Variouschangesasaresultoftheactionoflighthavebeenobservedinthelivingretina，allofwhichgotosupporttheassumptionofaphotochemicalprocess。Sucharethegradualchangeintoacolorlessstate，ofasubstancewhichintheretinanotexposedtolightisred(bleachingofthevisualpurple)；microscopicalmovementsofthepigmentedprotoplasmbetweenthesensitiveelements，orrodsandcones；and，finally，changesintheformoftherodsandconesthemselves。Attemptstousethesephenomenainanywayforaphysiologicaltheoryoflightstimulation，arecertainlypremature。
Themostprobableconclusionwhichwecannowdrawisthatthedifferenceinthe[p。74]formsoftherodsandconesisconnectedwithadifferenceinfunction。Thecentreoftheretina，whichistheregionofdirectvisioninthehumaneye，hasonlycones，whileintheeccentricpartstherodsaremorenumerous；furthermore，inthecentre(whichalsowantsthevisualpurple)thediscriminationofcolorsismuchbetterthanintheeccentricregions，whilethelatteraremuchmoresensitivetobrightness。Thenaturalconclusionfromthesefactsisthatthedifferencesinsensitivityareconnectedwiththephotochemicalpropertiesoftherodsandcones。Still，welackheretooanyparticularevidence。
[1]Pendulum-oscillationsmayberepresentedbyasine-curve，becausethedistancefromthepositionofrestisalwaysproportionaltothesineofthetimerequiredtoswingtothepointinquestion。
[2]Itmustbeobserved，however，thattheactualcoincidenceofthesesensationscanbeempiricallyprovedonlyfortheminimumofbrightness。
Gradesofbrightnesswhichapproachthemaximumaresoinjurioustotheeyethatthegeneraldemonstrationoftheapproachtowhitemustbeacceptedassufficient。
[3]Thesamefalsereasoningfromthenamesofsensations，hasevenledsomescholarstoassumethatthesensationbluedevelopedlaterthanothercolor-sensations，because，forexample，eveninHomerthewordforblueisthesameasthatfor“dark“。Testsofthecolor-sensationsofuncivilizedpeopleswhoselanguagesaremuchmoredeficientinnamesforcolorsthanthatoftheGreeksatthetimeofHomer，havegivenusasuperabundanceofevidencethatthisassumptionisutterlywithoutground。
[4]Manyphysicists，tobesure，believethatananalogousrelationistobefoundbetweentonesofdifferentpitch，inthefactthateverytonehasinitsoctaveasimilartone。Butthissimilarity，asweshallsee(§；9)，doesnotexistbetweensimpletones，butdependsontheactualsympatheticvibrationoftheoctaveinallcompoundclangs。
Attemptstosupportthissupposedanalogybyfindinginthecolor-lineintervalscorrespondingtothevarioustonalintervals，third，fourth，fifth，etc。，haveallbeenentirelyfutile。
[5]Intheneighborhoodofgreenthisadvantagedoesnotexist，andthemixturesalwaysappearlesssaturatedthantheintermediatesimplecolors。Thisisaclearproofthatthechoiceofthethreefundamentalcolorsmentionedisindeedthemostpractical，butneverthelessarbitrary，andatbottomduetothefamiliargeometricalprinciplethatatriangleisthesimplestfigurethatcanencloseafinitenumberofpointsinthesameplane。
[6]Thefurtherassumptionismadebythedefendersofthefourfundamentalcolors，thattwooppositecolorsarerelatedjustasbrightanddarkachromaticstimulations，thatis，thatoneofthesecolorsisduetoaphotochemicaldisintegration(dissimilation)，theothertoarestitution(assimilation)。Thisisananalogythatcontradictstheactualfacts。Theresultobtainedbymixingcomplementarycolorsisonitssubjectivesideasuppressionofthecolor-sensation，whilethemixtureofwhiteandblack，ontheotherband，producesanintermediatesensation。
ClassicsintheHistoryofPsychology——Wundt(1897)Section7OutlinesofPsychologyWilhelmMaxWundt(1897)TranslatedbyCharlesHubbardJudd(1897)I。PSYCHICALELEMENTS§；7。SIMPLEFEELINGS。
1。Simplefeelingsmayoriginateinverymanymorewaysthansimplesensations，aswasnotedin§；5。Evensuchfeelingsasweneverobserveexceptinconnectionwithmoreorlesscomplexideationalprocesses，haveasimplecharacter(p。34sq。)。Thus，forexample，thefeelingoftonalharmony，isjustassimpleasthefeelingconnectedwithasingletone。
Severaltonalsensationstogetherarerequiredtoproduceaharmony，sothatitisacompoundsofarasitssensationalcontentsareconcerned，buttheaffectivequalityofcertainharmoniouscompoundclangsissodifferentfromthatofthefeelingsconnectedwiththesingletones，thatbothclassesoffeelingsare，subjectively，equallyirreducible。Theonlyessentialdifferencebetweenthetwoisthatthefeelingswhichcorrespondtosimplesensationscanbeeasilyisolatedfromtheinterconnectionsofwhichtheyformapartinourexperience，bythesamemethodofabstractionwhichweemployedindiscoveringthesimplesensations(p。38)。Those，ontheotherhand，thatareconnectedwithsomecompositeideationalcompound，canneverbeseparatedfromthefeelingswhichenterintothecompoundassubjectivecomplementsofthe[p。75]sensations。Thus，forexample，itisimpossibletoseparatethefeelingofharmonyconnectedwiththechordcegfromthesimplefeelingsconnectedwitheachofthesingletonesc，e，andg。Thelattermay，indeed，bepushedintothebackground，forasweshallseelater(§；9，3a)，theyalwaysunitewiththefeelingofharmonytoformaunitarytotalfeeling，buttheycanneverbeeliminated。
2。Thefeelingconnectedwithasimplesensationiscommonlyknownasasense-feeling，ortheaffectivetoneofasensation。Thesetwoexpressionsarecapableofmisinterpretationintwooppositesenses。
Thereisatendencytothinkthatby“sense-feeling“wemeannotmerelyacomponentofimmediateexperiencethatmaybeisolatedthroughabstraction，butonethatreallyexistsbyitself。“Affectivetone“，ontheotherhand，mayberegardedasanaffectivequalitythatmustinevitablybelongtoasensation，justas“color-tone“isanecessarydeterminantofacolor-sensation。
Inreality，however，asense-feelingwithoutasensationcannomoreexistthancanafeelingoftotalharmonywithouttonalsensations。When，asissometimesthecase，thefeelingsaccompanyingsensationsofpain，ofpressure，ofhot，andofcold，andmuscle-sensations，arecalledindependentsense-feelings，itisduetotheconfusionoftheconceptssensationandfeeling(p。36)whichisstillprevalent，especiallyinphysiology。Asaresultofthisconfusioncertainsensations，suchasthoseoftouch，arecalled，“feelings“，andinthecaseofsomesensationsaccompaniedbystrongfeelings，assensationsofpain，thediscriminationofthetwoelementsisneglected。Inthesecondplace，itwouldbejustasinadmissabletoascribetoagivensensationadefinitefeelingfixedinqualityandintensity。Therealtruthisthatineverycasethesensationisonlyoneofthemanyfactorsthatdeterminethefeelingpresentatagivenmoment；
besidesthesensation，theprocessesthathave[p。76]gonebeforeandthepermanentdispositions——conditionsthatwecanonlypartiallyaccountforinspecialcases——playanessentialpart。Theconcept“sense-feeling“
or“affectivetone“is，accordingly，inthedoublesensetheproductofanalysisandabstraction:first，wemustthinkofthesimplefeelingasseparatedfromtheconcomitant，puresensation，andsecondly，wemustpickoutfromamongallthevariouschangingaffectiveelementswhichareconnectedwithagivensensationunderdifferentconditionstheonethatismostconstantandisconnectedwiththesensationaftertheremoval，sofaraspossible，oftheinfluences，thatcoulddisturborcomplicatethesimpleeffectofthesensation。
Thefirstoftheseconditionsiscomparativelyeasytomeet，ifwekeepinmindthepsychologicalmeaningoftheconceptssensationandfeeling。
Thesecondisverydifficult，and，especiallyinthecaseofthemosthighlydevelopedsensationalsystems，theauditoryandvisual，itisneverreallypossibletoremoveentirelysuchindirectinfluences。Wecaninferwhatthepureaffectivetoneofasensationis，onlybymeansofthesamemethodthathasalreadybeenusedfortheabstractionofpuresensations(§；5，p。28)。Here，too，wemayassumethatonlythataffectivetonewhichremainsconstantwhenallotherconditionschange，belongstothesensationitself。Theruleiseasilyappliedtosensation，butonlywithgreatdifficultytofeelings，becausethesecondaryinfluencesreferredtoaregenerallyascloselyconnectedwiththesensationasistheprimaryoccasionoftheaffectivetone。Thus，forexample，thesensationgreenarousesalmostunavoidablytheideaofgreenvegetation，andsincethereareconnectedwiththisideacompositefeelingswhosecharactermaybeentirelyindependentoftheaffectivetoneofthecoloritself，itisimpossibletodeterminedirectlywhetherthefeelingobservedwhenagreenimpressionispresented，isa[p。77]pureaffectivetone，afeelingarousedbytheattendingidea，oracombinationofboth。
2a。Thisdifficultyhasledmanypsychologiststoargueagainsttheexistenceofanypureaffectivetonewhatever。Theyassertthateverysensationarousessomeaccompanyingideasandthattheaffectiveactionofthesensationisdueineverycasetotheseideas。Buttheresultsofexperimentalvariationoftheconditionsforlight-sensations，tellagainstthisview。Iftheattendantideasweretheonlysourcesofthefeeling，itwouldnecessarilybestrongestwhenthesensationalcontentsoftheimpressionweremostlikethoseoftheideas。Thisisbynomeansthecase。Theaffectivetoneofacolorisgreatestwhenitsgradeofsaturationreachesamaximum。
