Butlittlereflectionisneededtoassureusthattheimaginationofthebarbarian，whoeithercarriesawayhiswifebybruteforceorbuysherfromherrelativesashewouldbuyacow，couldneverhaveoriginatedlegendsinwhichmaidensarelovinglysolicited，orinwhichtheirfavouriswonbytheperformanceofdeedsofvalour。ThesestoriesowetheirexistencetotheromanticturnofmindwhichhasalwayscharacterizedtheAryan，whosecivilization，eveninthetimesbeforethedispersionofhisrace，wassufficientlyadvancedtoallowofhisentertainingsuchcomparativelyexaltedconceptionsoftherelationsbetweenmenandwomen。Theabsenceofthesemythsfrombarbaricfolk-loreis，therefore，justwhatmightbeexpected；butitisafactwhichmilitatesagainstanypossiblehypothesisofthecommonoriginofAryanandbarbaricmythology。IftherewereanygeneticrelationshipbetweenSigurdandIoskeha，betweenHeraklesandMichabo，itwouldbehardtotellwhyBrynhildandIoleshouldhavedisappearedentirelyfromonewholegroupoflegends，whileretained，insomeformorother，throughoutthewholeoftheothergroup。Ontheotherhand，theresemblancesabovenoticedbetweenAryanandAmericanmythologyfallveryfarshortoftheresemblancesbetweenthestoriestoldindifferentpartsoftheAryandomain。Nobarbariclegend，ofgenuinebarbaricgrowth，hasyetbeencitedwhichresemblesanyAryanlegendasthestoryofPunchkinresemblesthestoryoftheHeartlessGiant。ThemythsofMichaboandViracochaaredirectcopies，sotospeak，ofnaturalphenomena，justasimitativewordsaredirectcopiesofnaturalsounds。NeithertheRedskinnortheIndo-Europeanhadanychoiceastothemainfeaturesofthecareerofhissolardivinity。HemustbebornoftheNight，——oroftheDawn，——musttravelwestward，mustslayharassingdemons。Eliminatingthesepointsoflikeness，theresemblancebetweentheAryanandbarbariclegendsisatonceatanend。SuchanidentityinpointofdetailsasthatbetweenthewoodenhorsewhichentersIlion，andthehorsewhichbearsSigurdintotheplacewhereBrynhildisimprisoned，andtheDruidicsteedwhichleapswithScullogeoverthewallsofFiach\'senchantedcastle，is，Ibelieve，nowheretobefoundafterweleaveIndo-Europeanterritory。
Ourconclusion，therefore，mustbe，thatwhilethelegendsoftheAryanandthenon-Aryanworldscontaincommonmythicalelements，thelegendsthemselvesarenotofcommonorigin。Thefactthatcertainmythicalideasarepossessedalikebydifferentraces，showsthatineachcaseasimilarhumanintelligencehasbeenatworkexplainingsimilarphenomena；
butinordertoproveafamilyrelationshipbetweenthecultureofthesedifferentraces，weneedsomethingmorethanthis。Weneedtoprovenotonlyacommunityofmythicalideas，butalsoacommunitybetweenthestoriesbasedupontheseideas。WemustshownotonlythatMichaboislikeHeraklesinthosestrikingfeatureswhichthecontemplationofsolarphenomenawouldnecessarilysuggesttotheimaginationoftheprimitivemyth-maker，butalsothatthetwocharactersaresimilarlyconceived，andthatthetwocareersagreeinseeminglyarbitrarypointsofdetail，asisthecaseinthestoriesofPunchkinandtheHeartlessGiant。Themerefactthatsolarheroes，allovertheworld，travelinacertainpathandslayimpsofdarknessisofgreatvalueasthrowinglightuponprimevalhabitsofthought，butitisofnovalueasevidencefororagainstanallegedcommunityofcivilizationbetweendifferentraces。Thesameistrueofthesacrednessuniversallyattachedtocertainnumbers。Dr。
Blinton\'sopinionthatthesanctityofthenumberfourinnearlyallsystemsofmythologyisduetoaprimitiveworshipofthecardinalpoints，becomesveryprobablewhenwerecollectthatthesimilarpre-eminenceofsevenisalmostdemonstrablyconnectedwiththeadorationofthesun，moon，andfivevisibleplanets，whichhasleftitsrecordinthestructureandnomenclatureoftheAryanandSemiticweek。[137]
[137]SeeHumboldt\'sKosmos，Tom。III。pp。469-476。A
fetichisticregardforthecardinalpointshasnotalwaysbeenabsentfromthemindsofpersonsinstructedinahighertheologyaswitnessawell-knownpassageinIrenaeus，andalsothecustom，well-nighuniversalinEurope，ofbuildingChristianchurchesinalineeastandwest。
Inviewoftheseconsiderations，thecomparisonofbarbaricmythswitheachotherandwiththelegendsoftheAryanworldbecomesdoublyinteresting，asillustratingthesimilarityintheworkingsoftheuntrainedintelligencetheworldover。Inourfirstpaperwesawhowthemoon-spotshavebeenvariouslyexplainedbyIndo-Europeans，asamanwithathorn-bushorastwochildrenbearingabucketofwateronapole。InCeylonitissaidthatasSakyamuniwasonedaywanderinghalfstarvedintheforest，apiousharemethim，andoffereditselftohimtobeslainandcookedfordinner；whereupontheholyBuddhasetitonhighinthemoon，thatfuturegenerationsofmenmightseeitandmarvelatitspiety。IntheSamoanIslandsthesedarkpatchesaresupposedtobeportionsofawoman\'sfigure。Acertainwomanwasoncehammeringsomethingwithamallet，whenthemoonarose，lookingsomuchlikeabread-fruitthatthewomanaskedittocomedownandletherchildeatoffapieceofit；butthemoon，enragedattheinsult，gobbledupwoman，mallet，andchild，andthere，inthemoon\'sbelly，youmaystillbeholdthem。AccordingtotheHottentots，theMoononcesenttheHaretoinformmenthatasshediedawayandroseagain，soshouldmendieandagaincometolife。ButthestupidHareforgotthepurportofthemessage，and，comingdowntotheearth，proclaimeditfarandwidethatthoughtheMoonwasinvariablyresuscitatedwhenevershedied，mankind，ontheotherhand，shoulddieandgototheDevil。Whenthesillybrutereturnedtothelunarcountryandtoldwhathehaddone，theMoonwassoangrythatshetookupanaxeandaimedablowathisheadtosplitit。Buttheaxemissedandonlycuthislipopen；andthatwastheoriginofthe“hare-lip。“Maddenedbythepainandtheinsult，theHareflewattheMoonandalmostscratchedhereyesout；andtothisdayshebearsonherfacethemarksoftheHare\'sclaws。[138]
[138]Bleek，HottentotFablesandTales，p。72。ComparetheFijistoryofRaVula，theMoon，andRaKalavo，theRat，inTylor，PrimitiveCulture，I。321。
Again，everyreaderoftheclassicsknowshowSelenecastEndymionintoaprofoundslumberbecauseherefusedherlove，andhowatsundownsheusedtocomeandstandabovehimontheLatmianhill，andwatchhimashelayasleeponthemarblestepsofatemplehalfhiddenamongdroopingelm-trees，overwhichclamberedvinesheavywithdarkbluegrapes。Thisrepresentstherisingmoonlookingdownonthesettingsun；inLabradorasimilarphenomenonhassuggestedasomewhatdifferentstory。AmongtheEsquimauxtheSunisamaidenandtheMoonisherbrother，whoisovercomebyawickedpassionforher。Once，asthisgirlwasatadancing-partyinafriend\'shut，someonecameupandtookholdofherbytheshouldersandshookher，whichis(accordingtothelegend)
theEsquimauxmannerofdeclaringone\'slove。Shecouldnottellwhoitwasinthedark，andsoshedippedherhandinsomesootandsmearedoneofhischeekswithit。Whenalightwasstruckinthehut，shesaw，toherdismay，thatitwasherbrother，and，withoutwaitingtolearnanymore，shetooktoherheels。Hestartedinhotpursuit，andsotheyrantilltheygottotheendoftheworld，——thejumping-offplace，——whentheybothjumpedintothesky。TheretheMoonstillchaseshissister，theSun；andeverynowandthenheturnshissootycheektowardtheearth，whenhebecomessodarkthatyoucannotseehim。[139]
[139]Tylor，EarlyHistoryofMankind，p。327。
Anotherstory，whichIcitefromMr。Tylor，showsthatMalays，aswellasIndo-Europeans，haveconceivedofthecloudsasswan-maidens。IntheislandofCelebesitissaidthat“sevenheavenlynymphscamedownfromtheskytobathe，andtheywereseenbyKasimbaha，whothoughtfirstthattheywerewhitedoves，butinthebathhesawthattheywerewomen。Thenhestoleoneofthethinrobesthatgavethenymphstheirpowerofflying，andsohecaughtUtahagi，theonewhoserobehehadstolen，andtookherforhiswife，andsheborehimason。NowshewascalledUtahagifromasinglewhitehairshehad，whichwasendowedwithmagicpower，andthishairherhusbandpulledout。Assoonashehaddoneit，therearoseagreatstorm，andUtahagiwentuptoheaven。Thechildcriedforitsmother，andKasimbahawasingreatgrief，andcastabouthowheshouldfollowUtahagiupintothesky。“HerewepasstothemythofJackandtheBeanstalk。“Aratgnawedthethornsofftherattans，andKasimbahaclamberedupbythemwithhissonuponhisback，tillhecametoheaven。TherealittlebirdshowedhimthehouseofUtahagi，andaftervariousadventureshetookuphisabodeamongthegods。“[140]
[140]Tylor，op。cit。，p。346。
