SiegfriedandBrunhild，HagenandGunther，seemtobemerepersonificationsofphysicalphenomena；butEtzelandDietricharenoneotherthanAttilaandTheodoricsurroundedwithmythicalattributes；andeventheconceptionofBrunhildhasbeensupposedtocontainelementsderivedfromthetraditionalrecollectionofthehistoricalBrunehault。When，therefore，Achilleusissaid，likeatruesun-god，tohavediedbyawoundfromasharpinstrumentintheonlyvulnerablepartofhisbody，wemayreplythatthelegendaryCharlemagneconductshimselfinmanyrespectslikeasolardeity。IfOdysseusdetainedbyKalypsorepresentsthesunensnaredandheldcaptivebythepalegoddessofnight，thelegendofFredericBarbarossaasleepinaThuringianmountainembodiesaportionofakindredconception。WeknowthatCharlemagneandFrederichavebeensubstitutedforOdin；wemaysuspectthatwiththemythicalimpersonationsofAchilleusandOdysseussometraditionalfiguresmaybeblended。Weshouldrememberthatinearlytimesthesolar-mythwasasortoftypeafterwhichallwonderfulstorieswouldbepatterned，andthattosuchatypetraditionalsowouldbemadetoconform。
Insuggestingthisview，wearenotopeningthedoortoEuhemerism。IfthereisanyoneconclusionconcerningtheHomericpoemswhichthelaboursofawholegenerationofscholarsmaybesaidtohavesatisfactorilyestablished，itisthis，thatnotrustworthyhistorycanbeobtainedfromeithertheIliadortheOdysseymerelybysiftingoutthemythicalelement。Evenifthepoemscontainthefaintreminiscenceofanactualevent，thateventisinextricablywrappedupinmythicalphraseology，sothatbynocunningofthescholarcanitbeconstruedintohistory。InviewofthisitisquiteuselessforMr。GladstonetoattempttobasehistoricalconclusionsuponthefactthatHelenaisalwayscalled“ArgiveHelen，“ortodrawethnologicalinferencesfromthecircumstancesthatMenelaos，Achilleus，andtherestoftheGreekheroes，haveyellowhair，whiletheTrojansareneversodescribed。TheArgosofthemythisnotthecityofPeloponnesos，thoughdoubtlesssoconstruedeveninHomer\'stime。Itis“thebrightland“whereZeusresides，andtheepithetisappliedtohiswifeHereandhisdaughterHelena，aswellastothedogofOdysseus，whoreappearswithSarameyasintheVeda。Asforyellowhair，thereisnoevidencethatGreekshaveevercommonlypossessedit；butnoothercolourwoulddoforasolarhero，anditaccordinglycharacterizestheentirecompanyofthem，whereverfound，whilefortheTrojans，orchildrenofnight，itisnotrequired。
AwideracquaintancewiththeresultswhichhavebeenobtainedduringthepastthirtyyearsbythecomparativestudyoflanguagesandmythologieswouldhaveledMr。GladstonetoreconsidermanyofhisviewsconcerningtheHomericpoems，andmightperhapshaveledhimtocutouthalfortwothirdsofhisbookashopelesslyantiquated。ThechapteronthedivinitiesofOlymposwouldcertainlyhavehadtoberewritten，andtheridiculoustheoryofaprimevalrevelationabandoned。Onecanhardlypreserveone\'sgravitywhenMr。
GladstonederivesApollofromtheHebrewMessiah，andAthenefromtheLogos。ToaccreditHomerwithanacquaintancewiththedoctrineoftheLogos，whichdidnotexistuntilthetimeofPhilo，anddidnotreceiveitsauthorizedChristianformuntilthemiddleofthesecondcenturyafterChrist，iscertainlyastrangeproceeding。WeshallnextperhapsbeinvitedtobelievethattheauthorsoftheVolsungaSagaobtainedtheconceptionofSigurdfromthe“Thirty-NineArticles。“Itistruethatthesedeities，AtheneandApollo，arewiser，purer，andmoredignified，onthewhole，thananyoftheotherdivinitiesoftheHomericOlympos。Theyalone，asMr。Gladstonetrulyobserves，areneverdeceivedorfrustrated。ForallHellas，Apollowastheinterpreteroffuturity，andinthemaidAthenewehaveperhapsthehighestconceptionofdeitytowhichtheGreekmindhadattainedintheearlytimes。IntheVeda，Atheneisnothingbutthedawn；
butintheGreekmythology，whilethemerelysensuousgloriesofdaybreakareassignedtoEos，Athenebecomestheimpersonationoftheilluminatingandknowledge-givinglightofthesky。Asthedawn，sheisdaughterofZeus，thesky，andinmythiclanguagespringsfromhisforehead；but，accordingtotheGreekconception，thisimagerysignifiesthatsheshares，morethananyotherdeity，intheboundlesswisdomofZeus。TheknowledgeofApollo，ontheotherhand，isthepeculiarprivilegeofthesun，who，fromhisloftyposition，seeseverythingthattakesplaceupontheearth。EventhesecondarydivinityHeliospossessesthisprerogativetoacertainextent。
NexttoaHebrew，Mr。GladstoneprefersaPhoenicianancestryfortheGreekdivinities。ButthesamelackofacquaintancewiththeoldAryanmythologyvitiatesallhisconclusions。NodoubttheGreekmythologyisinsomeparticularstingedwithPhoenicianconceptions。AphroditewasoriginallyapurelyGreekdivinity，butincourseoftimesheacquiredsomeoftheattributesoftheSemiticAstarte，andwashardlyimprovedbythechange。AdonisissimplyaSemiticdivinity，importedintoGreece。ButthesamecannotbeprovedofPoseidon；[154]farlessofHermes，whoisidenticalwiththeVedicSarameyas，therisingwind，thesonofSaramathedawn，thelying，tricksomewind-god，whoinventedmusic，andconductsthesoulsofdeadmentothehouseofHades，evenashiscounterparttheNorseOdinrushesoverthetree-topsleadingthehostofthedeparted。WhenoneseesIris，themessengerofZeus，referredtoaHebreworiginal，becauseofJehovah\'spromisetoNoah，oneisatalosstounderstandtherelationshipbetweenthetwoconceptions。NothingcouldbemorenaturaltotheGreeksthantocalltherainbowthemessengerofthesky-godtoearth-dwellingmen；tocallitatokensetintheskybyJehovah，astheHebrewsdid，wasaverydifferentthing。WemayadmittheverycloseresemblancebetweenthemythofBellerophonandAnteia，andthatofJosephandZuleikha；butthefactthattheGreekstoryisexplicablefromAryanantecedents，whiletheHebrewstoryisisolated，mightperhapssuggesttheinferencethattheHebrewsweretheborrowers，astheyundoubtedlywereinthecaseofthemythofEden。Lastly，toconcludethatHeliosisanEasterndeity，becausehereignsintheEastoverThrinakia，iswhollyunwarranted。IsnotHeliospureGreekforthesun？andwhereshouldhissacredislandbeplaced，ifnotintheEast？Asforhisoxen，whichwroughtsuchdiredestructiontothecomradesofOdysseus，andwhichseemtoMr。Gladstonesoanomalous，theyarethoseverysameunhappycattle，theclouds，whichwerestolenbythestorm-demonCacusandthewind-deityHermes，andwhichfurnishedendlessmaterialforlegendstothepoetsoftheVeda。
[154]IhavenoopinionastothenationalityoftheEarth-shaker，and，regardingtheetymologyofhisname，I
believewecanhardlydobetterthanacknowledge，withMr。
Cox，thatitisunknown。Itmaywellbedoubted，however，whethermuchgoodislikelytocomeofcomparisonsbetweenPoseidon，Dagon，Oannes，andNoah，orofdistinctionsbetweenthechildrenofShemandthechildrenofHam。SeeBrown\'sPoseidon；aLinkbetweenSemite，Hamite，andAryan，London，1872，——abookwhichisopentoseveralofthecriticismsheredirectedagainstMr。Gladstone\'smanneroftheorizing。
ButthewholesubjectofcomparativemythologyseemstobeterraincognitatoMr。Gladstone。HepursuestheeventenourofhiswayinutterdisregardofGrimm，andKuhn，andBreal，andDasent，andBurnouf。HetakesnonoteoftheRig-Veda，nordoesheseemtorealizethattherewaseveratimewhentheancestorsoftheGreeksandHindusworshippedthesamegods。
TwoorthreetimeshecitesMaxMuller，butmakesnouseofthecopiousdatawhichmightbegatheredfromhim。TheonlyworkwhichseemsreallytohaveattractedhisattentionisM。
Jacolliot\'sverydiscreditableperformancecalled“TheBibleinIndia。“Mr。Gladstonedoesnot，indeed，unreservedlyapproveofthisbook；butneitherdoesheappeartosuspectthatitisadisgracefulpieceofcharlatanry，writtenbyamanignorantoftheveryrudimentsofthesubjectwhichheprofessestohandle。
Mr。Gladstoneisequallyoutofhisdepthwhenhecomestotreatpurelyphilologicalquestions。Ofthescienceofphilology，asbaseduponestablishedlawsofphoneticchange，heseemstohavenoknowledgewhatever。Heseemstothinkthattwowordsaresufficientlyprovedtobeconnectedwhentheyareseentoresembleeachotherinspellingorinsound。ThushequotesapprovinglyaderivationofthenameThemisfromanassumedverbthem，“tospeak，“whereasitisnotoriouslyderivedfromtiqhmi，asstatutecomesultimatelyfromstare。
Hisreferenceofhieros，“apriest，“andgeron，“anoldman，“