Thepurespectralcolorsobservedinsurroundingdarknesshavethestrongestaffectivetone。Thesecolorsare，however，generallyverydifferentfromthoseofthenaturalobjectstowhichaccompanyingfeelingsmightrefer。
Thereisjustaslittlejustificationfortheattemptstoderivetonalfeelingsfromsuchideasexclusively。Itcannotbedoubtedthatfamiliarmusicalideasmaybearousedthroughasingletone；still，ontheotherhand，theconstancywithwhichcertaintonalqualitiesarechosentoexpressparticularfeelings，as，forexample，deeptonestoexpressgraveandsadfeelings，canbeunderstoodonlyundertheconditionthatthecorrespondingaffectivequalitybelongstothesimpletonalsensation。Thecircleinwhichtheargumentmovesisstillmoreobviouswhentheaffectivetonesofsensationsoftaste，smell，andthegeneralsensearederivedfromtheaccompanyingideas。When，forexample，theagreeableordisagreeabletoneofataste-sensationisincreasedbytherecollectionofthesameimpressionasexperiencedbefore，thiscanbepossibleonlyundertheconditionthattheearlierimpressionwasitselfagreeableordisagreeable。
3。Thevarietiesofsimplesense-feelingsareexceedinglynumerous。
Thefeelingscorrespondingtoaparticularsensationalsystemalsoformasystem，since，ingeneral，achangeinthequalityorintensityoftheaffectivetonerunsparalleltoeverychangeinthequalityorintensityofthesensations。[p。78]
Atthesametimethesechangesintheaffectivesystemsareessentiallydifferentfromthecorrespondingchangesinthesensationalsystems，sothatitisimpossibletoregardtheaffectivetoneasathirddeterminantofsensations，analogoustoqualityandintensity。Iftheintensityofasensationisvaried，theaffectivetonemaychangenotonlyinintensity，butalsoinquality；andifthequalityofthesensationisvaried，theaffectivetoneusuallychangesinqualityandintensityboth。Forexample，increasethesensationsweetinintensityanditchangesgraduallyfromagreeabletodisagreeable。Or，graduallysubstituteforasweetsensationoneofsourorbitter，keepingtheintensityconstant，itwillbeobservedthat，forequalintensifies，sourand，moreespecially，bitterproduceamuchstrongerfeelingthansweet。Ingeneral，then，everyinsensationisessentiallyaccompaniedbyatwofoldchangeinfeeling。Thewayinwhichchangesinthequalityandintensityofaffectivetonesarerelatedtoeachotherfollowstheprinciplealreadystated(p。33)
thateveryseriesofaffectivechangesinonedimensionrangesbetweenopposites，not，，asisthecasewiththecorrespondingsensationalchanges，betweengreatestdifferences。
4。Inaccordancewiththisprinciple，thegreatestqualitativedifferencesinsensationscorrespondtothegreatestoppositesinaffectivequality，andtomaximaofaffectiveintensitywhichareeitherequaloratleastapproximatelyequal，accordingtothespecialpecularitiesofthequalitativeopposites。Themiddlepointbetweenthesetwooppositescorrespondstoanabsenceofallintensity，sofarasonlythesingledimensiontowhichtheoppositesbelongisconcerned。Thisabsenceofintensitycanbeobservedonlywhenthecorrespondingsensationalsystemisabsolutelyone-dimensional。Inallothercases，apointwhichisaneutralmiddleforoneparticularseriesofsensationaldifferences，belongsatthesametimetoanother[p。79]sensationaldimensionoreventoanumberofsuchdimensions，eachofwhichithasadefiniteaffectivevalue。Thus，forexample，spectralyellowandblueareoppositecolorswhichhavecorrespondingoppositeaffectivetones。Inpassinggraduallyalongthecolor-linefromoneofthesetotheother，greenwouldbetheneutralmiddlebetweenthem。
Butgreenitselfstandsinaffectivecontrastwithitsoppositecolor，purple；and，furthermore，itis，likeeverysaturatedcolor，oneextremityofaseriesmadeupofthetransitionalstagesofasinglecolor-tonetowhite。Again，thesystemofsimpletonalsensationsformsacontinuityofonlyonedimension，butinthiscasemorethaninothersitisimpossibletoisolatethecorrespondingaffectivetonesthroughabstraction，aswedidthepuresensations，becauseinactualexperiencewealwayshave，notonlyintermediatestagesbetweentonesofdifferentpitch，butalsotransitionsbetweenabsolutelysimpletonesandnoisesmadeupofaprofusionofsimpletones。Theresultoftheseconditionsisthateverymany-dimensionalsensationalsystemhasacorrespondingcomplexsystemofaffectivetones，inwhicheverypointgenerallybelongsatoncetoseveraldimensions，sothatthefeelingcorrespondingtoagivensensationisaresultantoftheaffectiveelementsduetoitspositioninvariousdimensionsofthesensationalsystem。
Itfollowsthatdiscriminationbetweensimpleandcompositefeelingsinthesphereofaffectivequalities，cannotbecarriedout。Thefeelingthatcorrespondstoaparticularsensation，isasarule，forthereasonsgiven，aproductofthefusionofseveralsimplefeelings，thoughitisstillasirreducibleasafeelingoforiginallysimplenature(cf。§；12，3)。Afurtherconsequenceisthattheneutralmiddlebetweenoppositeaffectivequalities，canbeactuallyfoundinexperienceonlyinthespecialcaseswheretheaffectivetoneofaparticularsensationcorrespondstotheneutralmiddleofall[p。80]thedimensionstowhichitbelongs。Thisspecialconditionisobviouslyfulfilledforthemany-dimensionalsensationalsystems，especiallythoseofsightandhearing，injustthecasesinwhichitisofspecialpracticalvaluefortheundisturbedoccurrenceofaffectiveprocesses。Intheonecase，sensationsofmediumbrightnessandthoseofthelowgradesofchromaticsaturationapproximatingthem，intheother，theauditoryimpressionsofourordinaryenvironment，whicharebetweenatoneandnoiseincharacter(as，forexample，thehumanvoice)，formtheneutralindifference-zonesofaffectivequality。Onbothsidesofthesezonesarisethemoreintenseaffectivetonesofthemoremarkedsensationalqualities。Theexistenceofsuchindifference-zonesmakesitpossibleforthecomplexfeelingswhichcorrespondtothevariouscombinationsofthese，sensationalqualities，todevelopalmostindependently，withoutreferencetotheaccompanyingsense-feelings。
5。Thevariationsinaffectivequalityandintensitythatrunparalleltothegradesofsensationalintensity，aremuchsimpler。Theycanbemostclearlyseeninthehomogeneoussensationalsystemsofthegeneralsense。Eachofthesesystemsisofauniformqualitythroughout，andcanbefairlywellrepresentedgeometricallybyasinglepoint，sothattheonlypossiblesensationalchangesarethoseofintensity，andthesecanbeattendedonlybyaone-dimensionalseriesofaffectivechangesbetweenopposites。Theneutralindifferencezoneis，accordingly，alwayseasytoobserveinthesecases。Itcorrespondstothemediumsensationsofpressure，hot，andcold，thatareconnectedwiththenormal，mediumintensityofordinarysense-stimuli。Thesimplefeelingsonbothsidesofthiszoneexhibitdecidedlyoppositecharacters，andcan，ingeneral，bereckoned，ontheoneside，topleasurablefeelings，ontheother，tounpleasurable(v。inf。6)。Theunpleasurablefeelingsaretheonlyonesthatcanbe[p。
81]producedwithcertainty，byincreasingtheintensityofthesensation。
Throughhabituationtomoderatestimuli，suchIiiexpansionoftheindifference-zonehastakenplaceinthesesystemsofthegeneralsense，thatwhenthestimuliareweak，asaruleonlyasuccessionofsensationsverydifferentinintensityorquality，canproducenoticeablefeelings。Insuchcases，feelingsofpleasurealwayscorrespondtosensationsofmediumintensity。
Theregularrelationbetweensensationalintensityandaffectivetone，canbebetterobservedwithoutthisinfluenceofcontrast，inthecaseofcertainsensationsofsmellandtaste。Atfirstapleasurablefeelingariseswithweaksensationsandincreaseswiththeincreasingintensityofthesensationstoamaximum，thenitsinkstozerowithacertainmediumsensationalintensity，andfinally，whenthisintensityincreasesstillmore，thefeelingbecomesunpleasurableandincreasesuntilthesensationalmaximumisreached。
6。Thevarietyofsimpleaffectivequalitiesisexceedinglygreat，muchgreaterthanthatof，sensations。Thisisduetotwofacts。First，everysensationofthemany-dimensionalsystems\'belongsatoncetoseveralseriesoffeelings。Secondly，andthisisthechiefreason，thedifferentcompoundsarisingfromthevariouscombinationsofsensations，suchasintensive，spacial，andtemporalideas，andalsocertainstagesinthecourseofemotionsandvolitions，havecorrespondingfeelings，whichare，asaboveremarked(p。76)，irreducible，andmustthereforebeclassedamongthesimplefeelings。