InSiberiawefindalegendofswan-maidens，whichalsoremindsusofthestoryoftheHeartlessGiant。AcertainSamojedoncewentouttocatchfoxes，andfoundsevenmaidensswimminginalakesurroundedbygloomypine-trees，whiletheirfeatherdresseslayontheshore。Hecreptupandstoleoneofthesedresses，andbyandbytheswan-maidencametohimshiveringwithcoldandpromisingtobecomehiswifeifhewouldonlygiveherbackhergarmentoffeathers。Theungallantfellow，however，didnotcareforawife，butalittlerevengewasnotunsuitedtohiswayofthinking。Thereweresevenrobberswhousedtoprowlabouttheneighbourhood，andwho，whentheygothome，findingtheirheartsintheway，usedtohangthemuponsomepegsinthetent。OneoftheserobbershadkilledtheSamojed\'smother；andsohepromisedtoreturntheswan-maiden\'sdressaftersheshouldhaveprocuredforhimthesesevenhearts。Soshestolethehearts，andtheSamojedsmashedsixofthem，andthenwokeuptheseventhrobber，andtoldhimtorestorehismothertolife，onpainofinstantdeath，Thentherobberproducedapursecontainingtheoldwoman\'ssoul，andgoingtothegraveyardshookitoverherbones，andsherevivedatonce。ThentheSamojedsmashedtheseventhheart，andtherobberdied；andsotheswan-maidengotbackherplumageandflewawayrejoicing。[141]
[141]Baring-Gould，CuriousMyths，II。299-302。
Swan-maidensarealso，accordingtoMr。Baring-Gould，foundamongtheMinussinianTartars。Buttheretheyappearasfouldemons，liketheGreekHarpies，whodelightindrinkingthebloodofmenslaininbattle。Therearefortyofthem，whodarkenthewholefirmamentintheirflight；butsometimestheyallcoalesceintoonegreatblackstorm-fiend，whoragesforblood，likeawerewolf。
InSouthAfricawefindthewerewolfhimself。[142]AcertainHottentotwasoncetravellingwithaBushwomanandherchild，whentheyperceivedatadistanceatroopofwildhorses。Theman，beinghungry，askedthewomantoturnherselfintoalionessandcatchoneofthesehorses，thattheymighteatofit；whereuponthewomansetdownherchild，andtakingoffasortofpetticoatmadeofhumanskinbecameinstantlytransformedintoalioness，whichrushedacrosstheplain，struckdownawildhorseandlappeditsblood。Themanclimbedatreeinterror，andconjuredhiscompaniontoresumehernaturalshape。Thenthelionesscameback，andputtingontheskirtmadeofhumanskinreappearedasawoman，andtookupherchild，andthetwofriendsresumedtheirjourneyaftermakingamealofthehorse\'sflesh。[143]
[142]SpeakingofbeliefsintheMalayArchipelago，Mr。
Wallacesays:“ItisuniversallybelievedinLombockthatsomemenhavethepowertoturnthemselvesintocrocodiles，whichtheydoforthesakeofdevouringtheirenemies，andmanystrangetalesaretoldofsuchtransformations。“Wallace，MalayArchipelago，Vol。I。p。251。
[143]Bleek，HottentotFablesandTales，p。58。
ThewerewolfalsoappearsinNorthAmerica，dulyfurnishedwithhiswolf-skinsack；butneitherinAmericanorinAfricaishethegenuineEuropeanwerewolf，inspiredbyadiabolicfrenzy，andraveningforhumanflesh。Thebarbaricmythstestifytothebeliefthatmencanbechangedintobeastsorhaveinsomecasesdescendedfrombeastancestors，buttheapplicationofthisbelieftotheexplanationofabnormalcannibalcravingsseemstohavebeenconfinedtoEurope。ThewerewolfoftheMiddleAgeswasnotmerelyatransformedman，——hewasaninsanecannibal，whosemonstrousappetite，duetothemachinationsoftheDevil，showeditspoweroverhisphysicalorganismbychangingtheshapeofit。Thebarbaricwerewolfistheproductofalowerandsimplerkindofthinking。Thereisnodiabolismabouthim；forbarbaricraces，whilebelievingintheexistenceofhurtfulandmaliciousfiends，havenotasufficientlyvividsenseofmoralabnormitytoformtheconceptionofdiabolism。Andthecannibalcraving，whichtothemediaevalEuropeanwasaphenomenonsostrangeastodemandamythologicalexplanation，wouldnotimpressthebarbarianaseitherveryexceptionalorveryblameworthy。
Inthefolk-loreoftheZulus，oneofthemostquick-wittedandintelligentofAfricanraces，thecannibalpossessesmanyfeaturesincommonwiththeScandinavianTroll，whoalsohasalikingforhumanflesh。Aswesawintheprecedingpaper，theTrollhasverylikelyderivedsomeofhischaracteristicsfromreminiscencesofthebarbarousraceswhoprecededtheAryansinCentralandNorthernEurope。Inlikemannerthelong-hairedcannibalofZulunurseryliterature，whoisalwaysrepresentedasbelongingtoadistinctrace，hasbeensupposedtobeexplainedbytheexistenceofinferiorracesconqueredanddisplacedbytheZulus。Nevertheless，asDr。Callawayobserves，neitherthelong-hairedmountaincannibalsofWesternAfrica，northeFulahs，northetribesofEghedaldescribedbyBarth，“canbeconsideredasansweringtothedescriptionoflong-hairedasgivenintheZululegendsofcannibals；neithercouldtheypossiblyhaveformedtheirhistoricalbasis……ItisperfectlyclearthatthecannibalsoftheZululegendsarenotcommonmen；theyaremagnifiedintogiantsandmagicians；theyareremarkablyswiftandenduring；fierceandterriblewarriors。“VeryprobablytheymayhaveamythicalorigininmodesofthoughtakintothosewhichbegotthePanisoftheVedaandtheNorthernTrolls。TheparallelismisperhapsthemostremarkableonewhichcanbefoundincomparingbarbaricwithAryanfolk-lore。LikethePanisandTrolls，thecannibalsarerepresentedasthefoesofthesolarheroUthlakanyana，whoisalmostasgreatatravellerasOdysseus，andwhosepresenceofmindamidtryingcircumstancesisnottobesurpassedbythatoftheincomparableBoots。UthlakanyanaisasprecociousasHeraklesorHermes。Hespeaksbeforeheisborn，andnosoonerhasheenteredtheworldthanhebeginstooutwitotherpeopleandgetpossessionoftheirproperty。Heworksbitterruinforthecannibals，who，withalltheirstrengthandfleetness，arenobetterendowedwithquickwitthantheTrolls，whomBootsinvariablyvictimizes。Ononeofhisjourneys，Uthlakanyanafellinwithacannibal。Theirgreetingswerecordialenough，andtheyateabitofleopardtogether，andbegantobuildahouse，andkilledacoupleofcows，butthecannibal\'scowwaslean，whileUthlakanyana\'swasfat。Thenthecraftytraveller，fearingthathiscompanionmightinsistuponhavingthefatcow，turnedandsaid，“\'Letthehousebethatchednowthenwecaneatourmeat。Youseethesky，thatweshallgetwet。\'
Thecannibalsaid，\'Youareright，childofmysister；youareamanindeedinsaying，letusthatchthehouse，forweshallgetwet。\'Uthlakanyanasaid，\'Doyoudoitthen；Iwillgoinside，andpushthethatching-needleforyou，inthehouse。\'
Thecannibalwentup。Hishairwasvery，verylong。
Uthlakanyanawentinsideandpushedtheneedleforhim。Hethatchedinthehairofthecannibal，tyingitverytightly；
heknotteditintothethatchconstantly，takingitbyseparatelocksandfasteningitfirmly，thatitmightbetightlyfastenedtothehouse。“Thentheroguewentoutsideandbegantoeatofthecowwhichwasroasted。“Thecannibalsaid，\'Whatareyouabout，childofmysister？Letusjustfinishthehouse；afterwardswecandothat；wewilldoittogether。\'Uthlakanyanareplied，\'Comedownthen。Icannotgointothehouseanymore。Thethatchingisfinished。\'Thecannibalassented。Whenhethoughthewasgoingtoquitthehouse，hewasunabletoquitit。Hecriedoutsaying，\'Childofmysister，howhaveyoumanagedyourthatching？\'
Uthlakanyanasaid，\'Seetoityourself。Ihavethatchedwell，forIshallnothaveanydispute。NowIamabouttoeatinpeace；Inolongerdisputewithanybody，forIamnowalonewithmycow。\'“SothecannibalcriedandravedandappealedinvaintoUthlakanyana\'ssenseofjustice，untilbyandby“theskycamewithhailstonesandlightningUthlakanyanatookallthemeatintothehouse；hestayedinthehouseandlitafire。Ithailedandrained。Thecannibalcriedonthetopofthehouse；hewasstruckwiththehailstones，anddiedthereonthehouse。Itcleared。Uthlakanyanawentoutandsaid，\'Uncle，justcomedown，andcometome。Ithasbecomeclear。
Itnolongerrains，andthereisnomorehail，neitheristhereanymorelightning。Whyareyousilent？\'SoUthlakanyanaatehiscowalone，untilhehadfinishedit。Hethenwentonhisway。“[144]
[144]Callaway，ZuluNurseryTales，pp。27-30。
InanotherZululegend，agirlisstolenbycannibals，andshutupintherockItshe-likantunjambili，which，liketherockoftheFortyThieves，opensandshutsatthecommandofthosewhounderstanditssecret。Shegetspossessionofthesecretandescapes，andwhenthemonsterspursuehershethrowsonthegroundacalabashfullofsesame，whichtheystoptoeat。Atlast，gettingtiredofrunning，sheclimbsatree，andthereshefindsherbrother，who，warnedbyadream，hascomeouttolookforher。Theyascendthetreetogetheruntiltheycometoabeautifulcountrywellstockedwithfatoxen。Theykillanox，andwhileitsfleshisroastingtheyamusethemselvesbymakingastoutthongofitshide。Byandbyoneofthecannibals，smellingthecookingmeat，comestothefootofthetree，andlookingupdiscoverstheboyandgirlinthesky-country！Theyinvitehimupthere；toshareintheirfeast，andthrowhimanendofthethongbywhichtoclimbup。Whenthecannibalisdanglingmidwaybetweenearthandheaven，theyletgotherope，anddownhefallswithaterriblecrash。[145]
[145]Callaway，op。cit。pp。142-152；cf。asimilarstoryinwhichthelionisfooledbythejackal。Bleek，op。cit。p。7。
Iomitthesequelofthetale。