tothesameroot，isutterlybaseless；theoneistheSanskritishiras，“apowerfulman，“theotheristheSanskritjaran，“anoldman。“Thelistsofwordsonpages96-100aredisfiguredbymanysucherrors；andindeedthewholepurposeforwhichtheyaregivenshowshowsadlyMr。Gladstone\'sphilologyisinarrears。ThetheoryofNiebuhr——thatthewordscommontoGreekandLatin，mostlydescriptiveofpeacefuloccupations，arePelasgian——wasserviceableenoughinitsday，butisnowrenderedwhollyantiquatedbythediscoverythatsuchwordsareAryan，inthewidestsense。ThePelasgiantheoryworksverysmoothlysolongasweonlycomparetheGreekwiththeLatinwords，——as，forinstance，sugonwithjugum；butwhenweaddtheEnglishyokeandtheSanskrityugam，itisevidentthatwehavegotfaroutoftherangeofthePelasgoi。ButwhatshallwesaywhenwefindMr。GladstonecitingtheLatinthalamusinsupportofthisantiquatedtheory？Doubtlessthewordthalamusis，orshouldbe，significativeofpeacefuloccupations；butitisnotaLatinwordatall，exceptbyadoption。OnemightaswellcitethewordensembletoprovetheoriginalidentityorkinshipbetweenEnglishandFrench。
WhenMr。Gladstone，leavingthedangerousgroundofpureandappliedphilology，confineshimselftoillustratingthecontentsoftheHomericpoems，heisalwaysexcellent。Hischapteronthe“OuterGeography“oftheOdysseyisexceedinglyinteresting；showingasitdoeshowmuchmaybeobtainedfromthepatientandattentivestudyofevenasingleauthor。Mr。
Gladstone\'sknowledgeoftheSURFACEoftheIliadandOdyssey，sotospeak，isextensiveandaccurate。Itiswhenheattemptstopenetratebeneaththesurfaceandsurveythetreasureshiddeninthebowelsoftheearth，thatheshowshimselfunprovidedwiththetalismanofthewisedervise，whichalonecanunlockthosemysteries。Butmodernphilologyisanexactingscience:toapproachitshigherproblemsrequiresanamountofpreparationsufficienttoterrifyattheoutsetallbuttheboldest；andamanwhohashadtoregulatetaxation，andmakeoutfinancialstatements，andleadapoliticalpartyinagreatnation，maywellbeexcusedforignoranceofphilology。Itisdifficultenoughforthosewhohavelittleelsetodobuttoporeovertreatisesonphonetics，andthumbtheirlexicons，tokeepfullyabreastwiththelatestviewsinlinguistics。Inmattersofdetailonecanhardlyeverbroachanewhypothesiswithoutmisgivingslestsomebody，insomeweeklyjournalpublishedinGermany，mayjusthaveanticipatedandrefutedit。YetwhileMr。Gladstonemaybeexcusedforbeingunsoundinphilology，itisfarlessexcusablethatheshouldsitdowntowriteabookaboutHomer，aboundinginphilologicalstatements，withouttheslightestknowledgeofwhathasbeenachievedinthatscienceforseveralyearspast。
Inspiteofalldrawbacks，however，hisbookshowsanabidingtasteforscholarlypursuits，andthereforedeservesacertainkindofpraise。Ihope，——thoughjustnowtheideasavoursoftheludicrous，——thatthedaymaysometimearrivewhenOUR
CongressmenandSecretariesoftheTreasurywillspendtheirvacationsinwritingbooksaboutGreekantiquities，orinillustratingthemeaningofHomericphrases。
July，1870。
VII。THEPRIMEVALGHOST-WORLD。
NOearneststudentofhumanculturecanasyethaveforgottenorwhollyoutlivedthefeelingofdelightawakenedbythefirstperusalofMaxMuller\'sbrilliant“EssayonComparativeMythology，“——aworkinwhichthescientificprinciplesofmyth-interpretation，thoughnotnewlyannounced，wereatleastbroughthometothereaderwithsuchanamountoffreshandstrikingconcreteillustrationastheyhadnotbeforereceived。Yetitmusthaveoccurredtomorethanonereaderthat，whiletheanalysesofmythscontainedinthisnobleessayareinthemainsoundinprincipleandcorrectindetail，neverthelesstheauthor\'stheoryofthegenesisofmythisexpressed，andmostlikelyconceived，inawaythatisverysuggestiveofcarelessnessandfallacy。Thereareobviousreasonsfordoubtingwhethertheexistenceofmythologycanbeduetoany“disease，“abnormity，orhypertrophyofmetaphorinlanguage；andthecriticismatoncearises，thatwiththemyth-makersitwasnotsomuchthecharacteroftheexpressionwhichoriginatedthethought，asitwasthethoughtwhichgavecharactertotheexpression。ItisnotthattheearlyAryansweremyth-makersbecausetheirlanguageaboundedinmetaphor；
itisthattheAryanmother-tongueaboundedinmetaphorbecausethemenandwomenwhospokeitweremyth-makers。Andtheyweremyth-makersbecausetheyhadnothingbutthephenomenaofhumanwillandeffortwithwhichtocompareobjectivephenomena。Thereforeitwasthattheyspokeofthesunasanunweariedvoyageroramatchlessarcher，andclassifiedinanimatenolessthananimateobjectsasmasculineandfeminine。MaxMuller\'swayofstatinghistheory，bothinthisEssayandinhislaterLectures，affordsoneamongseveralinstancesofthecuriousmannerinwhichhecombinesamarvellouspenetrationintothesignificanceofdetailswithacertainloosenessofgeneralconception。[155]Theprinciplesofphilologicalinterpretationareanindispensableaidtousindetectingthehiddenmeaningofmanyalegendinwhichthepowersofnaturearerepresentedintheguiseoflivingandthinkingpersons；butbeforewecangetatthesecretofthemyth-makingtendencyitself，wemustleavephilologyandenteruponapsychologicalstudy。Wemustinquireintothecharacteristicsofthatprimitivestyleofthinkingtowhichitseemedquitenaturalthatthesunshouldbeanunerringarcher，andthethunder-cloudablackdemonorgiganticrobberfindinghisrichlymeriteddoomatthehandsoftheindignantLordofLight。
[155]“TheexpressionthattheErinys，Saranyu，theDawn，findsoutthecriminal，wasoriginallyquitefreefrommythology；ITMEANTNOMORETHANTHATCRIMEWOULDBEBROUGHT
TOLIGHTSOMEDAYOROTHER。Itbecamemythological，however，assoonastheetymologicalmeaningofErinyswasforgotten，andassoonastheDawn，aportionoftime，assumedtherankofapersonalbeing。“——ScienceofLanguage，6thedition，II。
615。Thisparagraph，inwhichtheitalicizingismine，containsMaxMuller\'stheoryinanutshell。Itseemstomewhollyatvariancewiththefactsofhistory。Thefactsconcerningprimitiveculturewhicharetobecitedinthispaperwillshowthatthecaseisjusttheotherway。Insteadoftheexpression“Erinysfindsthecriminal“beingoriginallyametaphor，itwasoriginallyaliteralstatementofwhatwasbelievedtobefact。TheDawn(not“aportionoftime，“(！)buttherosyflushofthemorningsky)wasoriginallyregardedasarealperson。Primitivemen，strictlyspeaking，donottalkinmetaphors；theybelieveintheliteraltruthoftheirsimilesandpersonifications，fromwhich，bysurvivalinculture，ourpoeticmetaphorsarelineallydescended。Homer\'sallusiontoarollingstoneasessumenosor“yearning“(tokeeponrolling)，istousamerefigurativeexpression；buttothesavageitisthedescriptionofafact。
Amongrecenttreatiseswhichhavedealtwiththisinterestingproblem，weshallfinditadvantageoustogiveespecialattentiontoMr。Tylor\'s“PrimitiveCulture，“[156]oneofthefeweruditeworkswhichareatoncetrulygreatandthoroughlyentertaining。ThelearningdisplayedinitwoulddocredittoaGermanspecialist，bothforextentandforminuteness，whiletheorderlyarrangementoftheargumentsandtheelegantlucidityofthestylearesuchasweareaccustomedtoexpectfromFrenchessay-writers。Andwhatisstillmoreadmirableisthewayinwhichtheenthusiasmcharacteristicofagenialandoriginalspeculatoristemperedbythepatienceandcautionofacool-headedcritic。Patienceandcautionarenowheremoreneededthaninwriterswhodealwithmythologyandwithprimitivereligiousideas；butthesequalitiesaretooseldomfoundincombinationwiththespeculativeboldnesswhichisrequiredwhenfreshtheoriesaretobeframedornewpathsofinvestigationopened。Thestateofmindinwhichtheexplainingpowersofafavouritetheoryarefondlycontemplatedis，tosomeextent，antagonistictothestateofmindinwhichfactsareseen，withtheeyeofimpartialcriticism，inalltheirobstinateanduncompromisingreality。