Itisgreatlytoberegrettedthatournamesforsimplefeelingsaresomuchmorehazythanthoseforsensations。Thepropernomenclatureoffeelingislimitedentirelytotheexpressionofcertaingeneralantitheses，aspleasurableandunpleasurable，agreeableanddisagreeable，graveandgay，excitedandquiet，etc。Thesedesignationsareusuallybasedonthe[p。82]emotionsintowhichthefeelingsenteraselements，andaresogeneralthateachincludesalargenumberofsimplefeelingsofverydifferentcharacter。Inothercases，complexideaswhoseaffectivecharacterissimilar，areusedindescribingthefeelingsconnectedwithcertainsimpleimpressions，as，forexample，byGoetheinhisdescriptionoftheaffectivetoneofcolors，andbymanymusicalwritersindescribingthefeelingsaccompanyingclangs。Thispovertyoflanguageinspecialnamesforthefeelings，isapsychologicalconsequenceofthesubjectivenatureofthefeelings。Allthemotivesofpracticallifewhichgiverisetothenamesofobjectsandtheirattributes，areherewanting。Toconclude，forthisreason，thatthereisacorrespondingpovertyofsimpleaffectivequalitiesthemselves，isagrosspsychologicalmistake，whichisfurthermorefatalsinceitmakesanadequateinvestigationofthecompositeaffectiveprocessesimpossiblefromthefirst。
7。Inconsequenceofthedifficultiesindicated，acompletelistofsimpleaffectivequalitiesisoutofthequestion，evenmorethanissuchalistinthecaseofsimplesensations。Then，too，therearestillotherreasonswhyitwouldbeimpossible。Thefeelings，byvirtueoftheattributesdescribedabove，donotformclosedsystems，asdothesensationsoftone，oflight，oroftaste，butareunitedinasinglemanifold，interconnectedinallitsparts(p。35)。Furthermore，theunionofcertainfeelingsgivesrisetofeelingswhicharenotonlyunitary，butevensimpleincharacter(p。75)。Inthismanifoldoffeelings，madeup，itis，ofagreatvarietyofmostdelicatelyshadedqualities，itisneverthelesspossibletodistinguishcertaindifferentchiefdirections，includingcertainaffectiveoppositesofpredominantcharacter。Suchdirectionsmayalwaysbedesignatedbythetwonamesthatindicatetheiroppositeextremes。Eachnameis，however，tobelooked[p。83]uponasacollectivenameincludinganendlessnumberoffeelingsdifferingfromoneanother。
Threesuchchiefdirectionsmaybedistinguished；wewillcallthemthedirectionofpleasurableandunpleasurablefeelings，thatofarousingandsubduing(excitinganddepressing)feelings，andfinallythatoffeelingsofstrainandrelaxation。Anyconcretefeelingmaybelongtoallofthesedirectionsoronlytwoorevenonlyoneofthem。Thelastmentionedpossibilityisallthatmakesitpossibletodistinguishthedifferentdirections。Thecombinationofdifferentaffectivedirectionswhichordinarilytakesplace，andtheabovementioned(p。79)
influenceswhichareduetotheoverlappingoffeelingsarisingfromvariouscauses，allgotoexplainwhyweareperhapsneverin，istateentirelyfreefromfeeling，althoughthegeneralnatureofthefeelingsdemandsanindifference-zone。
8。Feelingsconnectedwithsensationsofthegeneralsenseandwithimpressionsofsmellandtaste，mayberegardedasgoodexamplesofpurepleasurableandunpleasurableforms。Asensationofpain，forexample，isregularlyaccompaniedbyanunpleasurablefeelingwithoutanyadmixtureofotheraffectiveforms。Inconnectionwithpuresensations，arousingandsubduingfeelingsmaybeobservedbestinthecaseofcolor-impressionsinclang-impressions。Thus，redisarousing，bluesubduing。Feelingsofstrain，andrelaxationarealwaysconnectedwiththetemporalcourseofprocesses。Thus，inexpectingasense-impression，wenoteafeelingofstrain，andonthearrivaloftheexpectedevent，afeelingofrelaxation。
Boththeexpectationandsatisfactionmaybeaccompaniedatthesametimebyafeelingofexcitementor，underspecialconditions，bypleasurableorunpleasurablefeelings。Still，theseotherfeelingsmaybeentirelyabsent，andthenthoseofstrainandrelaxationarerecognizedas[p。84]
specificformswhichcannotbereducedtoothers，justasthetwodirectionsmentionedbefore。Thepresenceofmorethanonedirectionmaybediscoveredinthecaseofverymanyfeelings，nevertheless，simpleinquality，just，asmuchasthefeelingsmentioned。Thus，thefeelingsofseriousnessandgaietyconnectedwiththe，sensibleimpressionsoflowandhightonesordarkandbrightcolors，aretoberegardedascharacteristicqualitieswhichareoutsidetheindifference-zoneinboththepleasurableandunpleasurabledirectionandtheexcitinganddepressingdirection。Wearenevertoforgetherethatpleasurableandunpleasurable，excitinganddepressing，arenotnamesofsingleaffectivequalities，butofdirections，withinwhichanindefinitelylargenumberofsimplequalitiesappear，sothattheunpleasurablequalityofseriousnessisnotonlytobedistinguishedfromthatofapainfultouch，ofadissonance，etc。，buteventhedifferentcasesofseriousnessitselfmayvaryintheirquality。Again，thedirectionofpleasurableandunpleasurablefeelings，isunitedwiththatoffeelingsofstrainandrelaxation，inthecaseoftheaffectivetonesofrhythms。Theregularsuccessionofstrainandrelaxationinthesecasesisattendedbypleasure，thedisturbanceofthisregularitybytheoppositefeeling，aswhenwearedisappointedorsurprised。Then，too，undercertaincircumstancesthefeelingmay，inbothcages，beofanexcitingorasubduingcharacter。
9。Theseexamplesleadverynaturallytotheassumptionthatthethreechiefdirectionsofsimplefeelingsdependontherelationsinwhicheachsinglefeelingstandstothewholesuccessionofpsychicalprocesses。Inthissuccessioneveryfeelinghasingeneralathreefoldsignificance1)Itrepresentsaparticularmodificationofthestateofthepresentmoment；thismodificationbelongstothepleasurableandunpleasurabledirection。2)Itexercisesacertaindefiniteinfluenceonthesucceedingstate；this[p。85]influencecanbedistinguishedinitsoppositeformsasexcitationandinhibition。3)Itisdeterminedinitsessentialcharacterbytheprecedingstate；thisdetermininginfluenceshowsitselfinthegivenfeelingintheformsofstrain，andrelaxation。Theseconditionsalsorenderitimprobablethatotherchiefdirectionsoffeelingexist。
9a。Ofthethreeaffectivedirectionsmentioned，onlythatofpleasurableandunpleasurablefeelingshasgenerallybeenrecognized；theothersarereckonedasemotions。Buttheemotions，asweshallseein§；13，comefromcombinationsoffeelings；itisobvious，therefore，thatthefundamentalformsofemotionsmusthavetheirantecedentsintheaffectiveelements。
Somepsychologistshaveregardedpleasurableandunpleasurablefeelings，notascollectivetermsincludingagreatvarietyofsimplefeelings，butasentirelyuniform，concretestates，sothat，forexample，theunpleasurablenessofatoothache，ofanintellectualfailure，andofatragicalexperienceareallregardedasidenticalintheiraffectivecontents。Stillothersseektoidentifythefeelingswithspecialsensations，especiallywithcutaneoussensationsandmuscle-sensations。Suchentirelyuntenableassertionsrequirenocriticism。Theyindicate，however，theuncertainstateofthedoctrineoffeelings，evenatthepresenttime。
10。Thequestionhasbeenraisedwhetherornotparticularphysiologicalprocessescorrespondtothesimplefeelings，asisthecaseforthesensations。Olderpsychologywasinclinedtoanswerthisquestioninthenegative，andtocontrastthefeelingsasinner，purelypsychological，stateswithsensationsasprocessesarousedfromwithout。Inmoderntimes，onthecontrary，theaffirmativeanswerhasgenerallybeengiven，butforthemostpartwithoutthesupportofadequateempiricalproof。Obviously，ourassumptionsinregardtothephysiologicalphenomenaaccompanyingthefeelingsmustbebasedon[p。86]actuallydemonstrablephysiologicalprocesses，justasourassumptionsinregardtothephysiologicalconditionsofsensationswerededucedfromthestructureandfunctionsofthesense-organs。Inlookingforsuchprocesses，itfollowsfromthesubjectivenatureofthefeelings，thatweshouldnotexpecttofindthemamongtheprocessesproducedintheorganismdirectlybyexternalagents，asthesensationsare，butratherinreactionswhichariseindirectlyfromthesefirstprocesses。
Theobservationofcompoundsmadeupofaffectiveelements，thatis，ofemotionsandvolitions，whoseeasilyperceptibleconcomitantsarealwaysexternalmovementsorchangesinthestateoftheorgansofmovement，alsopointsinthesamedirection。
Theanalysisofsensations，andofthepsychicalcompoundsderivedfromthem，makesdirectuseoftheimpression-method；whiletheinvestigationofsimplefeelings，andoftheprocessesresultingfromtheircombinations，canemploythismethodonlyindirectly。Ontheotherhand，theexpression-method，thatis，theinvestigationofthephysiologicalreactionsofpsychicalprocesses，isespeciallyadaptedtotheexaminationoffeelingsandprocessesmadeupofthem，becauseasshownbyexperience，suchreactionsareregularsymptomsofaffectiveprocesses。Allthephenomenainwhichtheinnerstateoftheorganismisoutwardlyexpressed，maybeutilizedasaidsfortheexpression-method。Suchare，besidesthemovementsoftheexternalmuscles，especiallytherespiratoryandcardiacmovements，thecontractionanddilationoftheblood-vesselsinparticularorgans，thedilationandcontractionofthepupiloftheeye，etc。Themostdelicateoftheseisthebeatingoftheheart，whichcanbeexaminedasexactlyreproducedinthepulseofsomeperipheralartery。Allotherphenomenaaregenerallywantinginthecaseofasimplefeeling。Itisonlyforhighintensifies，wherethefeelingsalwayspassinto[p。87]emotions，thatwehaveother，addedsymptoms，especiallychangesinrespiration，andmimeticexpressivemovements。