InthisstorytheenchantedrockopenedbyatalismanicformulabringsusagainintocontactwithIndo-Europeanfolk-lore。AndthattheconceptionhasinbothcasesbeensuggestedbythesamenaturalphenomenonisrenderedprobablebyanotherZulutale，inwhichthecannibal\'scaveisopenedbyaswallowwhichfliesintheair。Herewehavetheelementsofagenuinelightning-myth。WeseethatamongtheseAfricanbarbarians，aswellasamongourownforefathers，thecloudshavebeenconceivedasbirdscarryingthelightningwhichcancleavetherocks。InAmericawefindthesamenotionprevalent。TheDakotahsexplainthethunderas“thesoundofthecloud-birdflappinghiswings，“andtheCaribsdescribethelightningasapoisoneddartwhichthebirdblowsthroughahollowreed，aftertheCaribstyleofshooting。[146]Ontheotherhand，theKamtchatkansknownothingofacloud-bird，butexplainthelightningassomethinganalogoustotheflamesofavolcano。TheKamtchatkanssaythatwhenthemountaingoblinshavegottheirstoveswellheatedup，theythrowoverboard，withtruebarbaricshiftlessness，allthebrandsnotneededforimmediateuse，whichmakesavolcaniceruption。Sowhenitissummeronearth，itiswinterinheaven；andthegods，afterheatinguptheirstoves，throwawaytheirsparekindlingwood，whichmakesthelightning。[147]
[146]Brinton，op。cit。p。104。
[147]Tylor，op。cit。p。320。
WhentreatingofIndo-Europeansolarmyths，wesawtheunvarying，unrestingcourseofthesunvariouslyexplainedasduetothesubjectionofHeraklestoEurystheus，totheangerofPoseidonatOdysseus，ortothecurselaidupontheWanderingJew。Thebarbaricmindhasworkedatthesameproblem；buttheexplanationswhichithasgivenaremorechildlikeandmoregrotesque。APolynesianmythtellshowtheSunusedtoracethroughtheskysofastthatmencouldnotgetenoughdaylighttohuntgamefortheirsubsistence。Byandbyaninventivegenius，namedMaui，conceivedtheideaofcatchingtheSuninanooseandmakinghimgomoredeliberately。Heplaitedropesandmadeastrongnet，and，arminghimselfwiththejawboneofhisancestress，Muri-ranga-whenua，calledtogetherallhisbrethren，andtheyjourneyedtotheplacewheretheSunrises，andtherespreadthenet。WhentheSuncameup，hestuckhisheadandfore-pawsintothenet，andwhilethebrotherstightenedtheropessothattheycuthimandmadehimscreamformercy，Mauibeathimwiththejawboneuntilhebecamesoweakthateversincehehasonlybeenabletocrawlthroughthesky。AccordingtoanotherPolynesianmyth，therewasonceagrumblingRadical，whonevercouldbesatisfiedwiththewayinwhichthingsaremanagedonthisearth。ThisboldRadicalsetouttobuildastonehousewhichshouldlastforever；butthedaysweresoshortandthestonessoheavythathedespairedofeveraccomplishinghisproject。Onenight，ashelayawakethinkingthematterover，itoccurredtohimthatifhecouldcatchtheSuninanet，hecouldhaveasmuchdaylightaswasneedfulinordertofinishhishouse。SoheborrowedanoosefromthegodItu，and，itbeingautumn，whentheSungetssleepyandstupid，heeasilycaughttheluminary。TheSuncriedtillhistearsmadeagreatfreshetwhichnearlydrownedtheisland；
butitwasofnouse；thereheistetheredtothisday。
SimilarstoriesaremetwithinNorthAmerica。ADog-RibIndianoncechasedasquirrelupatreeuntilhereachedthesky。Therehesetasnareforthesquirrelandclimbeddownagain。NextdaytheSunwascaughtinthesnare，andnightcameonatonce。Thatistosay，thesunwaseclipsed。
“Somethingwrongupthere，“thoughttheIndian，“ImusthavecaughttheSun“；andsohesentupeversomanyanimalstoreleasethecaptive。Theywereallburnedtoashes，butatlastthemole，goingupandburrowingoutthroughtheGROUND
OFTHESKY，(！)succeededingnawingasunderthecordsofthesnare。Justasitthrustitsheadoutthroughtheopeningmadeinthesky-ground，itreceivedaflashoflightwhichputitseyesout，andthatiswhythemoleisblind。TheSungotaway，buthaseversincetravelledmoredeliberately。[148]
[148]Tylor，op。cit。pp。338-343。
Thesesun-myths，manymoreofwhicharetobefoundcollectedinMr。Tylor\'sexcellenttreatiseon“TheEarlyHistoryofMankind，“wellillustrateboththesimilarityandthediversityoftheresultsobtainedbytheprimitivemind，indifferenttimesandcountries，whenengageduponsimilarproblems。NoonewouldthinkofreferringthesestoriestoacommontraditionaloriginwiththemythsofHeraklesandOdysseus；yetbothclassesoftalesweredevisedtoexplainthesamephenomenon。BothtotheAryanandtothePolynesianthesteadfastbutdeliberatejourneyofthesunthroughthefirmamentwasastrangecircumstancewhichcalledforexplanation；butwhilethemeagreintelligenceofthebarbariancouldonlyattaintothequaintconceptionofamanthrowinganooseoverthesun\'shead，therichimaginationoftheIndo-EuropeancreatedthenoblepictureofHeraklesdoomedtoservethesonofSthenelos，inaccordancewiththeresistlessdecreeoffate。
Anotherworld-widemyth，whichshowshowsimilararethementalhabitsofuncivilizedmen，isthemythofthetortoise。
TheHindunotionofagreattortoisethatliesbeneaththeearthandkeepsitfromfallingisfamiliartoeveryreader。
Accordingtooneaccount，thistortoise，swimmingintheprimevalocean，bearstheearthonhisback；butbyandby，whenthegodsgetreadytodestroymankind，thetortoisewillgrowwearyandsinkunderhisload，andthentheearthwillbeoverwhelmedbyadeluge。AnotherlegendtellsusthatwhenthegodsanddemonstookMountMandaraforachurning-stickandchurnedtheoceantomakeambrosia，thegodVishnutookontheformofatortoiseandlayatthebottomofthesea，asapivotforthewhirlingmountaintorestupon。Buttheseversionsofthemytharenotprimitive。Intheoriginalconceptiontheworldisitselfagigantictortoiseswimminginaboundlessocean；theflatsurfaceoftheearthisthelowerplatewhichcoversthereptile\'sbelly；theroundedshellwhichcovershisbackisthesky；andthehumanracelivesandmovesandhasitsbeinginsideofthetortoise。Now，asMr。
Tylorhaspointedout，manytribesofRedskinsholdsubstantiallythesametheoryoftheuniverse。Theyregardthetortoiseasthesymboloftheworld，andaddressitasthemotherofmankind。Once，beforetheearthwasmade，thekingofheavenquarrelledwithhiswife，andgavehersuchaterriblekickthatshefelldownintothesea。Fortunatelyatortoisereceivedheronhisback，andproceededtoraiseuptheearth，uponwhichtheheavenlywomanbecamethemotherofmankind。Thesefirstmenhadwhitefaces，andtheyusedtodiginthegroundtocatchbadgers。Onedayazealousburrowerthrusthisknifetoofarandstabbedthetortoise，whichimmediatelysankintotheseaanddrownedallthehumanracesaveoneman。[149]InFinnishmythologytheworldisnotatortoise，butitisanegg，ofwhichthewhitepartistheocean，theyolkistheearth，andthearchedshellisthesky。
InIndiathisisthemundaneeggofBrahma；anditreappearsamongtheYorubasasapairofcalabashesputtogetherlikeoyster-shells，onemakingadomeovertheother。InZulu-landtheearthisahugebeastcalledUsilosimapundu，whosefaceisarock，andwhosemouthisverylargeandbroadandred:“insomecountrieswhichwereonhisbodyitwaswinter，andinothersitwasearlyharvest。“Manybroadriversflowoverhisback，andheiscoveredwithforestsandhills，asisindicatedinhisname，whichmeans“therugoseorknotty-backedbeast。“InthisgroupofconceptionsmaybeseentheoriginofSindbad\'sgreatfish，whichlaystillsolongthatsandandclaygraduallyaccumulateduponitsback，andatlastitbecamecoveredwithtrees。Andlastly，passingfrombarbaricfolk-loreandfromtheArabianNightstothehighestlevelofIndo-Europeanintelligence，dowenotfindbothPlatoandKepleramusingthemselveswithspeculationsinwhichtheearthfiguresasastupendousanimal？
[149]Tylor，op。cit。p。336。November，1870
VI。JUVENTUSMUNDI。[150]
[150]JuventusMundi。TheGodsandMenoftheHeroicAge。BytheRt。Hon。WilliamEwartGladstone。Boston:Little，Brown，&Co。1869。
TWELVEyearsago，when，inconcludinghis“StudiesonHomerandtheHomericAge，“Mr。GladstoneappliedtohimselfthewarningaddressedbyAgamemnontothepriestofApollo，“LetnotNemesiscatchmebytheswiftships。“
hewouldseemtohaveintendeditasalastfarewelltoclassicalstudies。Yet，whateverhisintentionsmayhavebeen，theyhaveyieldedtothesweetdesireofrevisitingfamiliarground，——adesireasstronginthebreastoftheclassicalscholaraswastheyearningwhichledOdysseustorejecttheprofferedgiftofimmortality，sothathemightbutoncemorebeholdthewreathedsmokecurlingabouttheroofsofhisnativeIthaka。Inthisnewtreatise，onthe“YouthoftheWorld，“Mr。Gladstonediscussesthesamequestionswhichweretreatedinhisearlierwork；andthemainconclusionsreachedinthe“StudiesonHomer“areheresolittlemodifiedwithreferencetotherecentprogressofarchaeologicalinquiries，thatthebookcanhardlybesaidtohavehadanyotherreasonforappearing，savethedesireofloiteringbytheshipsoftheArgives，andofreturningthitherasoftenaspossible。
