokensshipwreck，withthelossofallonboard。
October，1870。
IV。LIGHTANDDARKNESS。
WHENMaitlandblasphemouslyassertedthatGodwasbut“aBogieofthenursery，“heunwittinglymadearemarkassuggestiveinpointofphilologyasitwascrudeandrepulsiveinitsatheism。Whenexaminedwiththelensesoflinguisticscience，the“Bogie“or“Bug-a-boo“or“Bugbear“ofnurseryloreturnsouttobeidentical，notonlywiththefairy“Puck，“whomShakespearehasimmortalized，butalsowiththeSlavonic“Bog“
andthe“Baga“oftheCuneiformInscriptions，bothofwhicharenamesfortheSupremeBeing。Ifweproceedfurther，andinquireaftertheancestralformoftheseepithets，——sostrangelyincongruousintheirsignifications，——weshallfinditintheOldAryan“Bhaga，“whichreappearsunchangedintheSanskritoftheVedas，andhasleftamementoofitselfinthesurnameofthePhrygianZeus“Bagaios。“Itseemsoriginallytohavedenotedeithertheuncloudedsunortheskyofnoondayilluminedbythesolarrays。InSayana\'scommentaryontheRig-Veda，Bhagaisenumeratedamongtheseven(oreight)sonsofAditi，theboundlessOrient；andheiselsewheredescribedasthelordoflife，thegiverofbread，andthebringerofhappiness。[94]
[94]Muir\'sSanskritTexts，Vol。IV。p。12；Muller，Rig-VedaSanhita，Vol。I。pp。230-251；Fick，WoerterbuchderIndogermanischenGrundsprache，p。124，sv。Bhaga。
Thusthesamenamewhich，totheVedicpoet，tothePersianofthetimeofXerxes，andtothemodernRussian，suggeststhesuprememajestyofdeity，isinEnglishassociatedwithanuglyandludicrousfiend，closelyakintothatgrotesqueNorthernDevilofwhomSoutheywasunabletothinkwithoutlaughing。Suchistheironyoffatetowardadeposeddeity。
TheGermannameforidol——Abgott，thatis，“ex-god，“or“dethronedgod“——sumsupinasingleetymologythehistoryofthehavocwroughtbymonotheismamongtheancientsymbolsofdeity。InthehospitablePantheonoftheGreeksandRomansanichewasalwaysinreadinessforeverynewdivinitywhocouldproducerespectablecredentials；butthetriumphofmonotheismconvertedthestatelymansionintoaPandemoniumpeopledwithfiends。Tothemonotheistan“ex-god“wassimplyadevilishdeceiverofmankindwhomthetrueGodhadsucceededinvanquishing；andthustheworddemon，whichtotheancientmeantadivineorsemi-divinebeing，cametobeappliedtofiendsexclusively。ThustheTeutonicraces，whopreservedthenameoftheirhighestdivinity，Odin，——originally，Guodan，——bywhichtodesignatetheGodoftheChristian，[95]wereunabletoregardtheBogofancienttraditionasanythingbutan“ex-god，“orvanquisheddemon。
[95]IntheNorthAmericanReview，October，1869，p。354，I
havecollectedanumberoffactswhichseemtometoprovebeyondquestionthatthenameGodisderivedfromGuodan，theoriginalformofOdin，thesupremedeityofourPaganforefathers。ThecaseisexactlyparalleltothatoftheFrenchDieu，whichisdescendedfromtheDeusofthepaganRoman。
Themoststrikingillustrationofthisprocessistobefoundintheworddevilitself:Toareaderunfamiliarwiththeendlesstrickswhichlanguagedelightsinplaying，itmayseemshockingtobetoldthattheGypsiesusetheworddevilasthenameofGod。[96]This，however，isnotbecausethesepeoplehavemadethearchfiendanobjectofworship，butbecausetheGypsylanguage，descendingdirectlyfromtheSanskrit，hasretainedinitsprimitiveexaltedsenseawordwhichtheEnglishlanguagehasreceivedonlyinitsdebasedandpervertedsense。TheTeutonicwordsdevil，teufel，diuval，djofull，djevful，mayallbetracedbacktotheZenddev，[97]