11。Ofthechiefdirectionsoffeelingmentionedabove，especiallythatofpleasarableandunpleasurablefeelingscanbeshowntostandinregularrelationtothepulse。Whenthefeelingispleasurable，thepulseisretardedandintensified，whenunpleasurable，thepulseisacceleratedandweakened。Fortheotherdirections，theaccompanyingchangescanonlybeinferredwithsomedegreeofprobability，fromtheeffectsofthecorrespondingemotions(§；13，5)。Thus，excitingfeelingsseemtobetraytheirpresenceonlythroughstrongerpulsebeats，andsubduingthroughweaker，withoutachangeofrateineithercase。Forfeelingsofstrain，wehaveretardedandweakenedpulse，forthoseofrelaxation，acceleratedandintensifiedpulse。Singlefeelingsbelongforthemostparttoseveralofthesedirectionsatthesametime；asaresult，theactionofthepulseisinmanycasessocomplexthatthemostthatcanbeconcludedisthepredominanceofoneortheotherdirection。Theconclusionis，however，uncertainsolongasitisnotconfirmedbydirectobservationofthefeeling。
11a。Therelationsthatseemprobablefromexperimentsonthesymptomsoffeelingsandemotionsasfoundinpulse-activity，maybepresentedinthefollowingscheme。Excitingandsubduingfeelings，then，showthemselvesbysimplechangesinthepulse，theothersbydoublechanges。But[p。88]thisscheme，whichisderivedforthemostpartfromtheeffectofcomplexemotions，needsconfirmationfromexperimentsinwhichattentionispaidtotheisolationofthesevariousaffectivedirections。Changesinrespiration，muscle-tension，etc。，alsoneedfurtherinvestigation。Itisobviousfromtheequivocalcharacterofeachsymptom，thatwhenaparticularfeelingisgiveninpsychicalexperience，wecaninferparticularresultinginnervationsfromthesymptomswhichappear，butthatwecanneverinferthepresenceofparticularfeelingsfromthephysiologicalsymptoms。Itfollowsthattheexpression-methodcannotbeashighlyvaluedfromapsychologicalpointofviewastheimpression-method。
>Fromtheverynatureofthecase，theimpression-methodistheonlyonethatcanbeusedinarousingandvaryingpsychicalprocessesatwill。Theexpression-methodgivesresultsthatexplainonlythephysiologicalphenomenawhichaccompanyfeelings，notthepsychologicalnatureofthefeelingsthemselves。
Thevariationsobservedinthepulsemustberegardedastheresultsofachangedinnervationoftheheart，comingfromthecardiaccentreinthebrain。Physiologyshowsthattheheartisconnectedwiththecentralorgansbytwokindsofnerves:excitatorynerves，whichrunthroughthesympatheticsystemandoriginateindirectlyinthemedulla，andinhibitorynerves，whichbelongtothetenthcranialnerve(vagus)andalsohavetheirsourceinthemedulla。Thenormalregularityofthepulsedependsonacertainequilibriumbetweenexcitatoryandinhibitoryinfluences。
Suchinfluencescomenotonlyfromthebrain，butfromthecentresinthegangliaoftheheartitself。Thus，everyincreaseandeverydecreaseoftheheart\'senergymaybeinterpretedintwodifferentways。Thefirstmaybeduetoanincreaseofexcitatory，ortoadecreaseofinhibitoryinnervation，andthesecondmaybeduetoadecreaseinexcitatoryortoanincreaseininhibitoryinnervation，orinbothcasesthetwoinfluencesmaybeunited。Wehavenouniversallyapplicablemeansofinvestigatingthesepossibilities，still，thecircumstancethatthestimulationoftheinhibitorynerveshasaquickereffectthanthestimulationoftheexcitatory，givesusgoodgroundinmanycasesforconjecturingthepresenceoftheoneortheother。Now，thechangesinthepulsealwaysfollowveryquicklythesensationsthatcausethem。Itis，therefore，probablethatinthecaseoffeelingsandemotions，wehave[p。89]chieflychangesininhibitoryinnervation，originatinginthebrainandconductedalongthevagus。Itmaywellbeassumedthattheaffectivetoneofasensationonitsphysiologicalside，correspondstoaspreadingofthestimulationfromthesensorycentretoothercentralregionswhichareconnectedwiththesourcesoftheinhibitorynervesoftheheart。Whichcentralregionsarethusaffected，wedonotknow。Butthecircumstancethatthephysiologicalsubstrataforalltheelementsofourpsychologicalexperience，areinallprobabilitytobefoundinthecerebralcortex，leadsverynaturallytotheassumptionthatthesameistrueforthecentreoftheseinhibitoryinnervations。Furthermore，theessentialdifferencesbetweentheattributesoffeelingsandthoseofsensations，makeitprobablethatthiscentreisnotidenticalwiththesensorycentres。Ifaspecialcorticalregionisassumedasthemediumfortheseeffects，thereisnoreasonforsupposingaspecialoneforeachsensorycentre，butthecompleteuniformityinthephysiologicalsymptomsgoesmoretoshowthatthereisonlyonesuchregion，whichmustthenatthesametimeserveasakindofcentralorganfortheconnectionofthevarioussensorycentres。(Forthefurthersignificanceofsuchacentralregion，anditsprobableanatomicalposition，compare§；15，2a。)
ClassicsintheHistoryofPsychology——Wundt(1897)Section8OutlinesofPsychologyWilhelmMaxWundt(1897)TranslatedbyCharlesHubbardJudd(1897)II。PSYCHICALCOMPOUNDS§；8。DefinitionandClassificationofPsychicalCompounds1。By“psychicalcompound“，wemeananycompositecomponentofourcompositeexperiencewhichismarkedofffromthe，othercontentsofthisexperiencebyparticularcharacteristics，insuchawaythatitisapprehendedasarelativelyindependentunity，andis，whennecessitydemandsit，designatedbyaspecialname。Indevelopingthesenames，languagehasfollowedthegeneralrulethatonlyclassesandthemostimportantspeciesintowhichphenomenamaybegrouped，shallhavespecialdesignations，whilethe，discriminationofconcretecompoundsislefttoimmediateperception。Thus，suchexpressionsasideas，emotions，volitionalacts，etc。，designategeneralclassesofpsychicalcompounds，suchexpressionsasvisualideas，joy，anger，hope，etc。，specialspeciesincludedintheseclasses。Sofarasthesedesignations，whichhave，arisenfrompracticalexperience，arebaseduponactualdistinguishingcharacteristics，theymayberetainedbyscience。Butsciencemustgiveanaccountofthenatureofthesecharacteristicsandalsoofthepeculiarcontentsofeachofthechiefformsofpsychicalcompounds，inordertogiveeverysingleanexactmeaning。Indoingthis，wemustavoidfromthefirsttwopresuppositionstowhichtheexistenceofthesenamesmighteasilymisleadus。Thefirstistheviewthatapsychicalcompound[p。91]isanabsolutelyindependentcontentofimmediateexperience。Thesecondistheopinionthatcertaincompounds，forexample，ideas，havethenatureofthings。Thetruthisthatthesecompoundsareonlyrelativelyindependentunits。Justastheyaremadeupofvariouselements，sotheythemselvesunitetoformacompleteinterconnection，inwhichrelativelysimplecompoundsmaycontinuallycombinetoformmorecompositeones。Then，again，compounds，likethecyclicalelementscontainedinthem，areneverthings，butprocesseswhichchangefrommomenttomoment，sothatitisonlythroughdeliberateabstraction，whichis，indeed，indispensablefortheinvestigationinmanycases，thattheycanbethoughtofasconstantatanymoment(§；2，p。13sq。)。
2。Allpsychicalcompoundsmayberesolvedintopsychicalelements，thatis，intopuresensationsandsimplefeelings。Thetwokindsofelementsbehave，however，inanessentiallydifferentmanner，inaccordancewiththepeculiarpropertiesofsimplefeelingsasdescribedin§；7。Thesensationalelementsfoundbysucharesolution，alwaysbelongtooneofthesensationalsystemsalreadyconsidered。
Theaffectiveelements，ontheotherhand，includenotonlythosewhichcorrespondtothepuresensationscontainedinthecompounds，butalsothoseduetotheinterconnectionoftheelementsintothesystemsofsensationalqualities，accordingly，alwaysremainthesame，nomatterhowgreatavarietyofcompoundsarises，whilethesystemsofsimpleaffectivequalitiescontinuallyincrease。Connectedwiththisincreaseisanotherattributewhichisthoroughlycharacteristicfortheactualnatureofpsychicalprocesses。Theattributesofpsychicalcompoundsareneverlimitedtothoseoftheelementsthatenterintothem，butnewattributes，peculiartothecompoundsthemselves，alwaysariseasaresultofthecombinationoftheseelements。Thus，avisualideahasnotonly[p。92]theattributesofthelight-sensationsandofthesensationsofocularpositionandmovementscontainedinit，butalsothatofthespacialarrangementofthesensations，whichtheseelementsinthemselvesdonothave。Again，avolitionisnotonlymadeupoftheideasandfeelingsintowhichitssingleactsmayberesolved，butthereresultfromthecombinationoftheseacts，newaffectiveelementswhicharespecificallycharacteristicofthecomplexvolition。Here，again，thecombinationsofsensationalandaffectiveelementsaredifferent。Inthefirstcase，onaccountoftheconstancyofthesensationalsystems，nonewsensationscanarise，butonlypeculiarformsoftheirarrangement。Theseformsaretheextensivespacialandtemporalmanifolds。When，ontheotherhand，affectiveelementscombine，newsimplefeelingsarise，whichunitewiththoseoriginallypresenttomakeintensiveaffectiveunitsofcompositecharacter。