ThetitleselectedbyMr。Gladstoneforhisnewworkiseitheraveryappropriateoneorastrangemisnomer，accordingtothepointofviewfromwhichitisregarded。Suchbeingthecase，wemightreadilyacquiesceinitsuse，andpassitbywithoutcomment，trustingthattheauthorunderstoodhimselfwhenheadoptedit，wereitnotthatbyincidentalreferences，andespeciallybyhisallusionstothelegendaryliteratureoftheJews，Mr。Gladstoneshowsthathemeansmorebythetitlethanitcanfairlybemadetoexpress。AnauthorwhoseekstodetermineprehistoriceventsbyreferencestoKadmos，andDanaos，andAbraham，isatonceliabletothesuspicionofholdingveryinadequateviewsastothecharacteroftheepochwhichmayproperlybetermedthe“youthoftheworld。“OfteninreadingMr。GladstoneweareremindedofRenan\'sstrangesuggestionthatanexplorationoftheHinduKushterritory，whenceprobablycametheprimitiveAryans，mightthrowsomenewlightontheoriginoflanguage。Nothingcouldwellbemorefutile。TheprimitiveAryanlanguagehasalreadybeenpartlyreconstructedforus；itsgrammaticalformsandsyntacticdevicesarebecomingfamiliartoscholars；onegreatphilologisthasevencomposedataleinit；yetinstudyingthislong-burieddialectwearenotmuchnearerthefirstbeginningsofhumanspeechthaninstudyingtheGreekofHomer，theSanskritoftheVedas，ortheUmbrianoftheIgovineInscriptions。TheAryanmother-tonguehadpassedintothelastofthethreestagesoflinguisticgrowthlongbeforethebreak-upofthetribalcommunitiesinAryana-vaedjo，andatthatearlydatepresentedalessprimitivestructurethanistobeseenintheChineseortheMongolianofourowntimes。SothestateofsocietydepictedintheHomericpoems，andwellillustratedbyMr。Gladstone，ismanydegreeslessprimitivethanthatwhichisrevealedtousbythearchaeologicalresearcheseitherofPictetandWindischmann，orofTylor，Lubbock，andM\'Lennan。Weshallgatherevidencesofthisasweproceed。MeanwhileletusrememberthatatleasteleventhousandyearsbeforetheHomericagemenlivedincommunities，andmanufacturedpotteryonthebanksoftheNile；andletusnotleavewhollyoutofsightthatmoredistantperiod，perhapsamillionyearsago，whensparsetribesofsavagemen，contemporaneouswiththemammothsofSiberiaandthecave-tigersofBritain，struggledagainsttheintensecoldoftheglacialwinters。
Nevertheless，thoughtheHomericageappearstobealateonewhenconsideredwithreferencetothewholecareerofthehumanrace，thereisapointofviewfromwhichitmaybejustlyregardedasthe“youthoftheworld。“Howeverlongmanmayhaveexistedupontheearth，hebecomesthoroughlyanddistinctlyhumanintheeyesofthehistorianonlyattheepochatwhichhebegantocreateforhimselfaliterature。Asfarbackaswecantracetheprogressofthehumanracecontinuouslybymeansofthewrittenword，sofardowefeelatruehistoricalinterestinitsfortunes，andpursueourstudieswithasympathywhichthemerelapseoftimeispowerlesstoimpair。Buttheprimevalman，whosehistoryneverhasbeenandneverwillbewritten，whosecareerontheearth，datelessandchartless，canbedimlyrevealedtousonlybypalaeontology，excitesinusaverydifferentfeeling。Thoughwiththekeenestinterestweransackeverynookandcorneroftheearth\'ssurfaceforinformationabouthim，weareallthewhileawarethatwhatwearestudyingishumanzoologyandnothistory。OurNeanderthalmanisaspecimen，notacharacter。
WecannotaskhimtheHomericquestion，whatishisname，whowerehisparents，andhowdidhegetwherewefoundhim。Hislanguagehasdiedwithhim，andhecanrendernoaccountofhimself。WecanonlyregardhimspecificallyasHomoAnthropos，acreatureofbiggerbrainthanhiscongenerHomoPithekos，andofvastlygreaterpromise。Butthis，wesay，isphysicalscience，andnothistory。
Forthehistorian，therefore，whostudiesmaninhisvarioussocialrelations，theyouthoftheworldistheperiodatwhichliteraturebegins。WeregardthehistoryofthewesternworldasbeginningaboutthetenthcenturybeforetheChristianera，becauseatthatdatewefindliterature，inGreeceandPalestine，beginningtothrowdirectlightuponthesocialandintellectualconditionofaportionofmankind。
Thatgreatempires，richinhistoricalinterestandinmaterialsforsociologicalgeneralizations，hadexistedforcenturiesbeforethatdate，inEgyptandAssyria，wedonotdoubt，sincetheyappearatthedawnofhistorywithallthemarksofgreatantiquity；buttheonlysteadyhistoricallightthrownuponthemshinesfromthepagesofGreekandHebrewauthors，andtheseknowthemonlyintheirlatestperiod。Forinformationconcerningtheirearlycareerswemustlook，nottohistory，buttolinguisticarchaeology，asciencewhichcanhelpustogeneralresults，butcannotenableustofixdates，saveinthecrudestmanner。
WementionthetenthcenturybeforeChristastheearliestperiodatwhichwecanbegintostudyhumansocietyingeneralandGreeksocietyinparticular，throughthemediumofliterature。But，strictlyspeaking，theepochinquestionisonewhichcannotbefixedwithaccuracy。TheearliestascertainabledateinGreekhistoryisthatoftheOlympiadofKoroibos，B。C。776。ThereisnodoubtthattheHomericpoemswerewrittenbeforethisdate，andthatHomeristhereforestrictlyprehistoric。Hadthisfactbeendulyrealizedbythosescholarswhohavenotattemptedtodenyit，avastamountofprofitlessdiscussionmighthavebeenavoided。
Soonerorlater，asGrotesays，“thelessonmustbelearnt，hardandpainfulthoughitbe，thatnoimaginablereachofcriticalacumenwillofitselfenableustodiscriminatefancyfromreality，intheabsenceofatolerablestockofevidence。“WedonotknowwhoHomerwas；wedonotknowwhereorwhenhelived；andinallprobabilityweshallneverknow。
Thedataforsettlingthequestionarenotnowaccessible，anditisnotlikelythattheywilleverbediscovered。Eveninearlyantiquitythequestionwaswrappedinanobscurityasdeepasthatwhichshroudsitto-day。Thecasebetweenthesevenoreightcitieswhichclaimedtobethebirthplaceofthepoet，andwhichWelckerhassoablydiscussed，cannotbedecided。ThefeeblenessoftheevidencebroughtintocourtmaybejudgedfromthefactthattheclaimsofChiosandthestoryofthepoet\'sblindnessrestalikeuponadoubtfulallusionintheHymntoApollo，whichThukydides(III。104)acceptedasauthentic。Themajorityofmoderncriticshaveconsoledthemselveswiththevagueconclusionthat，asbetweenthetwogreatdivisionsoftheearlyGreekworld，HomeratleastbelongedtotheAsiatic。ButMr。Gladstonehasshowngoodreasonsfordoubtingthisopinion。HehaspointedoutseveralinstancesinwhichthepoemsseemtobetrayaclosertopographicalacquaintancewithEuropeanthanwithAsiaticGreece，andconcludesthatAthensandArgoshaveatleastasgoodaclaimtoHomerasChiosorSmyrna。
ItisfarmoredesirablethatweshouldformanapproximateopinionastothedateoftheHomericpoems，thanthatweshouldseektodeterminetheexactlocalityinwhichtheyoriginated。Yettheonequestionishardlylessobscurethantheother。DifferentwritersofantiquityassignedeightdifferentepochstoHomer，ofwhichtheearliestisseparatedfromthemostrecentbyanintervaloffourhundredandsixtyyears，——aperiodaslongasthatwhichseparatestheBlackPrincefromtheDukeofWellington，ortheageofPeriklesfromtheChristianera。WhileTheopomposquitepreposterouslybringshimdownaslateasthetwenty-thirdOlympiad，KratesremoveshimtothetwelfthcenturyB。C。ThedateordinarilyacceptedbymoderncriticsistheoneassignedbyHerodotos，880B。C。YetMr。Gladstoneshowsreasons，whichappeartomeconvincing，fordoubtingorrejectingthisdate。
Irefertothemuch-abusedlegendoftheChildrenofHerakles，whichseemscapableofyieldinganitemoftrustworthytestimony，provideditbecircumspectlydealtwith。IdifferfromMr。Gladstoneinnotregardingthelegendashistoricalinitspresentshape。Inmyapprehension，HyllosandOxylos，ashistoricalpersonages，havenovaluewhatever；andI
faithfullyfollowMr。Grote，inrefusingtoacceptanydateearlierthantheOlympiadofKoroibos。Thetaleofthe“ReturnoftheHerakleids“isundoubtedlyasunworthyofcreditasthelegendofHengstandHorsa；yet，likethelatter，itdoubtlessembodiesahistoricaloccurrence。Onecannotapprove，asscholarlikeorphilosophical，thescepticismofMr。Cox，whocanseeinthewholenarrativenothingbutasolarmyth。TherecertainlywasatimewhentheDoriantribes——describedinthelegendasthealliesoftheChildrenofHerakles——conqueredPeloponnesos；andthattimewascertainlysubsequenttothecompositionoftheHomericpoems。ItisincrediblethattheIliadandtheOdysseyshouldignoretheexistenceofDoriansinPeloponnesos，iftherewereDoriansnotonlydwellingbutrulingthereatthetimewhenthepoemswerewritten。Thepoemsareveryaccurateandrigorouslyconsistentintheiruseofethnicalappellatives；andtheirauthor，inspeakingofAchaiansandArgives，isasevidentlyalludingtopeoplesdirectlyknowntohim，asisShakespearewhenhementionsDanesandScotchmen。NowHomerknowsAchaians，Argives，andPelasgiansdwellinginPeloponnesos；andheknowsDoriansalso，butonlyasapeopleinhabitingCrete。(Odyss。XIX。
175。)WithHomer，moreover，theHellenesarenottheGreeksingeneralbutonlyapeopledwellinginthenorth，inThessaly。
Whenthesepoemswerewritten，GreecewasnotknownasHellas，butasAchaia，——thewholecountrytakingitsnamefromtheAchaians，thedominantraceinPeloponnesos。Nowatthebeginningofthetrulyhistoricalperiod，intheeighthcenturyB。C。，allthisischanged。TheGreeksasapeoplearecalledHellenes；theDoriansruleinPeloponnesos，whiletheirlandsaretilledbyArgiveHelots；andtheAchaiansappearonlyasaninsignificantpeopleoccupyingthesouthernshoreoftheCorinthianGulf。Howthischangetookplacewecannottell。Theexplanationofitcanneverbeobtainedfromhistory，thoughsomelightmayperhapsbethrownuponitbylinguisticarchaeology。Butatalleventsitwasagreatchange，andcouldnothavetakenplaceinamoment。ItisfairtosupposethattheHelleno-DorianconquestmusthavebegunatleastacenturybeforethefirstOlympiad；forotherwisethegeographicallimitsofthevariousGreekraceswouldnothavebeensocompletelyestablishedaswefindthemtohavebeenatthatdate。TheGreeks，indeed，supposedittohavebegunatleastthreecenturiesearlier，butitisimpossibletocollectevidencewhichwilleitherrefuteorestablishthatopinion。