Tobeabletopreservethebalancebetweenthetwoopposingtendenciesistogiveevidenceofthemostconsummatescientifictraining。ItisfromthewantofsuchabalancethattherecentgreatworkofMr。Coxisattimessounsatisfactory。Itmay，Ifear，seemill-naturedtosayso，buttheeagernesswithwhichMr。Coxwaylayseveryavailableillustrationofthephysicaltheoryoftheoriginofmythshasnowandthenthecuriouseffectofweakeningthereader\'sconvictionofthesoundnessofthetheory。Formyownpart，thoughbynomeansinclinedtowaverinadherencetoadoctrineonceadoptedongoodgrounds，IneverfeltsomuchlikerebellingagainstthemythologicsupremacyoftheSunandtheDawnaswhenreadingMr。Cox\'svolumes。ThatMr。Tylor，whiledefendingthesamefundamentaltheory，awakensnosuchrebelliousfeelings，isduetohisclearperceptionandrealizationofthefactthatitisimpossibletogeneralizeinasingleformulasuchmany-sidedcorrespondencesasthosewhichprimitivepoetryendphilosophyhavediscernedbetweenthelifeofmanandthelifeofoutwardnature。Whosogoesroamingupanddowntheelf-landofpopularfancies，withsoleintenttoresolveeachepisodeofmythintosomeansweringphysicalevent，hisonlycriterionbeingoutwardresemblance，cannotbetrustedinhisconclusions，sincewhereverheturnsforevidenceheissuretofindsomethingthatcanbemadetoserveassuch。AsMr。Tylorobserves，nohouseholdlegendornurseryrhymeissafefromhishermeneutics。“Shouldhe，forinstance，demandashispropertythenursery\'SongofSixpence，\'hisclaimwouldbeeasilyestablished，——obviouslythefour-and-twentyblackbirdsarethefour-and-twentyhours，andthepiethatholdsthemistheunderlyingearthcoveredwiththeoverarchingsky，——howtrueatouchofnatureitisthatwhenthepieisopened，thatis，whendaybreaks，thebirdsbegintosing；theKingistheSun，andhiscountingouthismoneyispouringoutthesunshine，thegoldenshowerofDanae；theQueenistheMoon，andhertransparenthoneythemoonlight；theMaidisthe\'rosy-fingered\'Dawn，whorisesbeforetheSun，hermaster，andhangsouttheclouds，hisclothes，acrossthesky；theparticularblackbird，whosotragicallyendsthetalebysnippingoffhernose，isthehourofsunrise。“Inallthisinterpretationthereisnoaprioriimprobability，save，perhaps，initsunbrokensymmetryandcompleteness。Thatsomepoints，atleast，ofthestoryarethusderivedfromantiqueinterpretationsofphysicalevents，isinharmonywithallthatweknowconcerningnurseryrhymes。
Inshort，“thetime-honouredrhymereallywantsbutonethingtoproveitasun-myth，thatonethingbeingaproofbysomeargumentmorevalidthananalogy。“ThecharacteroftheargumentwhichislackingmaybeillustratedbyareferencetotherhymeaboutJackandJill，explainedsometimesinceinthepaperon“TheOriginsofFolkLore。“Iftheargumentbethoughtvalidwhichshowstheseill-fatedchildrentobethespotsonthemoon，itisbecausetheproofconsists，notintheanalogy，whichisinthiscasenotespeciallyobvious，butinthefactthatintheEdda，andamongignorantSwedishpeasantsofourownday，thestoryofJackandJillisactuallygivenasanexplanationofthemoon-spots。Totheneglectofthisdistinctionbetweenwhatisplausibleandwhatissupportedbydirectevidence，isduemuchofthecrudespeculationwhichencumbersthestudyofmyths。
[156]PrimitiveCulture:ResearchesintotheDevelopmentofMythology，Philosophy，Religion，Art，andCustomByEdwardB。
Tylor。2vols。8vo。London。1871。
ItiswhenMr。Tylormergesthestudyofmythologyintothewiderinquiryintothecharacteristicfeaturesofthemodeofthinkinginwhichmythsoriginated，thatwecanbestappreciatethepracticalvalueofthatunionofspeculativeboldnessandcriticalsobrietywhicheverywheredistinguisheshim。Itispleasanttomeetwithawriterwhocantreatofprimitivereligiousideaswithoutlosinghisheadoverallegoryandsymbolism，andwhodulyrealizesthefactthatasavageisnotarabbinicalcommentator，oracabalist，oraRosicrucian，butaplainmanwhodrawsconclusionslikeourselves，thoughwithfeebleintelligenceandscantyknowledge。ThemysticallegorywithwhichsuchmodernwritersasLordBaconhaveinvestedthemythsofantiquityisnopartoftheiroriginalclothing，butisratherthelateproductofastyleofreasoningfromanalogyquitesimilartothatwhichweshallperceivetohaveguidedthemyth-makersintheirprimitiveconstructions。Themythsandcustomsandbeliefswhich，inanadvancedstageofculture，seemmeaninglesssavewhencharacterizedbysomequaintlywroughtdeviceofsymbolicexplanation，didnotseemmeaninglessinthelowerculturewhichgavebirthtothem。Myths，likewords，survivetheirprimitivemeanings。Intheearlystagethemythispartandparcelofthecurrentmodeofphilosophizing；theexplanationwhichitoffersis，forthetime，thenaturalone，theonewhichwouldmostreadilyoccurtoanyonethinkingonthethemewithwhichthemythisconcerned。Butbyandbythemodeofphilosophizinghaschanged；explanationswhichformerlyseemedquiteobviousnolongeroccurtoanyone，butthemythhasacquiredanindependentsubstantiveexistence，andcontinuestobehandeddownfromparentstochildrenassomethingtrue，thoughnoonecantellwhyitistrue:Lastly，themythitselfgraduallyfadesfromremembrance，oftenleavingbehinditsomeutterlyunintelligiblecustomorseeminglyabsurdsuperstitiousnotion。Forexample，——torecurtoanillustrationalreadycitedinapreviouspaper，——itisstillbelievedhereandtherebysomevenerablegrannythatitiswickedtokillrobins；buthewhoshouldattributethebelieftotheoldgranny\'srefinedsympathywithallsentientexistence，wouldbemakingoneoftheblunderswhicharealwayscommittedbythosewhoreasonaprioriabouthistoricalmatterswithoutfollowingthehistoricalmethod。Atanearlierdatethesuperstitionexistedintheshapeofabeliefthatthekillingofarobinportendssomecalamity；inastillearlierformthecalamityisspecifiedasdeath；andagain，stillearlier，asdeathbylightning。AnotherstepbackwardrevealsthatthedreadsanctityoftherobinisowingtothefactthatheisthebirdofThor，thelightninggod；andfinallywereachthatprimitivestageofphilosophizinginwhichthelightningisexplainedasaredbirddroppingfromitsbeakawormwhichcleaveththerocks。Again，thebeliefthatsomeharmissuretocometohimwhosavesthelifeofadrowningman，isunintelligibleuntilitisregardedasacaseofsurvivalinculture。Intheolderformofthesuperstitionitisheldthattherescuerwillsoonerorlaterbedrownedhimself；andthuswepasstothefetichisticinterpretationofdrowningastheseizingoftheunfortunatepersonbythewater-spiritornixy，whoisnaturallyangryatbeingdeprivedofhisvictim，andhenceforthbearsaspecialgrudgeagainsttheboldmortalwhohasthusdaredtofrustratehim。
Theinterpretationofthelightningasaredbird，andofdrowningastheworkofasmilingbuttreacherousfiend，arepartsofthatprimitivephilosophyofnatureinwhichallforcesobjectivelyexistingareconceivedasidenticalwiththeforcesubjectivelyknownasvolition。Itisthisphilosophy，currentlyknownasfetichism，buttreatedbyMr。
Tylorunderthesomewhatmorecomprehensivenameof“animism，“
whichwemustnowconsiderinafewofitsmostconspicuousexemplifications。Whenwehaveproperlycharacterizedsomeoftheprocesseswhichtheuntrainedmindhabituallygoesthrough，weshallhaveincidentallyarrivedatafairsolutionofthegenesisofmythology。
Letusfirstnotetheeasewithwhichthebarbaricoruncultivatedmindreachesallmannerofapparentlyfancifulconclusionsthroughrecklessreasoningfromanalogy。Itisthroughtheoperationofcertainlawsofidealassociationthatallhumanthinking，thatofthehighestaswellasthatofthelowestminds，isconducted:thediscoveryofthelawofgravitation，aswellastheinventionofsuchasuperstitionastheHandofGlory，isatbottombutacaseofassociationofideas。Thedifferencebetweenthescientificandthemythologicinferenceconsistssolelyinthenumberofcheckswhichintheformercasecombinetopreventanyotherthanthetrueconclusionfrombeingframedintoapropositiontowhichthemindassents。Countlessaccumulatedexperienceshavetaughtthemodernthattherearemanyassociationsofideaswhichdonotcorrespondtoanyactualconnectionofcauseandeffectintheworldofphenomena；andhehaslearnedaccordinglytoapplytohisnewlyframednotionstherigidtestofverification。Besideswhichthesameaccumulationofexperienceshasbuiltupanorganizedstructureofidealassociationsintowhichonlythelessextravagantnewlyframednotionshaveanychanceoffitting。Theprimitiveman，orthemodernsavagewhoistosomeextenthiscounterpart，mustreasonwithouttheaidofthesemultifariouschecks。Thatimmensemassofassociationswhichanswertowhatarecalledphysicallaws，andwhichinthemindofthecivilizedmodernhavebecomealmostorganic，havenotbeenformedinthemindofthesavage；norhashelearnedthenecessityofexperimentallytestinganyofhisnewlyframednotions，saveperhapsafewofthecommonest。Consequentlythereisnothingbutsuperficialanalogytoguidethecourseofhisthoughthitherorthither，andtheconclusionsatwhichhearriveswillbedeterminedbyassociationsofideasoccurringapparentlyathaphazard。HencethequaintorgrotesquefancieswithwhichEuropeanandbarbaricfolk-loreisfilled，intheframingofwhichthemyth-makerwasbutreasoningaccordingtothebestmethodsathiscommand。Tothissimplestclass，inwhichtheassociationofideasisdeterminedbymereanalogy，belongsuchcasesasthatoftheZulu，whochewsapieceofwoodinordertosoftentheheartofthemanwithwhomheisabouttotradeforcows，ortheHessianladwho“thinkshemayescapetheconscriptionbycarryingababy-girl\'scapinhispocket，——asymbolicwayofrepudiatingmanhood。“[157]A