3。Theclassificationofpsychicalcompoundsisnaturallybaseduponthecharacteroftheelementsthatmakethemup。Thosecomposedentirelyorchieflyofsensationsarecalledideas，thoseconsistingmainlyofaffectiveelements，affectiveprocesses。Thesamelimitationsholdhereasinthecaseofthecorrespondingelements。
Althoughcompoundsaremoretheproductsofimmediatediscriminationamongactualpsychicalprocessesthantheelementsare，still，thereisatbottomnopureideationalprocessandnopureaffectiveprocess，butinbothcaseswecanonlyabstracttoacertainextentfromoneortheothercomponent。
Asinthecaseofthetwokindsofelements，soherewecanneglecttheaccompanyingsubjectivestateswhendealingwithideas，butmustalwayspresupposesomeideafortheaffectiveprocesses。Still，theseideasmaybeofverydifferentkindsforthesinglespeciesandvarietiesofaffectiveprocesses。
Wedistinguish，accordingly，threechiefformsofideas:[p。93]1)intensiveideas，2)spacialideas，3)temporalideas；andthreeformsofaffectiveprocesses:1)intensiveaffectivecombinations，2)emotions，3)volitions。Temporalideasconstituteasortoflinkbetweenthetwokindsofprocesses，forcertainfeelingplayanimportantpartintheirformation。
ClassicsintheHistoryofPsychology——Wundt(1897)Section9OutlinesofPsychologyWilhelmMaxWundt(1897)TranslatedbyCharlesHubbardJudd(1897)II。PSYCHICALCOMPOUNDS§；9。INTENSIVEIDEAS。
1。Acombinationofsensationsinwhicheveryelementisconnectedwithanysecondelementinexactlythesamewayaswithanyother，iscalledanintensiveidea。Thus，forexample，acompoundclangmadeupofthetonesdfaissuchanintensiveidea。Fortheimmediateapprehension，eachofthepartialcombinationsintowhichthiscompoundclangcanberesolved，asdf，da，fd，fa，ad，af，areallentirelyequivalent，inwhateverordertheyarethoughtof。Thisisobviousatonceifwecomparethecompoundclangwithanysuccessionofthesametones，wheredf，da，fd，fa，etc。，areessentiallydifferentideas。Wemaydefineintensiveideas，accordingly，ascombinationsofsensationalelements，inwhichtheorderoftheelementsmaybeinfinitelyvaried。
Itfollowsfromtheirnature，thatintensiveideasdonothave，arisingfromthewayinwhichtheirelementsaxeunitedanycharacteristics，bymeansofwhichtheycanberesolvedintoseparateparts。Sucharesolutionispossibleonlythroughthedifferencesintheconstituentelementsthemselves。Thus，wediscriminatetheelementsofthecompoundclangdfa，onlybecausewehearinitthequalitativelydifferenttonesd，f，anda。Still，theseparatecomponentsinsuchaunitaryideaarelessclearlydistinguishablethanintheirisolatedstate。Thisfact，thattheelementsarepushedintothe\'backgroundbytheimpressionofthewhole，isofgreatim-[p。94]portanceforallformsofideationalcombination。Wecallitthefusionofsensations，andinparticular，forintensiveideas，intensivefusion。Iftheconnectionofoneelementwithothersissoclosethatitcanbeperceivedasapartofthewholeonlythroughunusualconcentrationoftheattentionaidedbyexperimentalvariationoftheconditions，wecallthefusioncomplete。If，ontheotherhand，theelementsareimmediatelyrecognizedintheirproperqualities，andmerelyrecedesomewhatintothebackgroundincomparisonwiththeimpressionofthewhole，wecallthefusionincomplete。Ifcertainparticularelementsaremoreprominentintheircharacteristicqualititesthinothers，wecallthemthepredominatingelements。Theconceptoffusionasheredefinedasapsychologicalconcept。Itpresupposesthatthefusedelementsoftheideaarereallysubjectivelydistinguishable。Itmustnotbeconfoundedwiththeentirelydifferentandpurelyphysiologicalconceptofthefusionofexternalimpressionsintoasingleresultantstimulation。Forexample，whencomplementarycolorsuniteandgivewhite，thefusionis，ofcourse，notpsychological。
Inreality，everyintensiveideaalwaysentersintocertainspacialandtemporalcombinations。Thus，forexample，acompoundclangisalwaysaprocesshavingacertainduration，andisatthesametimelocalizedbyusinsomedirectionorother，thoughoftenonlyveryindefinitely。Butsincethesetemporalandspacialattributescanbeindefinitelyvaried，whiletheintensivecharacteroftheideasremainthesame，wemayabstractfromtheformerininvestigatingtheintensiveattributes。
2。Amongideasofthegeneralsensewehaveintensivefusionsintheformofcombinationsofsensationsofpressurewiththoseofhotorcold，orcombinationsofpain-sensationswiththoseoftemperatureorpressure。Allthesefusions[p。95]areincomplete，andveryoftenthereisnodecidedlypredominatingelement。Thecombinationofcertainsensationsofsmellandtastearemoreintimate。
Thisisobviouslyfavoredonthephysiologicalsidebytheproximityofthesense-organs，onthephysicalsidebytheregularconnectionbetweencertainstimulationsofthetwosenses。Insuchcasesthemoreintensesensationsaregenerallythepredominatingelements，andwhenthesearethesensationoftaste，thecompositeimpressionisusuallyregardedasataste-qualityonly。Thus，mostoftheimpressionsknowninordinarylifeas“tastes“，areinrealitycombinationsoftastesandsmells。
Thegreatestvarietyofintensiveideas，inallpossiblegradationsofcomplexity，arepresentedbythesenseofhearing。Therelativelymostsimpleoftheseideasandthosewhicharemostcloselyrelatedtosimpletones，arethesingleclangs。Asmorecomplexforms，wehavecompoundclangs。Complexnoisesmayarisefromthelatterwhentheyareunitedwithsensationsofsimplenoises，andundercertainothercircumstances。
3。Asingleclangisanintensiveideawhichismadeupofaseriesoftonalsensationsregularlygradedinquality。Theseelements，thepartialtonesoftheclang，formacompletefusion，inwhichthesensationofthelowestpartialtonebecomesthepredominatingelement。Thepitchofthetoneisdeterminedbythisprincipaltone。Theotherelementsarehigherandare，accordingly，calledovertones。Theovertonesareallgroupedtogetherunderthenameclang-colorasaseconddeterminantoftheclang，addedtothepredominatingtone。Allthepartialtonesthatgotodeterminetheclangcolorareplacedalongthetonallineatcertainregularintervalsfromtheprincipaltone。
Thecompleteseriesofpossibleovertonesinaclangconsistsofthefirstoctaveoftheprincipaltone，thefifthofthisoctave，thesecondoctaveoftheprincipaltone，andthemajorthirdandthefifthofthis[p。96]
secondoctave，etc。Thisseriescorrespondstothefollowingproportionsbetweenthenumberofobjectivetonalwaves:1(principaltone)，2，3，4，5，6，7，8，……(overtones)。Whenthepitchoftheprincipaltoneremainsconstant，onlytheseconddeterminantofthetonalquality，theclang-color，canvaryaccordingtothenumber，position，andrelativeintensityoftheovertones。Inthiswaywecanexplainthegreatvarietyofclang-colorsinmusicalinstruments，aswellasthefactthatforeveryinstrumenttheclang-colorchangessomewhatwiththepitch；forinthecaseoflowtonestheovertonesaregenerallyrelativelystrong，inthatofhighrelativelyweak，whiletheydisappearentirelywhentheyaretoohightobeaudible。Eventheslightdifferencesinclang-colorinsingleinstrumentsofthesamekind，aretobeexplainedinthesameway。
Fromapsychologicalpointofviewthechiefconditionfortheriseofasingleclang，isthecomplete，orapproximatelycomplete，fusionofseveraltonalsensationswithonlyonepredominatingelement。Asarule，itisimpossibletodistinguishwiththeunaiedeartheovertonesinaclang。Theycanbemadeperceptiblebytheuseofresonators(resonator-tubestunedtotheovertonessought)，andaftertheyhavebeenisolatedinthisexperimentalway，thestrongeronescanbesuccessivelyheardintheclang，evenwithouttheaidoftheresonators，iftheattentionisdirectedtothem。
4。Therearethreeconditionsnecessaryifthereistobeonlyonepredominatingelementinatonalfusion。
First，onetonemustberelativelymoreintense。Secondly，initsqualitativerelationstotheotherpartialtones，theprincipaltonemustbethefundamentalofaserieswhosemembersareallharmonious。Thirdly，allthepartialtonesmustbeuniformlycoincident。Thiscoincidenceisobjectivelyguaranteedbyderivingtheclangfromaunitarysource，(thatis，producing[p。97]
theclangthroughthevibrationsofonestring，onereed-pipe，etc。)Theresultisthattheobjectivevibrationsofthepartialtonesalwaysstandinthesamerelationtooneanother——aresultwhichcannotbesecuredwhenclangsfromseveralsourcesareunited。Thefirsttwooftheseconditionsrelatetotheelements，thethirdtotheformoftheircombinations。Thefirstistheleastessentialtotheideaofasingleclang。Ifthesecondisnotfulfilled，thecombinationbecomesacompoundclangwhenthepredominatingfundamentaliswanting，oranoisewhentheseriesoftonesisnotharmonious，oramixedformbetweenaclangandanoisewhenbothpartsoftheconditionareunfulfilled。