anameinwhichisimplicitlycontainedtherecordoftheoldestmonotheisticrevolutionknowntohistory。Theinfluenceoftheso-calledZoroastrianreformuponthelong-subsequentdevelopmentofChristianitywillreceivefurthernoticeinthecourseofthispaper；forthepresentitisenoughtoknowthatitfurnishedforallChristendomthenamebywhichitdesignatestheauthorofevil。TotheParseefollowerofZarathustrathenameoftheDevilhasverynearlythesamesignificationastotheChristian；yet，asGrimmhasshown，itisnothingelsethanacorruptionofdeva，theSanskritnameforGod。WhenZarathustraoverthrewtheprimevalAryannature-worshipinBactria，thisnamemetthesameevilfatewhichinearlyChristiantimesovertooktheworddemon，andfromasymbolofreverencebecamehenceforthasymbolofdetestation。[98]ButthroughouttherestoftheAryanworlditachievedanoblercareer，producingtheGreektheos，theLithuaniandiewas，theLatindeus，andhencethemodernFrenchDieu，allmeaningGod。
[96]SeePott，DieZigeuner，II。311；Kuhn，Beitrage，I。147。
YetintheworshipofdewelbytheGypsiesistobefoundtheelementofdiabolisminvariablypresentinbarbaricworship。
“Dewel，thegreatgodinheaven(dewa，deus)，isratherfearedthanlovedbytheseweather-beatenoutcasts，forheharmsthemontheirwanderingswithhisthunderandlightning，hissnowandrain，andhisstarsinterferewiththeirdarkdoings。
Thereforetheycursehimfoullywhenmisfortunefallsonthem；
andwhenachilddies，theysaythatDewelhaseatenit。“
Tylor，PrimitiveCulture，Vol。II。p。248。
[97]SeeGrimm，DeutscheMythologie，939。
[98]TheBuddhisticaswellastheZarathustrianreformationdegradedtheVedicgodsintodemons。“InBuddhismwefindtheseancientdevas，Indraandtherest，carriedaboutatshows，asservantsofBuddha，asgoblins，orfabulousheroes。“
MaxMuller，Chips，I。25。ThisisliketheChristianchangeofOdinintoanogre，andofThorintotheDevil。
Ifwetracebackthisremarkablewordtoitsprimitivesourceinthatoncelostbutnowpartiallyrecoveredmother-tonguefromwhichallourAryanlanguagesaredescended，wefindarootdivordyu，meaning“toshine。“Fromthefirst-mentionedformcomesdeva，withitsnumerousprogenyofgoodandevilappellatives；fromthelatterisderivedthenameofDyaus，withitsbrethren，ZeusandJupiter。InSanskritdyu，asanoun，means“sky“and“day“；andtherearemanypassagesintheRig-VedawherethecharacterofthegodDyaus，asthepersonificationoftheskyorthebrightnessoftheetherealheavens，isunmistakablyapparent。ThiskeyunlocksforusoneofthesecretsofGreekmythology。SolongastherewasforZeusnobetteretymologythanthatwhichassignedittotherootzen，“tolive，“[99]therewaslittlehopeofunderstandingthenatureofZeus。ButwhenwelearnthatZeusisidenticalwithDyaus，thebrightsky，weareenabledtounderstandHorace\'sexpression，“subJovefrigido，“andtheprayeroftheAthenians，“Rain，rain，dearZeus，onthelandoftheAthenians，andonthefields。“[100]SuchexpressionsasthesewereretainedbytheGreeksandRomanslongaftertheyhadforgottenthattheirsupremedeitywasoncethesky。YeteventheBrahman，fromwhosemindthephysicalsignificanceofthegod\'snameneverwhollydisappeared，couldspeakofhimasFatherDyaus，thegreatPitri，orancestorofgodsandmen；