similarstyleofthinkingunderliesthemediaevalnecromancer\'spracticeofmakingawaxenimageofhisenemyandshootingatitwitharrows，inordertobringabouttheenemy\'sdeath；asalsothecaseofthemagicrod，mentionedinapreviouspaper，bymeansofwhichasoundthrashingcanbeadministeredtoanabsentfoethroughthemediumofanoldcoatwhichisimaginedtocoverhim。Theprincipleinvolvedhereisonewhichisdoubtlessfamiliartomostchildren，andiscloselyakintothatwhichIrvingsoamusinglyillustratesinhisdoughtygeneralwhostrutsthroughafieldofcabbagesorcorn-stalks，smitingthemtoearthwithhiscane，andimagininghimselfaheroofchivalryconqueringsingle-handedahostofcaitiffruffians。Oflikeoriginarethefanciesthatthebreakingofamirrorheraldsadeathinthefamily，——
probablybecauseofthedestructionofthereflectedhumanimage；thatthe“hairofthedogthatbityou“willpreventhydrophobiaiflaiduponthewound；orthatthetearsshedbyhumanvictims，sacrificedtomotherearth，willbringdownshowersupontheland。Mr。TylorcitesLordChesterfield\'sremark，“thatthekinghadbeenill，andthatpeoplegenerallyexpectedtheillnesstobefatal，becausetheoldestlionintheTower，abouttheking\'sage，hadjustdied。\'Sowildandcapriciousisthehumanmind，\'“observestheelegantletter-writer。Butindeed，asMr。Tylorjustlyremarks，“thethoughtwasneitherwildnorcapricious；itwassimplysuchanargumentfromanalogyastheeducatedworldhasatlengthpainfullylearnedtobeworthless，butwhich，itisnottoomuchtodeclare，wouldtothisdaycarryconsiderableweighttothemindsoffourfifthsofthehumanrace。“Uponsuchsymbolismarebasedmostofthepracticesofdivinationandthegreatpseudo-scienceofastrology。“Itisanoldstory，thatwhentwobrotherswereoncetakenilltogether，Hippokrates，thephysician，concludedfromthecoincidencethattheyweretwins，butPoseidonios，theastrologer，consideredratherthattheywerebornunderthesameconstellation；wemayaddthateitherargumentwouldbethoughtreasonablebyasavage。“SowhenaMaorifortressisattacked，thebesiegersandbesiegedlooktoseeifVenusisnearthemoon。Themoonrepresentsthefortress；andifitappearsbelowthecompanionplanet，thebesiegerswillcarrytheday，otherwisetheywillberepulsed。EquallyprimitiveandchildlikewasRousseau\'strainofthoughtonthememorabledayatLesCharmetteswhen，beingdistressedwithdoubtsastothesafetyofhissoul，hesoughttodeterminethepointbythrowingastoneatatree。“Hit，signofsalvation；miss，signofdamnation！“Thetreebeingalargeoneandverynearathand，theresultoftheexperimentwasreassuring，andtheyoungphilosopherwalkedawaywithoutfurthermisgivingsconcerningthismomentousquestion。[158]
[157]Tylor，op。cit。I。107。
[158]Rousseau，Confessions，I。vi。Forfurtherillustration，seeespeciallythenoteonthe“doctrineofsignatures，“
supra，p。55。
Whenthesavage，whosehighestintellectualeffortsresultonlyinspeculationsofthischildlikecharacter，isconfrontedwiththephenomenaofdreams，itiseasytoseewhathewillmakeofthem。Hispracticalknowledgeofpsychologyistoolimitedtoadmitofhisdistinguishingbetweenthesolidityofwakingexperienceandwhatwemaycalltheunsubstantialnessofthedream。Hemay，indeed，havelearnedthatthedreamisnottobereliedonfortellingthetruth；theZulu，forexample，hasevenreachedtheperversetriumphofcriticallogicachievedbyourownAryanancestorsinthesayingthat“dreamsgobycontraries。“ButtheZuluhasnotlearned，norhadtheprimevalAryanlearned，todisregardtheutterancesofthedreamasbeingpurelysubjectivephenomena。Tothemindasyetuntouchedbymodernculture，thevisionsseenandthevoicesheardinsleeppossessasmuchobjectiverealityasthegesturesandshoutsofwakinghours。
Whenthesavagerelateshisdream，hetellshowheSAWcertaindogs，deadwarriors，ordemonslastnight，theimplicationbeingthatthethingsseenwereobjectsexternaltohimself。
AsMr。Spencerobserves，“hisrudelanguagefailstostatethedifferencebetweenseeinganddreamingthathesaw，doinganddreamingthathedid。Fromthisinadequacyofhislanguageitnotonlyresultsthathecannottrulyrepresentthisdifferencetoothers，butalsothathecannottrulyrepresentittohimself。Henceintheabsenceofanalternativeinterpretation，hisbelief，andthatofthosetowhomhetellshisadventures，isthathisOTHERSELFhasbeenawayandcamebackwhenheawoke。Andthisbelief，whichwefindamongvariousexistingsavagetribes，weequallyfindinthetraditionsoftheearlycivilizedraces。“[159]
[159]Spencer，RecentDiscussionsinScience，etc。，p。36，“TheOriginofAnimalWorship。“
Letusconsider，foramoment，thisassumptionoftheOTHER
SELF，foruponthisisbasedthegreatmassofcrudeinferencewhichconstitutestheprimitiveman\'sphilosophyofnature。
ThehypothesisoftheOTHERSELF，whichservestoaccountforthesavage\'swanderingsduringsleepinstrangelandsandamongstrangepeople，servesalsotoaccountforthepresenceinhisdreamsofparents，comrades，orenemies，knowntobedeadandburied。Theotherselfofthedreamermeetsandconverseswiththeotherselvesofhisdeadbrethren，joinswiththeminthehunt，orsitsdownwiththemtothewildcannibalbanquet。Thusarisesthebeliefinanever-presentworldofsoulsorghosts，abeliefwhichtheentireexperienceofuncivilizedmangoestostrengthenandexpand。Theexistenceofsometribeortribesofsavageswhollydestituteofreligiousbeliefhasoftenbeenhastilyassertedandasoftencalledinquestion。Butthereisnoquestionthat，whilemanysavagesareunabletoframeaconceptionsogeneralasthatofgodhood，ontheotherhandnotribehaseverbeenfoundsolowinthescaleofintelligenceasnottohaveframedtheconceptionofghostsorspiritualpersonalities，capableofbeingangered，propitiated，orconjuredwith。
Indeeditisnotimprobableapriorithattheoriginalinferenceinvolvedinthenotionoftheotherselfmaybesufficientlysimpleandobvioustofallwithinthecapacityofanimalsevenlessintelligentthanuncivilizedman。AnauthenticcaseisonrecordofaSkyeterrierwho，beingaccustomedtoobtainfavoursfromhismasterbysittingonhishaunches，willalsositbeforehispetindia-rubberballplacedonthechimney-piece，evidentlybeseechingittojumpdownandplaywithhim。[160]SuchafactasthisisquiteinharmonywithAugusteComte\'ssuggestionthatsuchintelligentanimalsasdogs，apes，andelephantsmaybecapableofformingafewfetichisticnotions。Thebehaviouroftheterrierhererestsupontheassumptionthattheballisopentothesamesortofentreatywhichprevailswiththemaster；whichimplies，notthatthewistfulbruteaccreditstheballwithasoul，butthatinhismindthedistinctionbetweenlifeandinanimateexistencehasneverbeenthoroughlyestablished。
Justthisconfusionbetweenthingslivingandthingsnotlivingispresentthroughoutthewholephilosophyoffetichism；andtheconfusionbetweenthingsseenandthingsdreamed，whichsuggeststhenotionofanotherself，belongstothissametwilightstageofintelligenceinwhichprimevalmanhasnotyetclearlydemonstratedhisimmeasurablesuperioritytothebrutes。[161]
[160]SeeNature，Vol。VI。p。262，August1，1872。Thecircumstancesnarratedaresuchastoexcludethesuppositionthatthesittingupisintendedtoattractthemaster\'sattention。Thedoghasfrequentlybeenseentryingtosoftentheheartoftheball，whileobservedunawaresbyhismaster。
[161]“Wewould，however，commendtoMr。Fiske\'sattentionMr。
MarkTwain\'sdog，who\'couldn\'tbedependedonforaspecialprovidence，\'asbeingnearertotheactualdogofevery-daylifethanistheSkyeterriermentionedbyacertaincorrespondentofNature，towhoseletterMr。Fiskerefers。Theterrierisheldtohavehad\'afewfetichisticnotions，\'
becausehewasfoundstandinguponhishindlegsinfrontofamantel-piece，uponwhichlayanindia-rubberballwithwhichhewishedtoplay，butwhichhecouldnotreach，andwhich，saystheletter-writer，hewasevidentlybeseechingtocomedownandplaywithhim。Weconsideritmorereasonabletosupposethatadogwhohadbeendrilledintoabeliefthatstandinguponhishindlegswasverypleasingtohismaster，andwho，therefore，hadaccustomedhimselftostandonhishindlegswheneverhedesiredanything，andwhoseusualwayofgettingwhathedesiredwastoinducesomebodytogetitforhim，mayhavestoodupinfrontofthemantel-pieceratherfromforceofhabitandeagernessofdesirethanbecausehehadanyfetichisticnotions，orexpectedtheindia-rubberballtolistentohissupplications。Weadmit，however，toavoidpolemicalcontroversy，thatinmatterofreligionthedogiscapableofanything。“TheNation，Vol。XV。p。284，October1，1872。Tobesure，Idonotknowforcertainwhatwasgoingoninthedog\'smind；andso，lettingbothexplanationsstand，I