Ifthethirdcondition，ofconstancyinthephasesofthepartialtones，isnotmet，theclangbecomescompoundevenwhenthefirsttwoconditionsarecompliedwith。Aseriesofsimpleclangsfromanumberoftuning-forkswhichshouldunitetoasingleclangsofarasintensityandqualityareconcerned，alwaysproducesinrealitytheideaofacompoundclang。[1]
5。Acompoundclangisanintensivecombinationofsingleclangs。Itisingeneralanincompletefusionwithseveralpredominatingelements。Thereare，asarule，allpossible[p。98]gradesoffusioninacompoundclang，especiallywhenitismadeupofsingleclangsofcompositequality。Insuchacase，notonlydoeseverysingleclangformacompletefusioninitself，butthesesingleclangsfusethemorecompletelywithoneanotherthemoretheirfundamentalsapproachtherelationofelementsofasingleclang。Soitcomesthatinacompoundclangmadeupofsingleclangsrichinovertones，thosecomponentswhosefundamentalscorrespondtotheovertonesofsomeothersingleclanginthecompound，fusemorecompletelywiththisrelatedclangthanwithothers。
Theotherclangs，inturn，fusethemorecompletelythemoretheirrelationapproachesthatofthefirstmembersofaseriesofovertones。Thus，inthecompoundclangcegc\'theclangscandc\'formanearlycompletefusion，whilethefusionsoftheclangscandg，cande，areincomplete。Stilllesscompleteisthefusionbetweencandeb。Ameasureforthedegreeoffusionmaybeobtainedinallthesecasesbyallowinganobservertohearthecompoundclangforaverybriefinterval，afterwhichheistodecidewhetherheperceivedonlyoneclangorseveral。Thisexperimentisrepeatedmanytimes，andtherelativenumberofjudgmentsinfavoroftheunityoftheclangisameasureforthedegreeoffusion。
6。Besidestheelementscontainedinthesingleclangsofacompound，therearealways，arisingfromthecombinationofvibrationsintheauditoryorgan，additionalelementswhichcausenewtonalsensations，characteristicforthedifferentkindsofcompoundclangs。Thesemayalsofusemoreorlesscompletelywiththeoriginalclang。
Theyaresensationsofdifference-tones；theycorrespond，astheirnameindicates，tothedifferencebetweenthenumberofvibrationsintwoprimarytones。Theymayhaveatwofoldorigin，eitherfromtheinterferenceofthevibrationsintheouterear，especiallyinthetympanumorchainofossicles(Helmholtz\'scombi-[p。99]nation-tones)，orfromtheinterferenceofthevibrationsintheauditorynerve-fibres(Koenig\'sbeat-tones)。Thefirstare，fromtheverycharacteroftheirorigin，weaktones；especiallyincomparisonwiththeoriginaltones，theyarealwaysrelativelyveryweak。Thesecondclass，ontheotherhand，aregenerallystrongerandmayevensurpasstheoriginaltonesinintensity。Itisprobablethatthefirstappearonlvinthecaseofharmoniouscompoundclangs，whilethesecondappearalsoindissonantcompoundclangs。Thefusionofdifference-toneswiththechieftonesofthecompoundisthemorecompletethelessintensetheformerare，andthemoretheytendtoformasimpleharmonioustonalserieswiththeoriginalcomponentsoftheclang。Asaresultoftheseattributes，thedifference-tonesaretocompoundclangswhattheovertonesaretosingleclangs。Theyare，however，almostentirelyindependentoftheclang-colorofthecomponentsofthecompound，butvarygreatlywiththerelationinwhichtheprincipaltonesofthesecomponentsstandtooneanother。Thisexplainstherelativeuniformityinthecharacterofagivencompoundclangevenwhentheclang-colorsofitscomponentsvary。
7。Acompoundclangmaypassthroughallpossibleintermediatestagesintoathirdformofintensiveauditoryideas，thatofnoises。Whentwotonesarenolongerincludedwithinaseriesofharmonioustonesandwhenatthesametimethedifferencebetweenthenumberoftheirvibrationsdoesnotexceedcertainlimits，forhighertonesaboutsixtyvibrationsandforlowerthirtyorevenfewer，therearisedisturbancesinthecompoundclang，whichcorrespondinnumbertothedifferencebetweenthenumberofvibrationsintheprimarytones，andareduetothealternatingcoincidenceoflikeandoppositephasesofvibration。
Thesedisturbancesareeitherinterruptionsoftheclang-sensation，[p。
99]beats，or，especiallyinthecaseofdeeptones，intermittentsensationsofadifference-tone，tonalbeats。Ifthedifferencesinthenumberofvibrationsexceedthenumbersmentioned，thetonesatfirstsoundcontinuous，fortheinterruptionsdisappear，buttheyareharsh。
Latertheharshnessdisappearsandwehavepuredissonance。Ordinarydissonanceismadeupofamixtureofbeatsorharshnessandpuredissonance。
Thefirsttwoareduetoperceptibleorjustdisappearinginterruptionsofthesensation，thelattertotheentireabsenceoftheunityoftheclang，thatis，oftheconsonancethatwouldhavearisenifacompleteorpartialfusionhadtakenplace。Thislackofaccordintones，duetotherelationoftheirpurequalities，maybedesignatedbissonance。
Ifthroughthesimultaneoussoundingofagreatnumberofnon-accordanttonesthevariousconditionsforanordinarydissonance，beats，tonalbeats，harshness，andbissonance，arealladdedtogether，anoiseistheresult。Onthepsychologicalsidethismeansthatthepredominatingtonalelementsdisappearentirelyorbecomemeremodifyingelementsinthetotalidea。Forourapprehensionofnoises，inthecaseofthosewhichlastashortintervalonly，thegeneralpitchofthemostintenseelementsisdeterminative，inthecaseofthosewhichlastlonger，theformofthedisturbanceresultingfromtherapidityofthebeats，fromtheaccompanyingtonalbeats，etc。，alsohasaninfluence。
Humanarticulationsarecharacteristicexamplesofdifferentformsofnoise。Thevowelsareintermediatebetweenclangsandnoiseswithpredominantlyclangcharacter；theresonantsarenoisesoflongduration，andtheproperconsonantsnoisesofshortduration。
Inwhispersthevowelsbecomesimplynoises。Thecircumstancethatthedifferencesinvowelsareperfectlydistinctinwhispers，goestoprovethatthecharacterofvowelsdependsessentiallyontheirnoise-elements。
Itis[p。101]probablethatsimplesensationsofnoise(p。49)enterintoallnoisestogetherwiththenumeroustonalelementsthatnotomakethemup。Theirregularair-vibrationsarisingfromthedisturbancesinthetonalwaves，exciteboththenervouselementsinthevestibuleofthelabyrinth，whicharesensitivetosuchstimulations，andtheauditorynervefibresthemselves。
7a。Helmholtz\'sresonancehypothesishasaidedusmateriallyinunderstandingthephysiologicalsubstratumofintensiveauditoryideas，especiallythoseofclangs(p。51)。Itisassumedthatcertainpartsoftheauditoryorganaresotunedthattonalwavesofagivenratealwayssetinsympatheticvibrationonlythepart，correspondinglytuned。Thisexplainsinageneralwaytheanalyzingabilityoftheauditorysense，asaresultofwhichwecandistinguishtheelementsnotonlyinacompoundclang，buttosomeextenteveninasingleclang。Theresonancehypothesis，however，accountsphysiologicallyforonlyonesideoftonalfusion。thepersistenceofthesinglesensationinthetotalintensiveidea，notfortheotherside，themoreorlessintimatecombinationoftheelements。Theassumptionofanimaginary“organoffusion“inthebrainforthispurpose，isoneofthosefictionsthataremoreharmfulthanhelpful，inwhichtheattemptismadetosatisfyademandforexplanationwithanemptyword。Thetonalelementsthatproduceanintensiveclang-ideapersistasrealsensationsandstillgiveuptheirindependencemoreorlessinthetotalidea。Tonalfusionis，then，apsychicalprocessandrequiresapsychologicalexplanation。Butsincethisfusionisverydifferentunderdifferentobjectiveconditions，as，forexample，whentheimpressionsareduetothecombinedvibrationsfromasinglesourceortovibrationsfromseveraldistinctsources；thesedifferencesmusthavesomephysiologicalandphysicalgroundsfortheirexplanation。Themostnaturalwaytoattemptsuchanexplanationisproperlytosupplementtheresonancehypothesis。
Ifweassumethatbesidestheanalysingpartsoftheauditoryorgan，theresonantmembrane，stillothersexistwhichareeffectedbythetotal，unresolvedclang，wehaveasufficientphysiologicalsubstratumforthedifferenteffectsofthevariousconditions。The[p。102]observations(p。41)onbirdsdeprivedoftheirlabyrinthsmakeitpossibletoinferthattheauditorynerve-fibresinthecanalsofthelabyrinthmaybesuchorgans。Then，too，theexistenceofbeat-tones(p。99)，whichsometimessurpasstheprimarytonesinintensity，andtheobservationthattheinterruptionsofasingletonemayunitetoformasecondsensationwhensufficientlyrapid，bothseemtorequireasimilarsupplementationoftheresonancehypothesis。
[1]Thecaseisdifferentwhenthefundamentalitselfcontainsovertonesofnoticeableintensity，whicharealsorepeatedasindependentclangsinthecompoundtone。Thesingleclangsofsuchaseriesarrangethemselvesinthesamephasesastheseovertones，andthecompoundclanghasthecharacterofasingleclangwithverystrongovertones。Helmholtzconcludedfromexperimentsinwhichhecombinedinvariouswayssimpleclangsfromtuning-forks，thatdifferencesinphasehavenoinfluenceontheclang-color。Butastheideaofasingleclangcannotbeproducedinthisway，itisprobablethatanentirelyconstantrelationofthephasesofdifferenttonalvibrationsfromindependentsourcescanneverbebroughtaboutwiththismethod。ExperimentsbyR。