Forourpurposesitisenoughtoknowthattheconquestcouldnothavetakenplacelaterthan900B。C。；andifthisbethecase，theMINIMUMDATEforthecompositionoftheHomericpoemsmustbethetenthcenturybeforeChrist；whichis，infact，thedateassignedbyAristotle。Thusfar，andnofarther，Ibelieveitpossibletogowithsafety。Whetherthepoemswerecomposedinthetenth，eleventh，ortwelfthcenturycannotbedetermined。WearejustifiedonlyinplacingthemfarenoughbacktoallowtheHelleno-Dorianconquesttointervenebetweentheircompositionandthebeginningofrecordedhistory。ThetenthcenturyB。C。isthelatestdatewhichwillaccountforallthephenomenainvolvedinthecase，andwiththisresultwemustbesatisfied。Evenonthisshowing，theIliadandOdysseyappearastheoldestexistingspecimensofAryanliterature，saveperhapsthehymnsoftheRig-VedaandthesacredbooksoftheAvesta。
TheapparentdifficultyofpreservingsuchlongpoemsforthreeorfourcenturieswithouttheaidofwritingmayseematfirstsighttojustifythehypothesisofWolf，thattheyaremerecollectionsofancientballads，likethosewhichmakeuptheMahabharata，preservedinthememoriesofadozenortwentybards，andfirstarrangedundertheordersofPeisistratos。Butonacarefulexaminationthishypothesisisseentoraisemoredifficultiesthanitsolves。WhatwasthereinthepositionofPeisistratos，orofAthensitselfinthesixthcenturyB。C。，soauthoritativeastocompelallGreekstorecognizetherecensionthenandtheremadeoftheirreveredpoet？BesideswhichthecelebratedordinanceofSolonrespectingtherhapsodesatthePanathenaiaobligesustoinfertheexistenceofwrittenmanuscriptsofHomerpreviousto550B。C。AsMr。Grotewellobserves，theinterferenceofPeisistratos“presupposesacertainforeknownandancientaggregate，themainlineamentsofwhichwerefamiliartotheGrecianpublic，althoughmanyoftherhapsodesintheirpracticemayhavedeviatedfromitbothbyomissionandinterpolation。IncorrectingtheAthenianrecitationsconformablywithsuchunderstoodgeneraltype，PeisistratosmighthopebothtoprocurerespectforAthensandtoconstituteafashionfortherestofGreece。Butthisstepof\'collectingthetornbodyofsacredHomer\'issomethinggenericallydifferentfromthecompositionofanewIliadoutofpre-existingsongs:theformerisaseasy，suitable，andpromisingasthelatterisviolentandgratuitous。“[151]
[151]Hist。Greece，Vol。II。p。208。
AsforWolf\'sobjection，thattheIliadandOdysseyaretoolongtohavebeenpreservedbymemory，itmaybemetbyasimpledenial。Itisastrangeobjectionindeed，comingfromamanofWolf\'sretentivememory。Idonotseehowtheacquisitionofthetwopoemscanberegardedassuchaveryarduoustask；andifliteraturewereasscantynowasinGreekantiquity，therearedoubtlessmanyscholarswhowouldlongsincehavehadthemattheirtongues\'end。SirG。C。Lewis，withbutlittleconsciouseffort，managedtocarryinhisheadaveryconsiderableportionofGreekandLatinclassicliterature；andNiebuhr(whooncerestoredfromrecollectionabookofaccountswhichhadbeenaccidentallydestroyed)wasinthehabitofreferringtobookandchapterofanancientauthorwithoutconsultinghisnotes。Nay，thereisProfessorSophocles，ofHarvardUniversity，who，ifyousuddenlystopandinterrogatehiminthestreet，willtellyoujusthowmanytimesanygivenGreekwordoccursinThukydides，orinAEschylos，orinPlato，andwillobliginglyrehearseforyouthecontext。IfallextantcopiesoftheHomericpoemsweretobegatheredtogetherandburntupto-day，likeDonQuixote\'slibrary，orlikethoseArabicmanuscriptsofwhichCardinalXimenesmadeabonfireinthestreetsofGranada，thepoemscouldverylikelybereproducedandorallytransmittedforseveralgenerations；andmucheasiermustithavebeenfortheGreekstopreservethesebooks，whichtheirimaginationinvestedwithaquasi-sanctity，andwhichconstitutedthegreaterpartoftheliteraryfurnitureoftheirminds。InXenophon\'stimetherewereeducatedgentlemenatAthenswhocouldrepeatbothIliadandOdysseyverbatim。(Xenoph。
Sympos。，III。5。)Besidesthis，weknowthatatChiostherewasacompanyofbards，knownasHomerids，whosebusinessitwastorecitethesepoemsfrommemory；andfromtheedictsofSolonandtheSikyonianKleisthenes(Herod。，V。67)，wemayinferthatthecasewasthesameinotherpartsofGreece。
PassagesfromtheIliadusedtobesungatthePythianfestivals，totheaccompanimentoftheharp(Athenaeus，XIV。
638)，andinatleasttwooftheIonicislandsoftheAEgaeantherewereregularcompetitiveexhibitionsbytrainedyoungmen，atwhichprizesweregiventothebestreciter。Thedifficultyofpreservingthepoems，undersuchcircumstances，becomesveryinsignificant；andtheWolfianargumentquitevanisheswhenwereflectthatitwouldhavebeennoeasiertopreserveadozenortwentyshortpoemsthantwolongones。
Nay，thecoherent，orderlyarrangementoftheIliadandOdysseywouldmakethemeveneasiertorememberthanagroupofshortrhapsodiesnotconsecutivelyarranged。
Whenwecometointerrogatethepoemsthemselves，wefindinthemquiteconvincingevidencethattheywereoriginallycomposedfortheearalone，andwithoutreferencetomanuscriptassistance。Theyaboundincatchwords，andinverbalrepetitions。The“CatalogueofShips，“asMr。Gladstonehasacutelyobserved，isarrangedinwell-definedsections，insuchawaythattheendofeachsectionsuggeststhebeginningofthenextone。Itresemblestheversusmemorialesfoundinold-fashionedgrammars。ButthemostconvincingproofofallistobefoundinthechangeswhichGreekpronunciationwentthroughbetweentheagesofHomerandPeisistratos。“Atthetimewhenthesepoemswerecomposed，thedigamma(orw)wasaneffectiveconsonant，andfiguredassuchinthestructureoftheverse；atthetimewhentheywerecommittedtowriting，ithadceasedtobepronounced，andthereforeneverfoundaplaceinanyofthemanuscripts，——insomuchthattheAlexandriancritics，thoughtheyknewofitsexistenceinthemuchlaterpoemsofAlkaiosandSappho，neverrecognizeditinHomer。Thehiatus，andthevariousperplexitiesofmetre，occasionedbythelossofthedigamma，werecorrectedbydifferentgrammaticalstratagems。Butthewholehistoryofthislostletterisverycurious，andisrenderedintelligibleonlybythesuppositionthattheIliadandOdysseybelongedforawidespaceoftimetothememory，thevoice，andtheearexclusively。“[152]
[152]Grote，Hist。Greece，Vol。II。p。198。
ManyofthesefactsareofcoursefullyrecognizedbytheWolfians；buttheinferencedrawnfromthem，thattheHomericpoemsbegantoexistinapiecemealcondition，is，aswehaveseen，unnecessary。Thesepoemsmayindeedbecompared，inacertainsense，withtheearlysacredandepicliteratureoftheJews，Indians，andTeutons。ButifweassignapluralityofcomposerstothePsalmsandPentateuch，theMahabharata，theVedas，andtheEdda，wedosobecauseofinternalevidencefurnishedbythebooksthemselves，andnotbecausethesebookscouldnothavebeenpreservedbyoraltradition。Isthere，then，intheHomericpoemsanysuchinternalevidenceofdualorpluraloriginasisfurnishedbytheinterlacedElohisticandJehovisticdocumentsofthePentateuch？Acarefulinvestigationwillshowthatthereisnot。AnyscholarwhohasgivensomeattentiontothesubjectcanreadilydistinguishtheElohisticfromtheJehovisticportionsofthePentateuch；
and，saveinthecaseofafewsporadicverses，mostBiblicalcriticscoincideintheseparationwhichtheymakebetweenthetwo。ButtheattemptswhichhavebeenmadetobreakuptheIliadandOdysseyhaveresultedinnosuchharmoniousagreement。Thereareasmanysystemsastherearecritics，andnaturallyenough。FortheIliadandtheOdysseyareasmuchalikeastwopeas，andtheresemblancewhichholdsbetweenthetwoholdsalsobetweenthedifferentpartsofeachpoem。FromtheappearanceoftheinjuredChrysesintheGreciancampdowntotheinterventionofAtheneonthefieldofcontestatIthaka，wefindineachbookandineachparagraphthesamestyle，thesamepeculiaritiesofexpression，thesamehabitsofthought，thesamequiteuniquemanifestationsofthefacultyofobservation。Nowifthestylewerecommonplace，theobservationslovenly，orthethoughttrivial，asiswonttobethecaseinballad-literature，thisargumentfromsimilaritymightnotcarrywithitmuchconviction。Butwhenwereflectthatthroughoutthewholecourseofhumanhistorynootherworks，savethebesttragediesofShakespeare，haveeverbeenwrittenwhichforcombinedkeennessofobservation，elevationofthought，andsublimityofstylecancomparewiththeHomericpoems，wemustadmitthattheargumenthasverygreatweightindeed。Letustake，forexample，thesixthandtwenty-fourthbooksoftheIliad。AccordingtothetheoryofLachmann，themosteminentchampionoftheWolfianhypothesis，thesearebydifferentauthors。HumanspeechhasperhapsneverbeenbroughtsoneartothelimitofitscapacityofexpressingdeepemotionasinthescenebetweenPriamandAchilleusinthetwenty-fourthbook；whiletheinterviewbetweenHektorandAndromacheinthesixthsimilarlywellnighexhauststhepoweroflanguage。Now，theliterarycritichasarighttoaskwhetheritisprobablethattwosuchpassages，agreeingperfectlyinturnofexpression，andalikeexhibitingthesameunapproachabledegreeofexcellence，couldhavebeenproducedbytwodifferentauthors。Andthephysiologist——withsomeinwardmisgivingssuggestedbyMr。Galton\'stheorythattheGreekssurpassedusingeniusevenaswesurpassthenegroes——hasarighttoaskwhetheritisinthenaturalcourseofthingsfortwosuchwonderfulpoets，strangelyagreeingintheirminutestpsychologicalcharacteristics，tobeproducedatthesametime。Andthedifficultythusraisedbecomesoverwhelmingwhenwereflectthatitisthecoexistenceofnottwoonly，butatleasttwentysuchgeniuseswhichtheWolfianhypothesisrequiresustoaccountfor。ThattheoryworkedverywellaslongasscholarsthoughtlesslyassumedthattheIliadandOdysseywereanalogoustoballadpoetry。But，exceptinthesimplicityoftheprimitivediction，thereisnosuchanalogy。ThepowerandbeautyoftheIliadareneversohopelesslylostaswhenitisrenderedintothestyleofamodernballad。OnemightaswellattempttopreservethegrandeurofthetriumphantcloseofMilton\'sLycidasbyturningitintothelightAnacreonticsoftheodeto“ErosstungbyaBee。“ThepeculiarityoftheHomericpoetry，whichdefiestranslation，isitsunionofthesimplicitycharacteristicofanearlyagewithasustainedelevationofstyle，whichcanbeexplainedonlyasduetoindividualgenius。
Thesameconclusionisforceduponuswhenweexaminetheartisticstructureofthesepoems。WithregardtotheOdysseyinparticular，Mr。Grotehaselaboratelyshownthatitsstructureissothoroughlyintegral，thatnoconsiderableportioncouldbesubtractedwithoutconvertingthepoemintoamoreorlessadmirablefragment。TheIliadstandsinasomewhatdifferentposition。Thereareunmistakablepeculiaritiesinitsstructure，whichhaveledevenMr。Grote，whoutterlyrejectstheWolfianhypothesis，toregarditasmadeupoftwopoems；althoughheinclinestothebeliefthatthelaterpoemwasgraftedupontheearlierbyitsownauthor，bywayoffurtherelucidationandexpansion；justasGoethe，inhisoldage，addedanewpartto“Faust。“AccordingtoMr。
Grote，theIliad，asoriginallyconceived，wasproperlyanAchilleis；itsdesignbeing，asindicatedintheopeninglinesofthepoem，todepictthewrathofAchilleusandtheunutterablewoeswhichitentailedupontheGreeksTheplotofthisprimitiveAchilleisisentirelycontainedinBooksI。，VIII。，andXI-XXII。；and，inMr。Grote\'sopinion，theremainingbooksinjurethesymmetryofthisplotbyunnecessarilyprolongingthedurationoftheWrath，whiletheembassytoAchilleus，intheninthbook，undulyanticipatestheconductofAgamemnoninthenineteenth，andistherefore，asapieceofbunglingwork，tobereferredtothehandsofaninferiorinterpolator。Mr。Grotethinksitprobablethatthesebooks，withtheexceptionoftheninth，weresubsequentlyaddedbythepoet，withaviewtoenlargingtheoriginalAchilleisintoarealIliad，describingthewaroftheGreeksagainstTroy。Withreferencetothishypothesis，IgladlyadmitthatMr。Groteis，ofallmennowliving，theonebestentitledtoareverentialhearingonalmostanypointconnectedwithGreekantiquity。Neverthelessitseemstomethathistheoryrestssolelyuponimagineddifficultieswhichhavenorealexistence。Idoubtifanyscholar，readingtheIliadeversomuch，wouldeverbestruckbytheseallegedinconsistenciesofstructure，unlesstheyweresuggestedbysomeaprioritheory。AndIfearthattheWolfiantheory，inspiteofMr。Grote\'semphaticrejectionofit，isresponsibleforsomeoftheseover-refinedcriticisms。Evenasitstands，theIliadisnotanaccountofthewaragainstTroy。Itbeginsinthetenthyearofthesiege，anditdoesnotcontinuetothecaptureofthecity。Itissimplyoccupiedwithanepisodeinthewar，——withthewrathofAchilleusanditsconsequences，accordingtotheplanmarkedoutintheopeninglines。Thesupposedadditions，therefore，thoughtheymayhavegiventothepoemasomewhatwiderscope，havenotatanyratechangeditsprimitivecharacterofanAchilleis。Tomymindtheyseemevencalledforbytheoriginalconceptionoftheconsequencesofthewrath。Tohaveinsertedthebattleattheships，inwhichSarpedonbreaksdownthewalloftheGreeks，immediatelyaftertheoccurrencesofthefirstbook，wouldhavebeentooabruptaltogether。Zeus，afterhisreluctantpromisetoThetis，mustnotbeexpectedsosuddenlytoexhibitsuchfelldetermination。AndafterthelongseriesofbooksdescribingthevalorousdeedsofAias，Diomedes，Agamemnon，Odysseus，andMenelaos，thepowerfulinterventionofAchilleusappearsinfargranderproportionsthanwouldotherwisebepossible。AsfortheembassytoAchilleus，intheninthbook，IamunabletoseehowthefinalreconciliationwithAgamemnonwouldbecompletewithoutit。AsMr。Gladstonewellobserves，whatAchilleuswantsisnotrestitution，butapology；andAgamemnonoffersnoapologyuntilthenineteenthbook。Inhisanswertotheambassadors，AchilleusscornfullyrejectstheproposalswhichimplythatthemerereturnofBriseiswillsatisfyhisrighteousresentment，unlessitbeaccompaniedwiththatpublichumiliationtowhichcircumstanceshavenotyetcompelledtheleaderoftheGreekstosubjecthimself。
Achilleusisnottobeboughtorcajoled。EventheextremedistressoftheGreeksinthethirteenthbookdoesnotprevailuponhim；noristhereanythinginthepoemtoshowthatheeverwouldhavelaidasidehiswrath，hadnotthedeathofPatroklossuppliedhimwithanewandwhollyunforeseenmotive。Itseemstomethathisentranceintothebattleafterthedeathofhisfriendwouldlosehalfitspoeticeffect，wereitnotprecededbysomesuchsceneasthatintheninthbook，inwhichheisrepresentedasdeaftoallordinaryinducements。Asforthetwoconcludingbooks，whichMr。Groteisinclinedtoregardasasubsequentaddition，notnecessitatedbytheplanofthepoem，Iamatalosstoseehowthepoemcanbeconsideredcompletewithoutthem。ToleavethebodiesofPatroklosandHektorunburiedwouldbeinthehighestdegreeshockingtoGreekreligiousfeelings。
Rememberingthesentenceincurred，infarlesssuperstitioustimes，bythegeneralsatArginusai，itisimpossibletobelievethatanyconclusionwhichleftPatroklos\'smanesunpropitiated，andthemutilatedcorpseofHektorunransomed，couldhavesatisfiedeitherthepoetorhishearers。ForfurtherparticularsImustreferthereadertotheexcellentcriticismsofMr。Gladstone，andalsotothearticleon“GreekHistoryandLegend“inthesecondvolumeofMr。Mill\'s“DissertationsandDiscussions。“Acarefulstudyoftheargumentsofthesewriters，and，aboveall，athoroughandindependentexaminationoftheIliaditself，will，Ibelieve，convincethestudentthatthisgreatpoemisfrombeginningtoendtheconsistentproductionofasingleauthor。
TheargumentsofthosewhowouldattributetheIliadandOdyssey，takenaswholes，totwodifferentauthors，restchieflyuponsomeapparentdiscrepanciesinthemythologyofthetwopoems；butmanyofthesedifficultieshavebeencompletelysolvedbytherecentprogressofthescienceofcomparativemythology。Thus，forexample，thefactthat，intheIliad，HephaistosiscalledthehusbandofCharis，whileintheOdysseyheiscalledthehusbandofAphrodite，hasbeencitedevenbyMr。Groteasevidencethatthetwopoemsarenotbythesameauthor。Itseemstomethatonesuchdiscrepancy，inthemidstofcompletegeneralagreement，wouldbemuchbetterexplainedasCervantesexplainedhisowninconsistencywithreferencetothestealingofSancho\'smule，inthetwenty-secondchapterof“DonQuixote。“Butthereisnodiscrepancy。Aphrodite，thoughoriginallythemoon-goddess，liketheGermanHorsel，hadbeforeHomer\'stimeacquiredmanyoftheattributesofthedawn-goddessAthene，whileherlunarcharacteristicshadbeentoagreatextenttransferredtoArtemisandPersephone。Inherrenovatedcharacter，asgoddessofthedawn，AphroditebecameidentifiedwithCharis，whoappearsintheRig-Vedaasdawn-goddess。Inthepost-Homericmythology，thetwowereagainseparated，andCharis，becomingdividedinpersonality，appearsastheCharites，orGraces，whoweresupposedtobeconstantattendantsofAphrodite。ButintheHomericpoemsthetwoarestillidentical，andeitherCharisorAphroditemaybecalledthewifeofthefire-god，withoutinconsistency。
Thustosumup，IbelievethatMr。GladstoneisquiterightinmaintainingthatboththeIliadandOdysseyare，frombeginningtoend，withtheexceptionofafewinsignificantinterpolations，theworkofasingleauthor，whomwehavenogroundforcallingbyanyothernamethanthatofHomer。I
believe，moreover，thatthisauthorlivedbeforethebeginningofauthentichistory，andthatwecandetermineneitherhisagenorhiscountrywithprecision。WecanonlydecidethathewasaGreekwholivedatsometimeprevioustotheyear900
B。C。
Here，however，ImustbegintopartcompanywithMr。