andinthisreverentialnameDyauspitarmaybeseentheexactequivalentoftheRoman\'sJupiter，orJovetheFather。ThesamerootcanbefollowedintoOldGerman，whereZioisthegodofday；andintoAnglo-Saxon，whereTiwsdaeg，orthedayofZeus，istheancestralformofTuesday。
[99]Zeus——Dia——Zhna——dion……PlatoKratylos，p。
396，A。，withStallbaum\'snote。SeealsoProklos，Comm。adTimaeum，II。p。226，Schneider；andcomparePseudo-Aristotle，DeMundo，p。401，a，15，whoadoptstheetymology。SeealsoDiogenesLaertius，VII。147。
[100]MarcusAurelius，v。7；Hom。Iliad，xii。25，cf。
PetroniusArbiter，Sat。xliv。
ThusweagainreachthesameresultswhichwereobtainedfromtheexaminationofthenameBhaga。ThesevariousnamesforthesupremeAryangod，whichwithoutthehelpaffordedbytheVedascouldneverhavebeeninterpreted，areseentohavebeenoriginallyappliedtothesun-illuminedfirmament。Countlessotherexamples，whensimilarlyanalyzed，showthattheearliestAryanconceptionofaDivinePower，nourishingmanandsustainingtheuniverse，wassuggestedbythelightofthemightySun；who，asmodernsciencehasshown，istheoriginatorofalllifeandmotionupontheglobe，andwhomtheancientsdelightedtobelievethesource，notonlyof“thegoldenlight，“[101]butofeverythingthatisbright，joy-giving，andpure。Nevertheless，inacceptingthisconclusionaswellestablishedbylinguisticscience，wemustbeonourguardagainstanerrorintowhichwritersonmythologyareveryliabletofall。Neitherskynorsunnorlightofday，neitherZeusnorApollo，neitherDyausnorIndra，waseverworshippedbytheancientAryaninanythinglikeamonotheisticsense。TointerpretZeusorJupiterasoriginallythesupremeAryangod，andtoregardclassicpaganismasoneofthedegradedremnantsofaprimevalmonotheism，istosinagainstthecanonsofasoundinductivephilosophy。Philologyitselfteachesusthatthiscouldnothavebeenso。FatherDyauswasoriginallythebrightskyandnothingmore。Althoughhisnamebecamegeneralized，intheclassiclanguages，intodeus，orGod，itisquitecertainthatinearlydays，beforetheAryanseparation，ithadacquirednosuchexaltedsignificance。ItwasonlyinGreeceandRome——or，wemaysay，amongthestillunitedItalo-Hellenictribes——thatJupiter-Zeusattainedapre-eminenceoverallotherdeities。
ThepeopleofIranquiterejectedhim，theTeutonspreferredThorandOdin，andinIndiahewassuperseded，firstbyIndra，afterwardsbyBrahmaandVishnu。Weneednot，therefore，lookforasinglesupremedivinityamongtheoldAryans；normayweexpecttofindanysense，activeordormant，ofmonotheismintheprimitiveintelligenceofuncivilizedmen。[102]Thewholefabricofcomparativemythology，asatpresentconstituted，andasdescribedabove，inthefirstofthesepapers，restsuponthepostulatethattheearliestreligionwaspurefetichism。
[101]“IlSol，dellaurealuceeternoforte。“Tasso，Gerusalemme，XV。47；ef。Dante，Paradiso，X。28。
[102]TheAryanswere，however，doubtlessbetteroffthanthetribesofNorthAmerica。“InnoIndianlanguagecouldtheearlymissionariesfindawordtoexpresstheideaofGod。
ManitouandOkimeantanythingendowedwithsupernaturalpowers，fromasnake-skinoragreasyIndianconjureruptoManabozhoandJouskeha。Thepriestswereforcedtouseacircumlocution，——`thegreatchiefofmen，\'or\'hewholivesinthesky。\'“Parkman，JesuitsinNorthAmerica，p。lxxix。“TheAlgonquinsusednooaths，fortheirlanguagesuppliednone；
doubtlessbecausetheirmythologyhadnobeingssufficientlydistincttoswearby。“Ibid，p。31。