willonlyaddanotherfactofsimilarimport。“ThetendencyinsavagestoimaginethatnaturalobjectsandagenciesareanimatedbyspiritualorlivingessencesisperhapsillustratedbyalittlefactwhichIoncenoticed:mydog，afull-grownandverysensibleanimal，waslyingonthelawnduringahotandstillday；butatalittledistanceaslightbreezeoccasionallymovedanopenparasol，whichwouldhavebeenwhollydisregardedbythedog，hadanyonestoodnearit。
Asitwas，everytimethattheparasolslightlymoved，thedoggrowledfiercelyandbarked。Hemust，Ithink，havereasonedtohimself，inarapidandunconsciousmanner，thatmovementwithoutanyapparentcauseindicatedthepresenceofsomestrangelivingagent，andnostrangerhadarighttobeonhisterritory。“Darwin，DescentofMan，Vol。1。p。64。Withoutinsistinguponallthedetailsofthisexplanation，onemayreadilygrant，Ithink，thatinthedog，asinthesavage，thereisanundisturbedassociationbetweenmotionandalivingmotoragency；andthatoutofamultitudeofjustsuchassociationscommontoboth，thesavage，withhisgreatergeneralizingpower，framesatrulyfetichisticconception。
Theconceptionofasoulorotherself，capableofgoingawayfromthebodyandreturningtoit，receivesdecisiveconfirmationfromthephenomenaoffainting，trance，catalepsy，andecstasy，[162]whichoccurlessrarelyamongsavages，owingtotheirirregularmodeoflife，thanamongcivilizedmen。“Furtherverification，“observesMr。Spencer，“isaffordedbyeveryepilepticsubject，intowhosebody，duringtheabsenceoftheotherself，someenemyhasentered；
forhowelsedoesithappenthattheotherselfonreturningdeniesallknowledgeofwhathisbodyhasbeendoing？Andthissupposition，thatthebodyhasbeen\'possessed\'bysomeotherbeing，isconfirmedbythephenomenaofsomnambulismandinsanity。“Stillfurther，asMr。Spencerpointsout，whenwerecollectthatsavagesareverygenerallyunwillingtohavetheirportraitstaken，lestaportionofthemselvesshouldgetcarriedoffandbeexposedtofoulplay，[163]wemustreadilyadmitthattheweirdreflectionofthepersonandimitationofthegesturesinriversorstillwoodlandpoolswillgofartointensifythebeliefintheotherself。Lessfrequentbutuniformconfirmationistobefoundinechoes，whichinEuropewithintwocenturieshavebeencommonlyinterpretedasthevoicesofmockingfiendsorwood-nymphs，andwhichthesavagemightwellregardastheutterancesofhisotherself。
[162]NotethefetichismwrappedupintheetymologiesoftheseGreekwords。Catalepsy，katalhyis，aseizingofthebodybysomespiritordemon，whoholdsitrigid。Ecstasy，ekstasis，adisplacementorremovalofthesoulfromthebody，intowhichthedemonentersandcausesstrangelaughing，crying，orcontortions。Itisnotmetaphor，buttheliteralbeliefillaghost-world，whichhasgivenrisetosuchwordsasthese，andtosuchexpressionsas“amanbesidehimselfortransported。“
[163]Somethingakintothesavage\'sbeliefintheanimationofpicturesmaybeseeninyoungchildren。Ihaveoftenbeenaskedbymythree-year-oldboy，whetherthedoginacertainpicturewouldbitehimifheweretogonearit；andIcanrememberthat，inmyownchildhood，whenreadingabookaboutinsects，whichhadtheformidablelikenessofaspiderstampedonthecentreofthecover，IwasalwaysuneasylestmyfingershouldcomeincontactwiththedreadedthingasIheldthebook。
Withthesavage\'sunwillingnesstohavehisportraittaken，lestitfallintothehandsofsomeenemywhomayinjurehimbyconjuringwithit，maybecomparedthereluctancewhichheoftenshowstowardtellinghisname，ormentioningthenameofhisfriend，orking，ortutelarghost-deity。Infetichisticthought，thenameisanentitymysteriouslyassociatedwithitsowner，anditisnotwelltoruntheriskofitsgettingintohostilehands。Alongwiththiscautiongoesthesimilarlyoriginatedfearthatthepersonwhosenameisspokenmayresentsuchmeddlingwithhispersonality。ForthelatterreasontheDayakwillnotalludebynametothesmallpox，butwillcallit“thechief“or“jungle-leaves“；theLaplanderspeaksofthebearasthe“oldmanwiththefurcoat“；inAnnamthetigeriscalled“grandfather“or“Lord“；whileinmorecivilizedcommunitiessuchsayingsarecurrentas“talkoftheDevil，andhewillappear，“withwhichwemayalsocomparesuchexpressionsas“Eumenides“or“graciousones“fortheFuries，andotherlikeeuphemisms。Indeed，themaximnilmortuisnisibonumhadmostlikelyatonetimeafetichisticflavour。
InvariousislandsofthePacific，forboththereasonsabovespecified，thenameofthereigningchiefissorigorously“tabu，“thatcommonwordsandevensyllablesresemblingthatnameinsoundmustbeomittedfromthelanguage。InNewZealand，whereachiefsnamewasMaripi，or“knife，“itbecamenecessarytocallknivesnekra；andinTahiti，fetu，“star，“
hadtobechangedintofetia，andtui，“tostrike，“becametiai，etc。，becausetheking\'snamewasTu。Curiousfreaksareplayedwiththelanguagesoftheseislandsbythisever-recurringnecessity。AmongtheKafirsthewomenhavecometospeakadifferentdialectfromthemen，becausewordsresemblingthenamesoftheirlordsormalerelativesareinlikemanner“tabu。“ThestudentofhumanculturewilltraceamongsuchprimevalnotionstheoriginoftheJew\'sunwillingnesstopronouncethenameofJehovah；andhencewemayperhapshavebeforeustheultimatesourceofthehorrorwithwhichtheHebraizingPuritanregardssuchformsoflightswearing——“MonDieu，“etc——asarestilltoleratedonthecontinentofEurope，buthavedisappearedfromgoodsocietyinPuritanicEnglandandAmerica。ThereaderinterestedinthisgroupofideasandcustomsmayconsultTylor，EarlyHistoryofMankind，pp。142，363；MaxMuller，ScienceofLanguage，6thedition，Vol。II。p。37；Mackay，ReligiousDevelopmentoftheGreeksandHebrews，Vol。I。p。146。
Chamisso\'swell-knowntaleofPeterSchlemihlbelongstoawidelydiffusedfamilyoflegends，whichshowthataman\'sshadowhasbeengenerallyregardednotonlyasanentity，butasasortofspiritualattendantofthebody，whichundercertaincircumstancesitmaypermanentlyforsake。Itisinstrictaccordancewiththisideathatnotonlyintheclassiclanguages，butinvariousbarbarictongues，thewordfor“shadow“expressesalsothesoulorotherself。Tasmanians，Algonquins，Central-Americans，Abipones，Basutos，andZulusarecitedbyMr。Tylorasthusimplicitlyassertingtheidentityoftheshadowwiththeghostorphantasmseenindreams；theBasutosgoingsofarastothink“thatifamanwalksontheriver-bank，acrocodilemayseizehisshadowinthewateranddrawhimin。“AmongtheAlgonquinsasickpersonissupposedtohavehisshadoworotherselftemporarilydetachedfromhisbody，andtheconvalescentisattimes“reproachedforexposinghimselfbeforehisshadowwassafelysettleddowninhim。“Ifthesickmanhasbeenplungedintostupor，itisbecausehisotherselfhastravelledawayasfarasthebrinkoftheriverofdeath，butnotbeingallowedtocrosshascomebackandre-enteredhim。AndactinguponasimilarnotiontheailingFijiwillsometimesliedownandraiseahueandcryforhissoultobebroughtback。Thus，continuesMr。Tylor，“invariouscountriesthebringingbackoflostsoulsbecomesaregularpartofthesorcerer\'sorpriest\'sprofession。“[164]OnAryansoilwefindthenotionofatemporarydepartureofthesoulsurvivingtoalatedateinthetheorythatthewitchmayattendtheinfernalSabbathwhileherearthlytabernacleisquietlysleepingathome。Theprimevalconceptionreappears，clothedinbitterestsarcasm，inDante\'sreferencetohislivingcontemporarieswhosesoulshemetwithinthevaultsofhell，whiletheirbodieswerestillwalkingaboutontheearth，inhabitedbydevils。
[164]Tylor，PrimitiveCulture，I。394。“TheZulusholdthatadeadbodycancastnoshadow，becausethatappurtenancedepartedfromitatthecloseoflife。“Hardwick，Traditions，Superstitions，andFolk-Lore，p。123。
Thetheorywhichidentifiesthesoulwiththeshadow，andsupposestheshadowtodepartwiththesicknessanddeathofthebody，wouldseemliabletobeattendedwithsomedifficultiesinthewayofverification，eventothedimintelligenceofthesavage。Buttheproprietyofidentifyingsoulandbreathisborneoutbyallprimevalexperience。Thebreath，whichreallyquitsthebodyatitsdecease，hasfurnishedthechiefnameforthesoul，notonlytotheHebrew，theSanskrit，andtheclassictongues；notonlytoGermanandEnglish，wheregeist，andghost，accordingtoMaxMuller，havethemeaningof“breath，“andareakintosuchwordsasgas，gust，andgeyser；butalsotonumerousbarbariclanguages。