Gladstone，andshallhenceforthunfortunatelyhavefrequentoccasiontodifferfromhimonpointsoffundamentalimportance。ForMr。GladstonenotonlyregardstheHomericageasstrictlywithinthelimitsofauthentichistory，butheevengoesmuchfurtherthanthis。HewouldnotonlyfixthedateofHomerpositivelyinthetwelfthcenturyB。C。，butheregardstheTrojanwarasapurelyhistoricalevent，ofwhichHomeristheauthentichistorianandtheprobableeye-witness。
Nay，heeventakesthewordofthepoetasproofconclusiveofthehistoricalcharacterofeventshappeningseveralgenerationsbeforetheTroika，accordingtothelegendarychronology。HenotonlyregardsAgamemnon，Achilleus，andParisasactualpersonages，butheascribesthesamerealitytocharacterslikeDanaos，Kadmos，andPerseus，andtalksofthePelopidandAioliddynasties，andtheempireofMinos，withasmuchconfidenceasifheweredealingwithKarlingsorCapetians，orwiththeepochoftheCrusades。
Itisdisheartening，atthepresentday，andaftersomuchhasbeenfinallysettledbywriterslikeGrote，Mommsen，andSirG。C。Lewis，tocomeuponsuchviewsintheworkofamanofscholarshipandintelligence。Onebeginstowonderhowmanymoretimesitwillbenecessarytoprovethatdatesandeventsareofnohistoricalvalue，unlessattestedbynearlycontemporaryevidence。PausaniasandPlutarchwereablemennodoubt，andThukydideswasaprofoundhistorian；butwhatthesewritersthoughtoftheHerakleidinvasion，theageofHomer，andthewarofTroy，canhavenogreatweightwiththecriticalhistorian，sinceeveninthetimeofThukydidestheseeventswereascompletelyobscuredbylapseoftimeastheyarenow。ThereisnoliteraryGreekhistorybeforetheageofHekataiosandHerodotos，threecenturiessubsequenttothefirstrecordedOlympiad。Aportionofthisperiodissatisfactorilycoveredbyinscriptions，buteventhesefailusbeforewegetwithinacenturyofthisearliestascertainabledate。EventhecareerofthelawgiverLykourgos，whichseemstobelongtothecommencementoftheeighthcenturyB。C。，presentsus，fromlackofanythinglikecontemporaryrecords，withmanyinsolubleproblems。TheHelleno-Dorianconquest，aswehaveseen，musthaveoccurredatsometimeorother；butitevidentlydidnotoccurwithintwocenturiesoftheearliestknowninscription，anditisthereforefollytoimaginethatwecandetermineitsdateorascertainthecircumstanceswhichattendedit。AnteriortothiseventthereisbutonefactinGreekantiquitydirectlyknowntous，——theexistenceoftheHomericpoems。ThebeliefthattherewasaTrojanwarrestsexclusivelyuponthecontentsofthosepoems:thereisnootherindependenttestimonytoitwhatever。ButtheHomericpoemsareofnovalueastestimonytothetruthofthestatementscontainedinthem，unlessitcanbeprovedthattheirauthorwaseithercontemporarywiththeTroika，orelsederivedhisinformationfromcontemporarywitnesses。Thiscanneverbeproved。Toassume，asMr。Gladstonedoes，thatHomerlivedwithinfiftyyearsaftertheTroika，istomakeapurelygratuitousassumption。Foraughtthewisesthistoriancantell，theintervalmayhavebeenfivehundredyears，orathousand。IndeedtheIliaditselfexpresslydeclaresthatitisdealingwithanancientstateofthingswhichnolongerexists。ItisdifficulttoseewhatelsecanbemeantbythestatementthattheheroesoftheTroikabelongtoanorderofmennolongerseenupontheearth。(Iliad，V。304。)MostassuredlyAchilleusthesonofThetis，andSarpedonthesonofZeus，andHelenathedaughterofZeus，arenoordinarymortals，suchasmighthavebeenseenandconversedwithbythepoet\'sgrandfather。Theybelongtoaninferiororderofgods，accordingtothepeculiaranthropomorphismoftheGreeks，inwhichdeityandhumanityaresocloselymingledthatitisdifficulttotellwheretheonebeginsandtheotherends。Diomedes，single-handed，vanquishesnotonlythegentleAphrodite，buteventhegodofbattleshimself，theterribleAres。Nestorquaffslightlyfromagobletwhich，wearetold，nottwomenamongthepoet\'scontemporariescouldbytheirunitedexertionsraiseandplaceuponatable。AiasandHektorandAineiashurlenormousmassesofrockaseasilyasanordinarymanwouldthrowapebble。Allthisshowsthatthepoet，inhisnaiveway，conceivingoftheseheroesaspersonagesofaremotepast，wasendeavouringasfaraspossibletoascribetothemtheattributesofsuperiorbeings。
Ifallthatweredivine，marvellous，orsuperhumanweretobeleftoutofthepoems，thesupposedhistoricalresiduewouldhardlybeworththetroubleofsaving。AsMr。Coxwellobserves，“ItisoftheveryessenceofthenarrativethatParis，whohasdesertedOinone，thechildofthestreamKebren，andbeforewhomHere，Athene，andAphroditehadappearedasclaimantsforthegoldenapple，stealsfromSpartathebeautifulsisteroftheDioskouroi；thatthechiefsaresummonedtogetherfornootherpurposethantoavengeherwoesandwrongs；thatAchilleus，thesonofthesea-nymphThetis，thewielderofinvincibleweaponsandthelordofundyinghorses，goestofightinaquarrelwhichisnothisown；thathiswrathisrousedbecauseheisrobbedofthemaidenBriseis，andthathenceforthhetakesnopartinthestrifeuntilhisfriendPatrokloshasbeenslain；thatthenheputsonthenewarmourwhichThetisbringstohimfromtheanvilofHephaistos，andgoesforthtowinthevictory。Thedetailsarethroughoutofthesamenature。AchilleusseesandconverseswithAthene；AphroditeiswoundedbyDiomedes，andSleepandDeathbearawaythelifelessSarpedonontheirnoiselesswingstothefar-offlandoflight。“InviewofallthisitisevidentthatHomerwasnotdescribing，likeasalariedhistoriographer，thestateofthingswhichexistedinthetimeofhisfatherorgrandfather。Tohismindtheoccurrenceswhichhedescribedwerethoseofaremote，awonderful，asemi-divinepast。
Thisconclusion，whichIhavethusfarsupportedmerelybyreferencetotheIliaditself，becomesirresistibleassoonaswetakeintoaccounttheresultsobtainedduringthepastthirtyyearsbythescienceofcomparativemythology。AslongasourviewwasrestrictedtoGreece，itwasperhapsexcusablethatAchilleusandParisshouldbetakenforexaggeratedcopiesofactualpersons。SincethedaywhenGrimmlaidthefoundationsofthescienceofmythology，allthishasbeenchanged。ItisnowheldthatAchilleusandParisandHelenaaretobefound，notonlyintheIliad，butalsointheRig-Veda，andtherefore，asmythicalconceptions，date，notfromHomer，butfromaperiodprecedingthedispersionoftheAryannations。ThetaleoftheWrathofAchilleus，farfromoriginatingwithHomer，farfrombeingrecordedbytheauthoroftheIliadasbyaneyewitness，musthavebeenknowninitsessentialfeaturesinAryana-vaedjo，atthatremoteepochwhentheIndian，theGreek，andtheTeutonwereasyetoneandthesame。Forthestoryhasbeenretainedbythethreeracesalike，inallitsprincipalfeatures；thoughtheVedahasleftitintheskywhereitoriginallybelonged，whiletheIliadandtheNibelungenliedhavebroughtitdowntoearth，theonelocatingitinAsiaMinor，andtheotherinNorthwesternEurope。[153]
[153]ForthepreciseextenttowhichIwouldindorsethetheorythattheIliad-mythisanaccountofthevictoryoflightoverdarkness，letmerefertowhatIhavesaidaboveonp。134。IdonotsupposethatthestrugglebetweenlightanddarknesswasHomer\'ssubjectintheIliadanymorethanitwasShakespeare\'ssubjectin“Hamlet。“Homer\'ssubjectwasthewrathoftheGreekhero，asShakespeare\'ssubjectwasthevengeanceoftheDanishprince。Nevertheless，thestoryofHamlet，whentracedbacktoitsNorseoriginal，isunmistakablythestoryofthequarrelbetweensummerandwinter；andthemoodyprinceisasmuchasolarheroasOdinhimself。SeeSimrock，DieQuellendesShakespeare，I。127-133。
OfcourseShakespeareknewnothingofthis，asHomerknewnothingoftheoriginofhisAchilleus。Thetwostories，therefore，arenottobetakenassun-mythsintheirpresentform。Theyaretheoffspringofotherstorieswhichweresun-myths；theyarestorieswhichconformtothesun-mythtypeafterthemanneraboveillustratedinthepaperonLightandDarkness。[Hencethereisnothingunintelligibleintheinconsistency——whichseemstopuzzleMaxMuller(ScienceofLanguage，6thed。Vol。II。p。516，note20)——ofinvestingPariswithmanyofthecharacteristicsofthechildrenoflight。Supposing，aswemust，thattheprimitivesenseoftheIliad-mythhadasentirelydisappearedintheHomericage，astheprimitivesenseoftheHamlet-mythhaddisappearedinthetimesofElizabeth，thefitgroundforwonderisthatsuchinconsistenciesarenotmorenumerous。]Thephysicaltheoryofmythswillbeproperlypresentedandcomprehended，onlywhenitisunderstoodthatweacceptthephysicalderivationofsuchstoriesastheIliad-mythinmuchthesamewaythatweareboundtoacceptthephysicaletymologiesofsuchwordsassoul，consider，truth，convince，deliberate，andthelike。ThelateDr。GibbsofYaleCollege，inhis“PhilologicalStudies，“——alittlebookwhichIusedtoreadwithdelightwhenaboy，——describessuchetymologiesas“fadedmetaphors。“
Insimilarwise，whilerefrainingfromcharacterizingtheIliadorthetragedyofHamlet——anymorethanIwouldcharacterizeLeJuifErrantbySue，orLaMaisonForestierebyErckmann-Chatrian——asnature-myths，Iwouldatthesametimeconsiderthesepoemswelldescribedasembodying“fadednature-myths。“