Intheunsystematicnature-worshipoftheoldAryansthegodsarepresentedtousonlyasvaguepowers，withtheirnatureandattributesdimlydefined，andtheirrelationstoeachotherfluctuatingandoftencontradictory。Thereisnotheogony，noregularsubordinationofonedeitytoanother。
Thesamepairofdivinitiesappearnowasfatheranddaughter，nowasbrotherandsister，nowashusbandandwife；andagaintheyquitelosetheirpersonality，andarerepresentedasmerenaturalphenomena。AsMullerobserves，“ThepoetsoftheVedaindulgedfreelyintheogonicspeculationswithoutbeingfrightenedbyanycontradictions。TheyknewofIndraasthegreatestofgods，theyknewofAgniasthegodofgods，theyknewofVarunaastherulerofall；buttheywerebynomeansstartledattheideathattheirIndrahadamother，orthattheirAgni[Latinignis]wasbornlikeababefromthefrictionoftwofire-sticks，orthatVarunaandhisbrotherMitrawerenursedinthelapofAditi。“[103]ThuswehaveseenBhaga，thedaylight，representedastheoffspring，ofAditi，theboundlessOrient；buthehadseveralbrothers，andamongthemwereMitra，thesun，Varuna，theoverarchingfirmament，andVivasvat，thevivifyingsun。Manifestlywehaveherebutsomanydifferentnamesforwhatisatbottomoneandthesameconception。Thecommonelementwhich，inDyausandVaruna，inBhagaandIndra，wasmadeanobjectofworship，isthebrightness，warmth，andlifeofday，ascontrastedwiththedarkness，cold，andseemingdeathofthenight-time。Andthiscommonelementwaspersonifiedinasmanydifferentwaysastheunrestrainedfancyoftheancientworshippersawfittodevise。[104]
[103]Muller，Rig-Veda-Sanhita，I。230。
[104]ComparetheremarksofBreal，HerculeetCacus，p。13。
Thuswebegintoseewhyafewsimpleobjects，likethesun，thesky，thedawn，andthenight，shouldberepresentedinmythologybysuchahostofgods，goddesses，andheroes。ForatonetimetheSunisrepresentedastheconquerorofhydrasanddragonswhohideawayfrommenthegoldentreasuresoflightandwarmth，andatanothertimeheisrepresentedasawearyvoyagertraversingthesky-seaamidmanyperils，withthesteadfastpurposeofreturningtohiswesternhomeandhistwilightbride；hencethedifferentconceptionsofHerakles，Bellerophon，andOdysseus。NowheisrepresentedasthesonoftheDawn，andagain，withequalpropriety，asthesonoftheNight，andthefickleloveroftheDawn；hencewehave，ontheonehand，storiesofavirginmotherwhodiesingivingbirthtoahero，and，ontheotherhand，storiesofabeautifulmaidenwhoisforsakenandperhapscruellyslainbyhertreacherouslover。Indeed，theSun\'sadventureswithsomanydawn-maidenshavegivenhimquiteabadcharacter，andthelegendsarenumerousinwhichheappearsastheprototypeofDonJuan。Yetagainhisseparationfromthebrideofhisyouthisdescribedasduetonofaultofhisown，buttoaresistlessdecreeoffate，whichhurrieshimawayasAineiaswascompelledtoabandonDido。Or，accordingtoathirdandequallyplausiblenotion，heisaheroofasceticvirtues，andthedawn-maidenisawickedenchantress，daughterofthesensualAphrodite，whovainlyendeavourstoseducehim。InthestoryofOdysseusthesevariousconceptionsareblendedtogether。Whenenticedbyartfulwomen，[105]heyieldsforawhiletothetemptation；butbyandbyhislongingtoseePenelopetakeshimhomeward，albeitwitharecordwhichPenelopemightnotaltogetherhaveliked。