AmongthenativesofNicaraguaandCalifornia，inJavaandinWestAustralia，thesoulisdescribedastheairorbreezewhichpassesinandoutthroughthenostrilsandmouth；andtheGreenlanders，accordingtoCranz，reckontwoseparatesouls，thebreathandtheshadow。“AmongtheSeminolesofFlorida，whenawomandiedinchildbirth，theinfantwasheldoverherfacetoreceiveherpartingspirit，andthusacquirestrengthandknowledgeforitsfutureuse……TheirstateofmindiskeptuptothisdayamongTyrolesepeasants，whocanstillfancyagoodman\'ssoultoissuefromhismouthatdeathlikealittlewhitecloud。“[165]Itiskeptup，too，inLancashire，whereawell-knownwitchdiedafewyearssince；
“butbeforeshecould\'shuffleoffthismortalcoil\'shemustneedsTRANSFERHERFAMILIARSPIRITtosometrustysuccessor。
Anintimateacquaintancefromaneighbouringtownshipwasconsequentlysentforinallhaste，andonherarrivalwasimmediatelyclosetedwithherdyingfriend。Whatpassedbetweenthemhasneverfullytranspired，butitisconfidentlyaffirmedthatatthecloseoftheinterviewthisassociateRECEIVEDTHEWITCH\'SLASTBREATHINTOHERMOUTHANDWITHIT
HERFAMILIARSPIRIT。Thedreadedwomanthusceasedtoexist，butherpowersforgoodorevilweretransferredtohercompanion；andonpassingalongtheroadfromBurnleytoBlackburnwecanpointoutafarmhouseatnogreatdistancewithwhosethriftymatronnoneighbouringfarmerwillyetdaretoquarrel。“[166]
[165]Tylor，op。cit。I。391。
[166]HarlandandWilkinson，LancashireFolk-Lore，1867，p。
210。
Ofthetheoryofembodimenttherewillbeoccasiontospeakfurtheron。Atpresentletusnotpassoverthefactthattheotherselfisnotonlyconceivedasshadoworbreath，whichcanattimesquitthebodyduringlife，butisalsosupposedtobecometemporarilyembodiedinthevisibleformofsomebirdorbeast。IndiscussingelsewherethemythofBishopHatto，wesawthatthesoulissometimesrepresentedintheformofaratormouse；andintreatingofwerewolveswenoticedthebeliefthatthespiritsofdeadancestors，bornealonginthenight-wind，havetakenonthesemblanceofhowlingdogsorwolves。“ConsistentwiththesequaintideasareceremoniesinvogueinChinaofbringinghomeinacock(liveorartificial)thespiritofamandeceasedinadistantplace，andofenticingintoasickman\'scoatthedepartingspiritwhichhasalreadylefthisbodyandsoconveyingitback。“[167]InCastren\'sgreatworkonFinnishmythology，wefindthestoryofthegiantwhocouldnotbekilledbecausehekepthissoulhiddeninatwelve-headedsnakewhichhecarriedinabagasherodeonhorseback；onlywhenthesecretwasdiscoveredandthesnakecarefullykilled，didthegiantyielduphislife。InthisFinnishlegendwehaveoneofthethousandphasesofthestoryofthe“GiantwhohadnoHeartinhisBody，“butwhoseheartwasconcealed，forsafekeeping，inaduck\'segg，orinapigeon，carefullydisposedinsomebelfryattheworld\'sendamillionmilesaway，orencasedinawellnighinfiniteseriesofChineseboxes。[168]Since，inspiteofalltheseprecautions，thepoorgiant\'sheartinvariablycametogrief，weneednotwonderattheKarensuperstitionthatthesoulisindangerwhenitquitsthebodyonitsexcursions，asexemplifiedincountlessIndo-Europeanstoriesoftheaccidentalkillingoftheweirdmouseorpigeonwhichembodiesthewanderingspirit。Converselyitisheldthatthedetachmentoftheotherselfisfraughtwithdangertotheselfwhichremains。Inthephilosophyof“wraiths“and“fetches，“theappearanceofadouble，likethatwhichtroubledMistressAfferyinherwakingdreamsofMr。
Flintwinch，hasbeenfromtimeoutofmindasignalofalarm。
“InNewZealanditisominoustoseethefigureofanabsentperson，forifitbeshadowyandthefacenotvisible，hisdeathmayerelongbeexpected，butifthefacebeseenheisdeadalready。ApartyofMaoris(oneofwhomtoldthestory)
wereseatedroundafireintheopenair，whenthereappeared，seenonlybytwoofthem，thefigureofarelative，leftillathome；theyexclaimed，thefigurevanished，andonthereturnofthepartyitappearedthatthesickmanhaddiedaboutthetimeofthevision。“[169]Thebeliefinwraithshassurvivedintomoderntimes，andnowandthenappearsintherecordsofthatremnantofprimevalphilosophyknownas“spiritualism，“as，forexample，inthecaseoftheladywho“thoughtshesawherownfatherlookinatthechurch-windowatthemomenthewasdyinginhisownhouse。“
[167]Tylor，op。cit。II。139。
[168]InRussiathesoulsofthedeadaresupposedtobeembodiedinpigeonsorcrows。“ThuswhentheDeaconTheodoreandhisthreeschismaticbrethrenwereburntin1681，thesoulsofthemartyrs，asthe\'OldBelievers\'affirm，appearedintheairaspigeons。InVolhyniadeadchildrenaresupposedtocomebackinthespringtotheirnativevillageunderthesemblanceofswallowsandothersmallbirds，andtoseekbysofttwitteringorsongtoconsoletheirsorrowingparents。“
Ralston，SongsoftheRussianPeople，p。118。
[169]Tylor，op。cit。I。404。
Thebeliefinthe“death-fetch，“likethedoctrinewhichidentifiessoulwithshadow，isinstructiveasshowingthatinbarbaricthoughttheotherselfissupposedtoresemblethematerialselfwithwhichithascustomarilybeenassociated。
Invarioussavagesuperstitionstheminuteresemblanceofsoultobodyisforciblystated。TheAustralian，forinstance，notcontentwithslayinghisenemy，cutsofftherightthumbofthecorpse，sothatthedepartedsoulmaybeincapacitatedfromthrowingaspear。Eventhehalf-civilizedChineseprefercrucifixiontodecapitation，thattheirsoulsmaynotwanderheadlessaboutthespirit-world。[170]ThusweseehowfarremovedfromtheChristiandoctrineofsoulsistheprimevaltheoryofthesoulorotherselfthatfiguresindreamland。Sogrosslymaterialisticistheprimitiveconceptionthatthesavagewhocherishesitwillboreholesinthecoffinofhisdeadfriend，sothatthesoulmayagainhaveachance，ifitlikes，torevisitthebody。Tothisday，amongthepeasantsinsomepartsofNorthernEurope，whenOdin，thespectralhunter，ridesbyattendedbyhisfurioushost，thewindowsineverysick-roomareopened，inorderthatthesoul，ifitchoosestodepart，maynotbehinderedfromjoiningintheheadlongchase。Andso，addsMr。Tylor，aftertheIndiansofNorthAmericahadspentariotousnightinsingeinganunfortunatecaptivetodeathwithfirebrands，theywouldhowllikethefiendstheywere，andbeattheairwithbrushwood，todriveawaythedistressedandrevengefulghost。“Withakindlierfeeling，theCongonegroesabstainedforawholeyearafteradeathfromsweepingthehouse，lestthedustshouldinjurethedelicatesubstanceoftheghost“；andevennow，“itremainsaGermanpeasantsayingthatitiswrongtoslamadoor，lestoneshouldpinchasoulinit。“[172]Dante\'sexperiencewiththeghostsinhellandpurgatory，whowereastonishedathisweighingdowntheboatinwhichtheywerecarried，isbeliedbythesweetGermannotion“thatthedeadmother\'scomingbackinthenighttosucklethebabyshehasleftonearthmaybeknownbythehollowpresseddowninthebedwhereshelay。“
Almostuniversallyghosts，howeverimpervioustothrustofswordorshotofpistol，caneatanddrinklikeSquireWesterns。Andlastly，wehavethegrotesqueconceptionofsoulssufficientlymaterialtobekilledoveragain，asinthecaseofthenegrowidowswho，wishingtomarryasecondtime，willgoandduckthemselvesinthepond，inordertodrownthesoulsoftheirdepartedhusbands，whicharesupposedtoclingabouttheirnecks；while，accordingtotheFijitheory，theghostofeverydeadwarriormustgothroughaterriblefightwithSamuandhisbrethren，inwhich，ifhesucceeds，hewillenterParadise，butifhefailshewillbekilledoveragainandfinallyeatenbythedreadedSamuandhisunearthlycompany。
[171]Tylor，op。cit。I。407。
[172]Tylor，op。cit。I。410。Inthenextstageofsurvivalthisbeliefwilltaketheshapethatitiswrongtoslamadoor，noreasonbeingassigned；andinthesucceedingstage，whenthechildaskswhyitisnaughtytoslamadoor，hewillbetold，becauseitisanevidenceofbadtemper。Thusdoold-worldfanciesdisappearbeforetheinroadsofthepracticalsense。
Fromtheconceptionofsoulsembodiedinbeast-forms，asaboveillustrated，itisnotawidesteptotheconceptionofbeast-soulswhich，likehumansouls，survivethedeathofthetangiblebody。Thewide-spreadsuperstitionsconcerningwerewolvesandswan-maidens，andthehardlylessgeneralbeliefinmetempsychosis，showthatprimitiveculturehasnotarrivedatthedistinctionattainedbymodernphilosophybetweentheimmortalmanandthesoullessbrute。Stillmoredirectevidenceisfurnishedbysundrysavagecustoms。TheKafirwhohaskilledanelephantwillcrythathedidn\'tmeantodoit，and，lesttheelephant\'ssoulshouldstillseekvengeance，hewillcutoffandburythetrunk，sothatthemightybeastmaygocrippledtothespirit-land。Inlikemanner，theSamoyeds，aftershootingabear，willgatheraboutthebodyofferingexcusesandlayingtheblameontheRussians；andtheAmericanredskinwillevenputthepipeofpeaceintothedeadanimal\'smouth，andbeseechhimtoforgivethedeed。InAssamitisbelievedthattheghostsofslainanimalswillbecomeinthenextworldthepropertyofthehunterwhokillsthem；andtheKamtchadalesexpresslydeclarethatallanimals，evenfliesandbugs，willliveafterdeath，——abelief，which，inourownday，hasbeenindorsedonphilosophicalgroundsbyaneminentlivingnaturalist。[173]