IntheRig-VedathePanisarethegeniiofnightandwinter，correspondingtotheNibelungs，or“ChildrenoftheMist，“intheTeutoniclegend，andtothechildrenofNephele(cloud)intheGreekmythoftheGoldenFleece。ThePanisstealthecattleoftheSun(Indra，Helios，Herakles)，andcarrythembyanunknownroutetoadarkcaveeastward。Sarama，thecreepingDawn，issentbyIndratofindandrecoverthem。ThePanisthentamperwithSarama，andtrytheirbesttoinducehertobetrayhersolarlord。Forawhilesheisprevailedupontodallywiththem；yetsheultimatelyreturnstogiveIndratheinformationneedfulinorderthathemightconquerthePanis，justasHelena，intheslightlyalteredversion，ultimatelyreturnstoherwesternhome，carryingwithherthetreasures(ktemata，Iliad，II。285)ofwhichParishadrobbedMenelaos。
But，beforethebrightIndraandhissolarheroescanreconquertheirtreasurestheymusttakecaptivetheoffspringofBrisaya，thevioletlightofmorning。ThusAchilleus，answeringtothesolarchampionAharyu，takescaptivethedaughterofBrises。Butasthesunmustalwaysbepartedfromthemorning-light，toreturntoitagainjustbeforesetting，soAchilleuslosesBriseis，andregainsheronlyjustbeforehisfinalstruggle。InsimilarwiseHeraklesispartedfromIole(“thevioletone“)，andSigurdfromBrynhild。Insullenwraththeheroretiresfromtheconflict，andhisMyrmidonsarenolongerseenonthebattle-field，asthesunhidesbehindthedarkcloudandhisraysnolongerappearabouthim。
Yettowardtheevening，asBriseisreturns，heappearsinhismight，clothedinthedazzlingarmourwroughtforhimbythefire-godHephaistos，andwithhisinvinciblespearslaysthegreatstorm-cloud，whichduringhisabsencehadwellnighprevailedoverthechampionsofthedaylight。Buthistriumphisshort-lived；forhavingtrampledonthecloudsthathadopposedhim，whileyetcrimsonedwiththefiercecarnage，thesharparrowofthenight-demonParisslayshimattheWesternGates。Wehavenotspacetogointofurtherdetails。InMr。
Cox\'s“MythologyoftheAryanNations，“and“TalesofAncientGreece，“thereaderwillfindtheentirecontentsoftheIliadandOdysseythusminutelyillustratedbycomparisonwiththeVeda，theEdda，andtheLayoftheNibelungs。
AncientastheHomericpoemsundoubtedlyare，theyaremodernincomparisonwiththetaleofAchilleusandHelena，ashereunfolded。ThedateoftheentranceoftheGreeksintoEuropewillperhapsneverbedetermined；butIdonotseehowanycompetentscholarcanwellplaceitatlessthaneighthundredorathousandyearsbeforethetimeofHomer。BetweenthetwoepochstheGreek，Latin，Umbrian，andKelticlauguageshadtimetoacquiredistinctindividualities。Farearlier，therefore，thantheHomeric“juventusmundi“wasthat“youthoftheworld，“inwhichtheAryanforefathers，knowingnoabstractterms，andpossessingnophilosophybutfetichism，deliberatelyspokeoftheSun，andtheDawn，andtheClouds，aspersonsorasanimals。TheVeda，thoughcomposedmuchlaterthanthis，——perhapsaslateastheIliad，——neverthelesspreservestherecordofthementallifeofthisperiod。TheVedicpoetisstilldimlyawarethatSaramaisthefickletwilight，andthePanisthenight-demonswhostrivetocoaxherfromherallegiancetotheday-god。Hekeepsthesceneofactioninthesky。ButtheHomericGreekhadlongsinceforgottenthatHelenaandPariswereanythingmorethansemi-divinemortals，thedaughterofZeusandthesonoftheZeus-descendedPriam。TheHinduunderstoodthatDyaus(“thebrightone“)meantthesky，andSarama(“thecreepingone“)
thedawn，andspokesignificantlywhenhecalledthelatterthedaughteroftheformer。ButtheGreekcouldnotknowthatZeuswasderivedfromarootdiv，“toshine，“orthatHelenabelongedtoarootsar，“tocreep。“Phoneticchangethushelpedhimtorisefromfetichismtopolytheism。Hisnature-godsbecamethoroughlyanthropomorphic；andheprobablynomorerememberedthatAchilleusoriginallysignifiedthesun，thanwerememberthatthewordGod，whichweusetodenotethemostvastofconceptions，originallymeantsimplytheStorm-wind。Indeed，whenthefetichistictendencyledtheGreekagaintopersonifythepowersofnature，hehadrecoursetonewnamesformedfromhisownlanguage。Thus，besideApollowehaveHelios；SelenebesideArtemisandPersephone；EosbesideAthene；GaiabesideDemeter。AsafurtherconsequenceofthisdecompositionandnewdevelopmentoftheoldAryanmythology，wefind，asmightbeexpected，thattheHomericpoemsarenotalwaysconsistentintheiruseoftheirmythicmaterials。Thus，Paris，thenight-demon，is——toMaxMuller\'sperplexity——investedwithmanyoftheattributesofthebrightsolarheroes。“LikePerseus，Oidipous，Romulus，andCyrus，heisdoomedtobringruinonhisparents；likethemheisexposedinhisinfancyonthehillside，andrescuedbyashepherd。“Allthesolarheroesbeginlifeinthisway。
Whether，likeApollo，bornofthedarknight(Leto)，orlikeOidipous，ofthevioletdawn(Iokaste)，theyarealikedestinedtobringdestructionontheirparents，asthenightandthedawnarebothdestroyedbythesun。Theexposureofthechildininfancyrepresentsthelongraysofthemorning-sunrestingonthehillside。ThenParisforsakesOinone(“thewine-colouredone“)，butmeetsheragainatthegloamingwhenshelaysherselfbyhissideamidthecrimsonflamesofthefuneralpyre。Sarpedonalso，asolarhero，ismadetofightonthesideoftheNiblungsorTrojans，attendedbyhisfriendGlaukos(“thebrilliantone“)。TheycommandtheLykians，or“childrenoflight“；andwiththemcomesalsoMemnon，sonoftheDawn，fromthefierylandoftheAithiopes，thefavouritehauntofZeusandthegodsofOlympos。
TheIliad-mythmustthereforehavebeencurrentmanyagesbeforetheGreeksinhabitedGreece，longbeforetherewasanyIliontobeconquered。Nevertheless，thisdoesnotforbidthesuppositionthatthelegend，aswehaveit，mayhavebeenformedbythecrystallizationofmythicalconceptionsaboutanucleusofgenuinetradition。InthisviewIamupheldbyamostsagaciousandaccuratescholar，Mr。E。A。Freeman，whofindsinCarlovingianromanceanexcellentillustrationoftheproblembeforeus。
TheCharlemagneofromanceisamythicalpersonage。HeissupposedtohavebeenaFrenchman，atatimewhenneithertheFrenchnationnortheFrenchlanguagecanproperlybesaidtohaveexisted；andheisrepresentedasadoughtycrusader，althoughcrusadingwasnotthoughtofuntillongaftertheKarolingianera。ThelegendarydeedsofCharlemagnearenotconformedtotheordinaryrulesofgeographyandchronology。
Heisamyth，and，whatismore，heisasolarmyth，——anavatar，oratleastarepresentative，ofOdininhissolarcapacity。Ifinhiscaselegendwerenotcontrolledandrectifiedbyhistory，hewouldbeforusasunrealasAgamemnon。
History，however，tellsusthattherewasanEmperorKarl，Germaninrace，name，andlanguage，whowasoneofthetwoorthreegreatestmenofactionthattheworldhaseverseen，andwhointheninthcenturyruledoverallWesternEurope。TothehistoricKarlcorrespondsinmanyparticularsthemythicalCharlemagne。Thelegendhaspreservedthefact，whichwithouttheinformationsuppliedbyhistorywemightperhapssetdownasafiction，thattherewasatimewhenGermany，Gaul，Italy，andpartofSpainformedasingleempire。And，asMr。Freemanhaswellobserved，themythicalcrusadesofCharlemagnearegoodevidencethattherewerecrusades，althoughtherealKarlhadnothingwhatevertodowithone。
NowthecaseofAgamemnonmaybemuchlikethatofCharlemagne，exceptthatwenolongerhavehistorytohelpusinrectifyingthelegend。TheIliadpreservesthetraditionofatimewhenalargeportionoftheislandsandmainlandofGreecewereatleastpartiallysubjecttoacommonsuzerain；
and，asMr。Freemanhasagainshrewdlysuggested，theassignmentofaplacelikeMykenai，insteadofAthensorSpartaorArgos，astheseatofthesuzerainty，isstrongevidenceofthetrustworthinessofthetradition。Itappearstoshowthatthelegendwasconstrainedbysomerememberedfact，insteadofbeingguidedbygeneralprobability。
Charlemagne\'sseatofgovernmenthasbeentransferredinromancefromAachentoParis；haditreallybeenatParis，saysMr。Freeman，noonewouldhavethoughtoftransferringittoAachen。Moreover，thestoryofAgamemnon，thoughuncontrolledbyhistoricrecords，ishereatleastsupportedbyarchaeologicremains，whichproveMykenaitohavebeenatsometimeorotheraplaceofgreatconsequence。Then，astotheTrojanwar，weknowthattheGreeksseveraltimescrossedtheAEgaeanandcolonizedalargepartoftheseacoastofAsiaMinor。InordertodothisitwasnecessarytooustfromtheirhomesmanywarlikecommunitiesofLydiansandBithynians，andwemaybesurethatthiswasnotdonewithoutprolongedfighting。TheremayveryprobablyhavebeennowandthenalevyenmasseinprehistoricGreece，astherewasinmediaevalEurope；andwhetherthegreatsuzerainatMykenaieverattendedoneornot，legendwouldbesuretosendhimonsuchanexpedition，asitafterwardssentCharlemagneonacrusade。
ItisthereforequitepossiblethatAgamemnonandMenelaosmayrepresentdimlyrememberedsovereignsorheroes，withtheircharactersandactionsdistortedtosuittheexigenciesofanarrativefoundeduponasolarmyth。ThecharacteroftheNibelungenliedherewellillustratesthatoftheIliad。