Again，thoughtheSun，“alwaysroamingwithahungryheart，“hasseenmanycitiesandcustomsofstrangemen，heisneverthelessconfinedtoasinglepath，——acircumstancewhichseemstohaveoccasionedmuchspeculationintheprimevalmind。GarcilasodelaVegarelatesofacertainPeruvianInca，whoseemstohavebeenan“infidel“withreferencetotheorthodoxmythologyofhisday，thathethoughttheSunwasnotsuchamightygodafterall；forifhewere，hewouldwanderabouttheheavensatrandominsteadofgoingforever，likeahorseinatreadmill，alongthesamecourse。TheAmericanIndiansexplainedthiscircumstancebymythswhichtoldhowtheSunwasoncecaughtandtiedwithachainwhichwouldonlylethimswingalittlewaytoonesideortheother。TheancientAryandevelopedthenoblermythofthelaboursofHerakles，performedinobediencetothebiddingofEurystheus。Again，theSunmustneedsdestroyitsparents，theNightandtheDawn；andaccordinglyhisparents，forewarnedbyprophecy，exposehimininfancy，ororderhimtobeputtodeath；buthistragicdestinyneverfailstobeaccomplishedtotheletter。AndagaintheSun，whoengagesinquarrelsnothisown，issometimesrepresentedasretiringmoodilyfromthesightofmen，likeAchilleusandMeleagros:heisshort-livedandill-fated，borntodomuchgoodandtoberepaidwithingratitude；hislifedependsonthedurationofaburningbrand，andwhenthatisextinguishedhemustdie。
[105]Itshouldbeborneinmind，however，thatoneofthewomenwhotemptOdysseusisnotadawn-maiden，butagoddessofdarkness；KalypsoanswerstoVenus-UrsulainthemythofTannhauser。Kirke，ontheotherhand，seemstobeadawn-maiden，likeMedeia，whomsheresembles。Inherthewisdomofthedawn-goddessAthene，theloftiestofGreekdivinities，becomesdegradedintotheartofanenchantress。
Shereappears，intheArabianNights，asthewickedQueenLabe，whosesorcerynoneofherloverscanbaffle，saveBeder，kingofPersia。
ThemythofthegreatThebanhero，Oidipous，wellillustratesthemultiplicityofconceptionswhichclusteredaboutthedailycareerofthesolarorb。Hisfather，Laios，hadbeenwarnedbytheDelphicoraclethathewasindangerofdeathfromhisownson。ThenewlybornOidipouswasthereforeexposedonthehillside，but，likeRomulusandRemus，andallinfantssimilarlysituatedinlegend，wasdulyrescued。HewastakentoCorinth，wherehegrewuptomanhood。JourneyingoncetoThebes，hegotintoaquarrelwithanoldmanwhomhemetontheroad，andslewhim，whowasnoneotherthanhisfather，Laios。ReachingThebes，hefoundthecityharassedbytheSphinx，whoafflictedthelandwithdroughtuntilsheshouldreceiveananswertoherriddles。Oidipousdestroyedthemonsterbysolvingherdarksayings，andasarewardreceivedthekingdom，withhisownmother，Iokaste，ashisbride。ThentheErinyeshastenedthediscoveryofthesedarkdeeds；
Iokastediedinherbridalchamber；andOidipous，havingblindedhimself，fledtothegroveoftheEumenides，nearAthens，where，amidflashinglightningandpealsofthunder，hedied。
OidipousistheSun。Likeallthesolarheroes，fromHeraklesandPerseustoSigurdandWilliamTell，heperformshismarvellousdeedsatthebehestofothers。Hisfather，Laios，isnoneotherthantheVedicDasyu，thenight-demonwhoissuretobedestroyedbyhissolaroffspringIntheevening，OidipousisunitedtotheDawn，themotherwhohadbornehimatdaybreak；andheretheoriginalstorydoubtlessended。IntheVedichymnswefindIndra，theSun，bornofDahana(Daphne)，theDawn，whomheafterwards，intheeveningtwilight，marries。