TheGreenlanders，too，giveevidenceofthesamebeliefbysupposingthatwhenafteranexhaustingfeverthepatientcomesupinunprecedentedhealthandvigour，itisbecausehehaslosthisformersoulandhaditreplacedbythatofayoungchildorareindeer。Inarecentworkinwhichthecrudestfanciesofprimevalsavageryarethinlydisguisedinajargonlearnedfromthesuperficialreadingofmodernbooksofscience，M。Figuiermaintainsthathumansoulsareforthemostpartthesurvivingsoulsofdeceasedanimals；ingeneral，thesoulsofprecociousmusicalchildrenlikeMozartcomefromnightingales，whilethesoulsofgreatarchitectshavepassedintothemfrombeavers，etc。，etc。[174]
[173]Agassiz，EssayonClassification，pp。97-99。
[174]Figuier，TheTo-morrowofDeath，p。247。
Thepracticeofbeggingpardonoftheanimalonehasjustslainisinsomepartsoftheworldextendedtothecaseofplants。WhentheTaleinoffersaprayertothetreewhichheisabouttocutdown，itisobviouslybecauseheregardsthetreeasendowedwithasoulorghostwhichinthenextlifemayneedtobepropitiated。Andthedoctrineoftransmigrationdistinctlyincludesplantsalongwithanimalsamongthefutureexistencesintowhichthehumansoulmaypass。
Asplants，likeanimals，manifestphenomenaoflife，thoughtoamuchlessconspicuousdegree，itisnotincomprehensiblethatthesavageshouldattributesoulstothem。Buttheprimitiveprocessofanthropomorphisationdoesnotendhere。
Notonlythehorseanddog，thebamboo，andtheoak-tree，butevenlifelessobjects，suchasthehatchet，orbowandarrows，orfoodanddrinkofthedeadman，possessotherselveswhichpassintotheworldofghosts。Fijisandothercontemporarysavages，whenquestioned，expresslydeclarethatthisistheirbelief。“Ifanaxeorachiseliswornoutorbrokenup，awayfliesitssoulfortheserviceofthegods。“TheAlgonquinstoldCharlevoixthatsincehatchetsandkettleshaveshadows，nolessthanmenandwomen，itfollows，ofcourse，thattheseshadows(orsouls)mustpassalongwithhumanshadows(orsouls)intothespirit-land。Inthisweseehowsimpleandconsistentisthelogicwhichguidesthesavage，andhowinevitableisthegenesisofthegreatmassofbeliefs，toourmindssoarbitraryandgrotesque，whichprevailthroughoutthebarbaricworld。Howeverabsurdthebeliefthatpotsandkettleshavesoulsmayseemtous，itisneverthelesstheonlybeliefwhichcanbeheldconsistentlybythesavagetowhompotsandkettles，nolessthanhumanfriendsorenemies，mayappearinhisdreams；whoseesthemfollowedbyshadowsastheyaremovedabout；whohearstheirvoices，dullorringing，whentheyarestruck；andwhowatchestheirdoublesfantasticallydancinginthewaterastheyarecarriedacrossthestream。[175]Tominds，evenincivilizedcountries，whichareunusedtotheseveretrainingofscience，nostrongerevidencecanbeallegedthanwhatiscalled“theevidenceofthesenses“；foritisonlylongfamiliaritywithsciencewhichteachesusthattheevidenceofthesensesistrustworthyonlyinsofarasitiscorrectlyinterpretedbyreason。Forthetruthofhisbeliefintheghostsofmenandbeasts，treesandaxes，thesavagehasundeniablytheevidenceofhissenseswhichhavesooftenseen，heard，andhandledtheseotherselves。
[175]Here，asusually，thedoctrineofmetempsychosiscomesintocompletetheproof。“Mr。DarwinsawtwoMalaywomeninKeelingIsland，whohadawoodenspoondressedinclotheslikeadoll；thisspoonhadbeencarriedtothegraveofadeadman，andbecominginspiredatfullmoon，infactlunatic，itdancedaboutconvulsivelylikeatableorahatatamodernspirit-seance。“Tylor，op。cit。II。139。
Thefuneralceremoniesofunculturedracesfreshlyillustratethiscrudephilosophy，andreceivefreshillustrationfromit。
Ontheprimitivebeliefintheghostlysurvivalofpersonsandobjectsreststhealmostuniversalcustomofsacrificingthewives，servants，horses，anddogsofthedepartedchiefofthetribe，aswellasofpresentingathisshrinesacredofferingsoffood，ornaments，weapons，andmoney。AmongtheKayanstheslaveswhoarekilledattheirmaster\'stombareenjoinedtotakegreatcareoftheirmaster\'sghost，towashandshampooit，andtonurseitwhensick。Othersavagesthinkthat“allwhomtheykillinthisworldshallattendthemasslavesafterdeath，“andforthisreasonthethriftyDayaksofBorneountillatelywouldnotallowtheiryoungmentomarryuntiltheyhadacquiredsomepostmortempropertybyprocuringatleastonehumanhead。ItishardlynecessarytodomorethanalludetotheFijicustomofstranglingallthewivesofthedeceasedathisfuneral，ortotheequallywell-knownHinduriteofsuttee。Though，asWilsonhasshown，thelatterriteisnotsupportedbyanygenuineVedicauthority，butonlybyashamelessBrahmaniccorruptionofthesacredtext，Mr。Tylorisneverthelessquiterightinarguingthatunlessthehorriblecustomhadreceivedthesanctionofapublicopinionbequeathedfrompre-Vedictimes，theBrahmanswouldhavehadnomotiveforfraudulentlyrevivingit；andthisopinionisvirtuallyestablishedbythefactoftheprevalenceofwidowsacrificeamongGauls，Scandinavians，Slaves，andotherEuropeanAryans。[176]ThoughunderEnglishruletheritehasbeenforciblysuppressed，yetthearchaicsentimentswhichsolongmaintaineditarenotyetextinct。WithinthepresentyeartherehasappearedinthenewspapersanotimprobablestoryofabeautifulandaccomplishedHinduladywho，havingbecomethewifeofawealthyEnglishman，andafterlivingseveralyearsinEnglandamidtheinfluencesofmodernsociety，neverthelesswentoffandprivatelyburnedherselftodeathsoonafterherhusband\'sdecease。
[176]Tylor，op。cit。I。414-422。
Thereaderwhothinksitfar-fetchedtointerpretfuneralofferingsoffood，weapons，ornaments，ormoney，onthetheoryofobject-souls，willprobablysuggestthatsuchofferingsmaybemerememorialsofaffectionoresteemforthedeadman。
Such，indeed，theyhavecometobeinmanycountriesaftersurvivingthephaseofcultureinwhichtheyoriginated；butthereisampleevidencetoshowthatattheoutsettheywerepresentedinthebeliefthattheirghostswouldbeeatenorotherwiseemployedbytheghostofthedeadman。ThestoutclubwhichisburiedwiththedeadFijisendsitssoulalongwithhimthathemaybeabletodefendhimselfagainstthehostileghostswhichwilllieinambushforhimontheroadtoMbulu，seekingtokillandeathim。Sometimestheclubisafterwardsremovedfromthegraveasofnofurtheruse，sinceitsghostisallthatthedeadmanneeds。Inlikemanner，“astheGreeksgavethedeadmantheobolusforCharon\'stoll，andtheoldPrussiansfurnishedhimwithspendingmoney，tobuyrefreshmentonhiswearyjourney，sotothisdayGermanpeasantsburyacorpsewithmoneyinhismouthorhand，“andthisisalsosaidtobeoneoftheregularceremoniesofanIrishwake。OfsimilarpurportwerethefuneralfeastsandoblationsoffoodinGreeceandItaly，the“rice-cakesmadewithghee“destinedfortheHindusojourninginYama\'skingdom，andthemeatandgruelofferedbytheChinamantothemanesofhisancestors。“ManytravellershavedescribedtheimaginationwithwhichtheChinesemakesuchofferings。Itisthatthespiritsofthedeadconsumetheimpalpableessenceofthefood，leavingbehinditscoarsematerialsubstance，whereforethedutifulsacrificers，havingsetoutsumptuousfeastsforancestralsouls，allowthemapropertimetosatisfytheirappetite，andthenfalltothemselves。“[177]SointheHomericsacrificetothegods，afterthedeityhassmelledthesweetsavourandconsumedthecurlingsteamthatrisesghost-likefromtheroastingviands，theassembledwarriorsdevourtheremains。“[178]
[177]Tylor，op。cit。I。435，446；II。30，36。
[178]AccordingtotheKarens，blindnessoccurswhentheSOUL
OFTHEEYEiseatenbydemons。Id。，II。353。
Thusfarthecourseoffetichisticthoughtwhichwehavetracedout，withMr。Tylor\'said，issuchasisnotalwaysobvioustothemoderninquirerwithoutconsiderableconcreteillustration。Theremainderoftheprocess，resultinginthatsystematicandcompleteanthropomorphisationofnaturewhichhasgivenrisetomythology，maybemoresuccinctlydescribed。