Koenigtellfortheinfluenceontheclang-color，oftheformoftheclangasdeterminedbytherelationofthevibration-phasesClassicsintheHistoryofPsychology——Wundt(1897)Section10OutlinesofPsychologyWilhelmMaxWundt(1897)TranslatedbyCharlesHubbardJudd(1897)II。PSYCHICALCOMPOUNDS§；10。SPACIALIDEAS
1。Spacialandtemporalideasareimmediatelydistinguishedfromintensiveideasbythefactthattheirpartsareunited，notinanarbitrarilyvariable，butinadefinitelyfixedorder，sothatwhentheorderisthoughtofaschangedtheideaitselfchanges。Ideaswithsuchafixedarrangementarecalledingeneralextensiveideas。
Ofthepossibleformsofextensiveideas，spacialideasaredistinguishedbythefactthatthefixedarrangementofthepartsofaspacialcompoundholdsonlyfortherelationofthepartstooneanother，notfortheirrelationtotheideatingsubject。Thislatterrelationmaybethoughtofasindefinitelyvaried。Theobjectiveindependenceofspacialcompoundsfromtheideatingsubjectiscalledthemovabilityandtorsibilityofspacialcompounds。Thenumberofdirectionsinwhichsuchmovementandtorsionmaytakeplace；islimited。Theymayallbereducedtothreedimensions，ineachofwhichitispossibletoadvanceintwooppositedirections。Thenumberofdirectionsinwhichthepartsofasinglecompoundmaybearrangedaswellasthenumberinwhichvariouscompoundsmaybearrangedwithreferencetooneanother，isthesameasthemaximalnumberofdirectionsinwhichmovementandtorsionarepossible。Thisiswhatwecallthethree-dimensionalcharacterofspace。A[p。103]singlespacialideamay，accordingly，bedefinedasathreedimensionalcompoundwhosepartsarefixedintheirlocationwithregardtooneanother，butcapableofindefinitevariationintheirlocationwithregardtotheideatingsubject。Thisdefinitionneglects，ofcourse，thefrequentchangesinthearrangementoftheparts，whichoccurinreality。Whenthesechangestakeplace，theyaretoberegardedastransitionsfromoneideatoanother。
Thisthree-dimensionalarrangementofspacialideasmustofnecessityincludeone-dimensionalandtwo-dimensionalarrangementsasspecialcases。Insuchcases，however，thewantingdimensionsmustalwaysbeaddedinthoughtassoonastherelationoftheideatotheideatingsubjectistakenintoaccount。
2。Thisrelationtotheideatingsubject，whichisreallypresentinallspacialideas，rendersitfromthefirstpsychologicallyimpossiblethatthearrangementoftheelementsinsuchanideashouldbeanoriginalattributeoftheelementsthemselves，analagoustotheintensityorqualityofsensations；itrequiresratherthatthisarrangementshouldresultfromthebringingtogetheroftheseelements，andshouldarisefromsomenewpsychicalconditionsthatcomewiththiscoexistence。Ifthisisnotadmitted，itbecomesnecessarynotonlytoattributeaspacialqualitytoeverysinglesensation，butalsotopostulateforeverysensation，howeverlimited，asimultaneousideaofthewholeofthree-dimensionalspaceinitslocationwithregardtotheideatingsubject。Thiswouldleadtotheacceptanceofanapriorispace-perceptionpriortoallconcretesensations，whichisnotonlycontradictorytoallourexperiencesastotheconditionsfortheriseanddevelopmentofpsychicalcompoundsingeneral，butalsocontradictorytoallourexperiencesastotheinfluencesthataffectspacialideasinparticular。
3。Allspacialideasarearrangementseitheroftactical[p。
104]orofvisualsensations。Indirectly，throughofconnectionofothersensationswitheithertactualorvisualideas，thespacialrelationmaybecarriedovertoothersensations。Inthecasesoftouchandsight，itisobviousthattheextendedsurfaceoftheperipheralsense-organs，andtheirequipmentwithorgansofmovement，whichrenderpossibleavaryinglocationoftheimpressionsinregardtotheideatingsubject，arebothfavorableconditionsforanextensive，spacialarrangementofthesensations。
Thetactualsenseistheearlierofthetwohereinquestion，foritappearsearlierinthedevelopmentoforganismsandshowsthestructuralrelationsinmuchcoarser，butforthatreasoninmanyrespectsmuchplainer，formthanthemoredelicatelyorganizedvisualorgandoes。Still，itistobenotedthatwherevisionispresent，thespacialideasfromtoucharegreatlyinfluencedbythosefromsight。A。SPACIALTOUCH-IDEAS。
4。Thesimplestpossibletouch-ideaisasingle，approximiatelypunctiformimpressionontheskin。Ifsuchanimpressionispresentedevenwhentheeyesareturnedaway，therearisesadefiniteideaoftheplacetouched。Introspectionshowsthatthisidea，whichiscalledthelocalizationofthestimulus，underthenormalconditionwherevisionispresentisnotimmediate，asweshouldexpectittobeifthespacialqualitywereanoriginalattributeofsensations，butthatitdependsuponasecondary，generallyveryobscure，visialideaoftheregiontouched。Localizationis，therefore，moreexactnearboundinglinesofthetouch-organsthanontheuniforminterveningsurfaces，sincetheseboundinglinesaremoreprominentinthevisualimages。Thearousalofavisualideathroughthetactualimpression，evenwhentheeyesareturnedaway，ispossiblebecauseeverypointoftheorganoftouch[p。105]givestothetouch-sensationapeculiarqualitativecoloring，whichisindependentofthequalityoftheexternalimpressionandisprobablyduetothecharacterofthestructureoftheskin，whichvariesfrompointtopointandisneverexactlythesameintwoseparateregions。
Thislocalcoloringiscalledthelocalsignofthesensation。
Itvariesindifferentregionsoftheskinatverydifferentrates:rapidlyonthetipofthetongue，ontheendsofthefingers，andonthelips；
slowlyonthebroadersurfacesofthelimbsandtrunk。Ameasurefortherateofthisvariationmaybeobtainedbyapplyingtwoimpressionsneareachothertoanyregionoftheskin。Solongasthedistanceoftheimpressionsislessthanthatofdistinguishablelocalsignstheyareperceivedasasingleone，butsosoonastheypassthislimittheyareperceivedasspeciallyseparate。Thesmallest，justnoticeabledistancebetweentwoimpressionsiscalledthespace-thresholdfortouch。Itvariesfromoneortwomillimetres(tipsoftongueandfingers)tosixty-eightmillimetres(back，upperarm，andleg)。Onthepressure-spots(p。47)，whenthestimuliarefavorablyapplied，stillshorterdistancescanbeperceived。Then，too，thethresholdisdependentontheconditionofthetactualorganandonpractice。Asaresultofthefirst，forexample，thethresholdissmallerforchildrenthanforadults，sincethedifferencesinstructurethatconditionthelocalsigns，areobviouslymorecrowdedtogether。Asaresultofpractice，thethresholdissmallerinthecaseoftheblindthanofthosewhohavevision，especiallyattheendsofthefingers，whicharemostusedfortouching。
5。Theinfluenceofvisualideasoftheregionstouched，wherevisionispresent，asjustdescribed，teachesthatthelocalizationoftactualimpressionsandthespacialarrangementofanumberofsuchimpressionsisnotduetoanoriginalspacialqualityofcutaneouspointsortoany[p。106]primaryspace-formingfunctionofthetactualorgan。Onthecontrary，itpresupposesspacialideasofsight，whichcanbemadeuseof，however，onlybecausethevariouspartsofthetactualorganhavecertainqualitativeattributes，localsigns，whicharousethevisualimageoftheparttouched。
Thereisnoreasonforattributinganimmediatespacialrelationtothelocalsignsthemselves；itisobviouslyenoughthattheyactasqualitativesignalstoarousetheappropriatevisualimages。Thisconnectionwithvisiondependsuponthefrequentunionofthetwo。Thesteelinessoflocalizationwill，therefore，beaidedbyalltheinfluencesthatincreaseeithertheclearnessofthevisualimagesorthequalitativedifferencesinlocalsigns。
Wemaydescribetheformationofspacialideasinthiscaseasthearrangementoftacticalstimuliinvisualimagesarealreadypresent。Thewholeprocessisaconsequenceoftheconstantconnectionoftheseimageswiththequalitativelocalsignsofthestimuli。Theunionofthelocalsignsandthevisualimagesofthecorrespondingregionmay，then，berewardedasanincomplete，butveryconstant，fusion。Thefusionisincompletebecausebothvisualimageandtactualimpressionretaintheirindependentcharacter；butitissoconstantthat，whenthestateofthetactualorganremainsthesame，itseemsinvariable。Thislastfactexplainstherelativecertaintyoflocalization。Thepredominatingelementsofthisfusionarethetactualsensations。Formanypersonsthevisualimagesarepushedsofarintothebackgroundthattheycannotbeperceivedwithanycertainty，evenwiththegreatestattention。Theapprehensionofspace，insuchcases，isperhapsanimmediatefunctionoftactualandmotorsensations，asfortheblind(v。inf。6)。Asarule，however，morecarefulobservationshowsthatitispossibletorecognizetheposition，anddistanceoftheimpressionsonlybyattempting[p。107]tomaketheindefinitevisualimageoftheregiontouchedmoredistinct。