TotheIndianmindthestorywasherecomplete；buttheGreekshadforgottenandoutgrowntheprimitivesignificationofthemyth。TothemOidipousandIokastewerehuman，oratleastanthropomorphicbeings；andamarriagebetweenthemwasafearfulcrimewhichcalledforbitterexpiation。ThusthelatterpartofthestoryaroseintheefforttosatisfyamoralfeelingAsthenameofLaiosdenotesthedarknight，so，likeIole，Oinone，andIamos，thewordIokastesignifiesthedelicateviolettintsofthemorningandeveningclouds。Oidipouswasexposed，likeParisuponIda(aVedicwordmeaning“theearth“)，becausethesunlightinthemorningliesuponthehillside。[106]HeisborneontothedestructionofhisfatherandtheincestuousmarriagewithhismotherbyanirresistibleMoira，orFate；
thesuncannotbutslaythedarknessandhastentothecouchoftheviolettwilight。[107]TheSphinxisthestorm-demonwhositsonthecloud-rockandimprisonstherain；sheisthesameasMedusa，Ahi，orEchidna，andChimaira，andisakintothethrottlingsnakesofdarknesswhichthejealousHeresenttodestroyHeraklesinhiscradle。TheideawasnotderivedfromEgypt，buttheGreeks，onfindingEgyptianfiguresresemblingtheirconceptionoftheSphinx，calledthembythesamename。
TheomniscientSuncomprehendsthesenseofherdarkmutterings，anddestroysher，asIndraslaysVritra，bringingdownrainupontheparchedearth。TheErinyes，whobringtolightthecrimesofOidipous，havebeenexplained，inapreviouspaper，asthepersonificationofdaylight，whichrevealstheevildeedsdoneunderthecoverofnight。ThegroveoftheErinyes，likethegardenoftheHyperboreans，represents“thefairynetworkofclouds，whicharethefirsttoreceiveandthelasttolosethelightofthesuninthemorningandintheevening；hence，althoughOidipousdiesinathunder-storm，yettheEumenidesarekindtohim，andhislasthourisoneofdeeppeaceandtranquillity。“[108]TothelastremainswithhimhisdaughterAntigone，“shewhoisbornopposite，“thepalelightwhichspringsupoppositetothesettingsun。
[106]ThePersianCyrusisanhistoricalpersonage；butthestoryofhisperilsininfancybelongstosolarmythologyasmuchasthestoriesofthemagicsleepofCharlemagneandBarbarossa。Hisgrandfather，Astyages，ispurelyamythicalcreation，hisnamebeingidenticalwiththatofthenight-demon，Azidahaka，whoappearsintheShah-NamehasthebitingserpentZohak。SeeCox，MythologyoftheAryanNations，II。358。
[107]InmediaevallegendthisresistlessMoiraistransformedintothecursewhichpreventstheWanderingJewfromrestinguntilthedayofjudgment。
[108]Cox，ManualofMythology，p。134。
Theseexamplesshowthatastory-rootmaybeasprolificofheterogeneousoffspringasaword-root。Justaswefindtherootspak，“tolook，“begettingwordssovariousassceptic，bishop，speculate，conspicsuous，species，andspice，wemustexpecttofindasimplerepresentationofthediurnalcourseofthesun，likethoselyricallygivenintheVeda，branchingoffintostoriesasdiversifiedasthoseofOidipous，Herakles，Odysseus，andSiegfried。Infact，thetypesuponwhichstoriesareconstructedarewonderfullyfew。Somecleverplaywright——IbelieveitwasScribe——hassaidthatthereareonlysevenpossibledramaticsituations；thatis，alltheplaysintheworldmaybeclassedwithsomeoneofsevenarchetypaldramas。[109]Ifthisbetrue，theastonishingcomplexityofmythologytakenintheconcrete，ascomparedwithitsextremesimplicitywhenanalyzed，neednotsurpriseus。