Gatheringtogethertheconclusionsalreadyobtained，wefindthatdailyorfrequentexperienceofthephenomenaofshadowsanddreamshascombinedwithlessfrequentexperienceofthephenomenaoftrance，ecstasy，andinsanity，togenerateinthemindofunculturedmanthenotionofatwofoldexistenceappertainingaliketoallanimateorinanimateobjects:asallalikepossessmaterialbodies，soallalikepossessghostsorsouls。Nowwhenthetheoryofobject-soulsisexpandedintoageneraldoctrineofspirits，thephilosophicschemeofanimismiscompleted。Oncehabituatedtotheconceptionofsoulsofknivesandtobacco-pipespassingtothelandofghosts，thesavagecannotavoidcarryingtheinterpretationstillfurther，sothatwindandwater，fireandstorm，areaccreditedwithindwellingspiritsakinbynaturetothesoulwhichinhabitsthehumanframe。Thatthemightyspiritordemonbywhoseimpellingwillthetreesarerootedupandtilestorm-cloudsdrivenacrosstheskyshouldresembleafreedhumansoul，isanaturalinference，sinceunculturedmanhasnotattainedtotheconceptionofphysicalforceactinginaccordancewithuniformmethods，andhencealleventsaretohismindthemanifestationsofcapriciousvolition。Ifthefireburnsdownhishut，itisbecausethefireisapersonwithasoul，andisangrywithhim，andneedstobecoaxedintoakindliermoodbymeansofprayerorsacrifice。Thusthesavagehasapriorinoalternativebuttoregardfire-soulassomethingakintohuman-soul；andinpointoffactwefindthatsavagephilosophymakesnodistinctionbetweenthehumanghostandtheelementaldemonordeity。Thisissufficientlyprovedbytheuniversalprevalenceoftheworshipofancestors。Theessentialprincipleofmanes-worshipisthatthetribalchieforpatriarch，whohasgovernedthecommunityduringlife，continuesalsotogovernitafterdeath，assistingitinitswarfarewithhostiletribes，rewardingbravewarriors，andpunishingtraitorsandcowards。ThusfromtheconceptionofthelivingkingwepasstothenotionofwhatMr。Spencercalls“thegod-king，“andthencetotherudimentarynotionofdeity。AmongsuchhighersavagesastheZulus，thedoctrineofdivineancestorshasbeendevelopedtotheextentofrecognizingafirstancestor，theGreatFather，Unkulunkulu，whomadetheworld。ButinthestratumofsavagethoughtinwhichbarbaricorAryanfolk-loreisforthemostpartbased，wefindnosuchexaltedspeculation。TheancestorsoftherudeVeddasandoftheGuineanegroes，theHindupitris(patres，“fathers“)，andtheRomanmaneshavebecomeelementaldeitieswhichsendrainorsunshine，healthorsickness，plentyorfamine，aridtowhichtheirlivingoffspringappealforguidanceamidthevicissitudesoflife。[179]Thetheoryofembodiment，alreadyalludedto，showshowthoroughlythedemonswhichcausediseaseareidentifiedwithhumanandobjectsouls。InAustralasiaitisadeadman\'sghostwhichcreepsupintotheliveroftheimpiouswretchwhohasventuredtopronouncehisname；whileconverselyinthewell-knownEuropeantheoryofdemoniacalpossession，itisafairyfromelf-land，oranimpfromhell，whichhasenteredthebodyofthesufferer。Intheclosekinship，moreover，betweendisease-possessionandoracle-possession，wherethebodyoftilePythia，orthemedicine-man，isplacedunderthedirectcontrolofsomegreatdeity，[180]wemayseehowbyinsensibletransitionstheconceptionofthehumanghostpassesintotheconceptionofthespiritualnumen，ordivinity。
[179]Thefollowingcitationisinterestingasanillustrationofthedirectnessofdescentfromheathenmanes-worshiptoChristiansaint-worship:“ItiswellknownthatRomulus，mindfulofhisownadventurousinfancy，becameafterdeathaRomandeity，propitioustothehealthandsafetyofyoungchildren，sothatnursesandmotherswouldcarrysicklyinfantstopresenttheminhislittleroundtempleatthefootofthePalatine。InafteragesthetemplewasreplacedbythechurchofSt。Theodorus，andthereDr。ConyersMiddleton，whodrewpublicattentiontoitscurioushistory，usedtolookinandseetenoradozenwomen，eachwithasickchildinherlap，sittinginsilentreverencebeforethealtarofthesaint。Theceremonyofblessingchildren，especiallyaftervaccination，maystillbeseenthereonThursdaymornings。“
Op。cit。II。111。
[180]WantofspacepreventsmefromremarkingatlengthuponMr。Tylor\'sadmirabletreatmentofthephenomenaoforacularinspiration。Attentionshouldbecalled，however，tothebrilliantexplanationoftheimportanceaccordedbyallreligionstotheriteoffasting。Prolongedabstinencefromfoodtendstobringonamentalstatewhichisfavourabletovisions。Thesavagepriestormedicine-manqualifieshimselffortheperformanceofhisdutiesbyfasting，andwherethisisnotsufficient，oftenusesintoxicatingdrugs；whencethesacrednessofthehasheesh，asalsooftheVedicsoma-juice。
Thepracticeoffastingamongcivilizedpeoplesisaninstanceofsurvival。
Topursuethislineofinquirythroughthecountlessnymphsanddryadsandnixiesofthehighernature-worshipuptotheOlympiandivinitiesofclassicpolytheism，wouldbetoenteruponthehistoryofreligiousbelief，andinsodoingtolosesightofourpresentpurpose，whichhasmerelybeentoshowbywhatmentalprocessthemyth-makercanspeakofnaturalobjectsinlanguagewhichimpliesthattheyareanimatedpersons。Briefasouraccountofthisprocesshasbeen，I
believethatenoughhasbeensaid，notonlytorevealtheinadequacyofpurelyphilologicalsolutions(likethosecontainedinMaxMuller\'sfamousEssay)toexplainthegrowthofmyths，butalsotoexhibitthevastimportanceforthispurposeofthekindofpsychologicalinquiryintothementalhabitsofsavageswhichMr。Tylorhassoablyconducted。
Indeed，howeverlackingwemaystillbeinpointsofdetail，I
thinkwehavealreadyreachedaverysatisfactoryexplanationofthegenesisofmythology。Sincetheessentialcharacteristicofamythisthatitisanattempttoexplainsomenaturalphenomenonbyendowingwithhumanfeelingsandcapacitiesthesenselessfactorsinthephenomenon，andsinceithasherebeenshownhowunculturedman，bythebestusehecanmakeofhisrudecommonsense，mustinevitablycome，andhasinvariablycome，toregardallobjectsasendowedwithsouls，andallnatureaspeopledwithsupra-humanentitiesshapedafterthegeneralpatternofthehumansoul，Iaminclinedtosuspectthatwehavegotveryneartotherootofthewholematter。Wecancertainlyfindnodifficultyinseeingwhyawater-spoutshouldbedescribedinthe“ArabianNights“asalivingdemon:“Theseabecametroubledbeforethem，andtherearosefromitablackpillar，ascendingtowardsthesky，andapproachingthemeadow，……andbeholditwasaJinni，ofgiganticstature。“WecanseewhytheMoslemcamel-drivershouldfinditmostnaturaltoregardthewhirlingsimoomasamalignantJinni；wemayunderstandhowitisthatthePersianseesinbodilyshapethescarletfeveras“ablushingmaidwithlocksofflameandcheeksallrosyred“；
andweneednotconsideritstrangethattheprimevalAryanshouldhaveregardedthesunasavoyager，aclimber，oranarcher，andthecloudsascowsdrivenbythewind-godHermestotheirmilking。TheidentificationofWilliamTellwiththesunbecomesthoroughlyintelligible；norcanwebelongersurprisedattheconceptionofthehowlingnight-windasaravenouswolf。Whenpotsandkettlesarethoughttohavesoulsthatlivehereafter，thereisnodifficultyinunderstandinghowtheblueskycanhavebeenregardedasthesireofgodsandmen。Andthus，astheelvesandbogartsofpopularloreareinmanycasesdescendedfromancientdivinitiesofOlymposandValhalla，sotheseinturnmustacknowledgetheirancestorsintheshadowydenizensoftheprimevalghost-world。
August，1872。
NOTE。
THEfollowingaresomeofthemodernworksmostlikelytobeofusetothereaderwhoisinterestedinthelegendofWilliamTell。
HISELY，J。J。DissertatiohistorieainauguralisdeOulielmoTellio，etc。Groningae，1824。
IDELER，J。L。DieSagevondemSchussdesTell。Berlin，1836。
HAUSSER，L。DieSagevonTellaufsNeuekritischuntersucht。
Heidelberg，1840。
HISELY，J。J。Recherchescritiquessurl\'histoiredeGuillaumeTell。Lausanne，1843。
LIEBENAU，H。DieTell-SagezudemJahre1230historisohnachneuestenQuellen。Aarau，1864。
VISCHER，W。DieSagevonderBefreinngderWaldstatte，etc。
NebsteinerBeilage:dasaltesteTellensehauspiel。Leipzig，1867。
BORDIER，H。L。LeGrutlietGuillaumeTell，oudefensedelatraditionvulgairesurlesoriginesdelaconfederationsuisse。GeneveetBale，1869。
Thesame。Laquerellesurlestraditionsconcernantl\'originedelaconfederationsuisse。GeneveetBale，1869。
RILLIET，A。Lesoriginesdelaconfederationsuisse:histoireetlegende。2eSed。，revueetcorrigee。GeneveetBale，1869。
Thesame。LettreaM。HenriBordieraproposdesadefensedelatraditionvulgairesurlesoriginesdelaconfederationsuisse。GeneveetBale，1869。
HUNGERBUHLER，H。Etudecritiquesurlestraditionsrelativesauxoriginesdelaconfederationsuisse。GeneveetBale，1869。
MEYER，KARL。DieTellsage。[InBartsch，GermanistischeStudien，I。159-170。Wien，1872。
SeealsothearticlesbyM。Scherer，inLeTemps，18Feb。，1868；byM。Reuss，intheRevuecritiqued\'histoire，1868；byM。deWiss，intheJournaldeGeneve，7July，1868；alsoRevuecritique，17July，1869；JournaldeGeneve，24Oct。，1868；
GazettedeLausanne，feuilletonlitteraire，2-5Nov。，1868，“Lesoriginesdelaconfederationsuisse，“parM。Secretan；
EdinburghReview，Jan。，1869，“TheLegendofTellandRutli。“
End