6。Theconditionsthatholdwhenvisionispresent，areessentiallydifferentfromthosefoundincasesofblindness，especiallycongenitalorearlyacquiredblindness。Blindpersonsretainforalongtimememoryimagesoffamiliarvisualobjects，sothatthespacialideasoftouchalwaysremain，tosomeextent，productsofafusionbetweentactualsensationsandvisualimages。Butthesevisualimagescannotbecontinuallyrenewed，sothatthepersonsinquestioncomemoreandmoretomakeuseofmovements。
Thesensationsofmovementthatarisefromthejointsandmusclesinpassingfromonetactualimpressiontoanother(p。46)，serveasameasureforthemovementexecutedand，atthesametime，asameasureforthedistancebetweenthetwoimpressions。Thesesensationsofmovement，whichinacquiredblindnessareadditionstothegraduallyfadingvisualimagesandinpartsubstitutesforthem，are，incongenitalblindness，theonlymeanspresentfromathefirstfortheformationofanideaoftherelativepositionanddistanceofthesingleimpressions。Weobserveinthelattercasecontinualmovementsofthetouch-organs，especiallythefingers，overtheobject。
Addedtothesemovementsareamoreconcentratedattentiontotactualsensationsandagreaterpracticeintheirdiscrimination。Still，thelowgradeofdevelopmentofthissense，incomparisonwithsight，alwaysshowsitselfinthefactthattheapprehensionofcontinuouslinesandsurfacesismuchlessperfectthanthatofapproximatelypunctiformimpressionsarrangedinvariousways。Thenecessityofmakingablind-alphabetofarbitraryfiguresformedbyvariouscombinationsofraisedpoints，isastrikingproofofthis。Thus，forexample，intheordinaryalphabet(Braille\'s)
onepointrepresentsA，twopointsinahorizontallineB，[p。108]twopointsinaverticallineC，etc。Withsixpointsatmostalltheletterscanbeformed，butthepointsmustbefarenoughaparttobeperceivedisseparatewiththeendoftheindexfinger。Thewayinwhichthisalphabetisreadischaracteristicforthedevelopmentofthespace-ideasoftheblind。Asaruletheindexfingersofbothhandsareusedforthispurpose。
Therightfingerprecedesandapprehendsagroupofpointssimultaneously(synthetictouch)，theleftfingerfollowssomewhatmoreslowlyandapprehendsthesinglepointssuccessively(analytictouch)。Boththesyntheticandanalyticimpressionsareunitedandreferredtothesameobject。Thismethodofprocedureshowsclearlythatthespacialdiscriminationoftactualimpressionsisnomoreimmediatelygiveninthiscasethaninthecasewherevisionwaspresent，butthatheretheimprovementsbymeansofwhichthefingerthatisusedforanalytictouchpassesfrompointtopoint，playthesamepartastheaccompanyingvisualideasdidinthenormalcaseswithvision。
Anideaoftheextentanddirectionofthesemovementscanariseonlyundertheconditionthateverymovementisaccompaniedbyaninnertactualsensation(p。46，6)。Theassumptionthattheseinnertactualsensationsareimmediatelyconnectedwithanideaofthespacepassedthroughinthemovement，wouldbehighlyimprobable，foritwouldnotonlypresupposetheexistenceofaconnateperceptionofsurroundingspaceandofthepositionofthesubjectinrespecttothesame(p。103)，butitwouldincludeanotherparticularassumption。Thisistheassumptionthatinnerandoutertouch-sensations，althoughtheyareotherwisealikeinqualityandphysiologicalsubstrata，stilldifferinthatinnersensationsgive，alongwiththesensation，animageofthepositionofthesubjectandofthespacialarrangementoftheimmediateenvironment。Thiswouldreallynecessitateareturn[p。109]
tothePlatonicdoctrineofthememoryofinnateideas，forthesensationsofmovementsarisingfromtouchareherethoughtofasthemereexternaloccasionalcausesfortherevivalofinnatetranscendentalideasofspace。
7。Apartfromitspsychologicalimprobability，suchanhypothesisasthatjustmentionedcannotbereconciledwiththeinfluenceexercisedbypracticeonthediscriminationoflocalsignsandofdifferencesinmovements。Thereisnootherwayexcepttoattributetheriseofspacialideashere，asinnormalcaseswithvision(p。106)，tothecombinationsofthesensationsthemselvesaspresentedinexperience。Thesecombinationsconsistinthefactthatinpassingfromoneoutertactualimpressiontoanother，anytwosensations，aandb，withacertaindifferenceinlocalsigns，alwayshaveacorrespondinginnertouch-sensation，a，accompanyingthemovement；whiletwosensations，aandc，withagreaterdifferenceinlocalsigns，haveamoreintensesensationofmovement，g。Fortheblindthereisalwayssucharegularcombinationofinnerandoutertouch-sensations。Fromthestrictlyempiricalpointofviewitcannotbeaffirmedthateitherofthesesensationalsystems，itself，bringstheideaofspacialarrangement；
wecanonlysaythatthisarrangementresultsregularlyfromthecombinationofthetwo。Onthisbasisthespecialideasoftheblind，arising，astheydo，fromexternalimpressions，aredefinedastheproductofthefusionofexternaltactualsensationsandtheirqualitativelyguidedlocalsigns，withinternaltactualsensations，gradedaccordingtointensity。Theexternalsensationswiththeirattributesasdeterminedbytheexternalstimulus，arethepredominatingelementsinthisfusion。Thesepushthelocalsignswiththeirqualitativepeculiarities，andthesensationsofmovementwiththeirintensiveattributes，sofarintothebackground，that，liketheovertonesofaclangthey[p。110]canbeperceivedonlywhentheattentionisespeciallyconcentrateduponthem。Spacialideasfromtouchare，accordingly，duetoacompletefusion。Theircharacteristicpeculiarity，incontrast，forexample，withintensivetonalfusions，isthatthesubordinateandsupplementaryelementsaredifferentincharacter，andatthesametimerelatedtooneanotheraccordingtodefinitelaws。
Theyaredifferent，forthelocalsignsformapurequalitativesystem，whiletheinnertouch-sensationswhichaccompanythemovementsofthetactualorgans，formaseriesofintensifies。Theyarerelated，forthemotorenergyusedinpassingthroughanintervalbetweentwopoints，increaseswiththeextentoftheinterval，that，inproportiontothequalitativedifferencebetweenthelocalsigns，theremustalsobeanincreaseintheintensityofthesensationsofmovement。
8。Thespacialarrangementoftactualimpressionsisthustheproductofatwofoldfusion。First，thesubordinateelementsfuse，inthatthevariousqualitiesofthelocalsignsystem，whichisspreadoutintwodimensions，arerelatedtooneanotheraccordingtothegradesofintensityofthesensationsofmovement。Secondly，thetactualimpressionsasdeterminedbytheexternalstimuli，fusewiththeproductofthefirstunion。Ofcourse，thetwoprocessesdonottakeplacesuccessively，butinoneandthesameact，forthelocalsignsandmovementsmustbothbearousedbytheexternalstimuli。Still，theexternalsensationsvarywiththenatureoftheobjectivestimulus，whilethelocalsignsandinternaltactualsensationsaresubjectiveelements，whosemutualrelationsalwaysremainthesameevenwhentheexternalimpressionsvary。Thisisthepsychologicalconditionfortheconstancyofattributeswhichweascribetospaceitself，incontrastwich[sic]
thegreatchangeablenessofthequalitativeattributesofobjectsinspace。
[p。111]
9。Afterthefusionbetweenlocalsignsandinternaltactualsensationshasoncebeeneffected，eitheroneoftheseelementslayitself，thoughperhapsinalimiteddegree，isabletobringoutalocalizationofthesensations，andeventoarousecomplexspacialideas。Inthiswaynotonlynormalindividualswithvision，butalsotheblind，eventhecongenitallyblind，haveanideaoftheplacetouched，andcanperceiveasspeciallyseparatetwoimpressionsthatarefarenoughapart，evenwhenthetouch-organsremainperfectlyquiet。Ofcourse，thecongenitallyblindcanhavenovisualimageoftheregiontouched，buttheyhaveinsteadofthisanideaofamovementoftheparttouchedand，whereseveralimpressionsarereceived，theideaofamovementfromonetotheother。Thesamefusiontakesplaceinideasthusformedasintheordinaryones，wheremovementsarereallypresent，onlyheretheonefactor，theinnertactualsensationismerelyamemory-image。
10。Inthesameway，wemayhavethereverseprocess。Therealcontentsofexperiencemaybeasumofinnertactualsensationswhicharisefromthemovementofsomepartofthebody，whilenonoticeableexternaltactualsensationswhateveraregiven，andyettheseexternalsensationswhichaccompanythemovementmaystillbethebasisofaspacialidea。Thisisregularlythecasewhenwehavepureideasofourownmovements。If，forexample，weshutoureyesandthenraiseourarm，wehaveateverymomentanideaofthepositionofthearm。Tobesure，externaltactualsensationsthatarisefromthetorsionandfoldingoftheskin，playsomepartheretoo，buttheyarerelativelyunimportantincomparisonwiththeinternalsensationsfromthejoints，tendons，andmuscles。
Itcanbeeasilyobservedthatwherevisionispresent，thisideaofpositioncomesfromanobscurevisualimage，ofthe[p。112]limbwithitssurroundings，whichisarousedevenwhentheeyesareclosedorturnedaway。Thisconnectionissoclosethatitmayarisebetweenthemerememory-imageoftheinnertactualsensationandthecorrespondingvisualidea，asisobservedinthecaseofparalytics，wheresometimesthemerewilltoexecuteacertainmovementarousestheideaofamovementreallyexecuted。Evidentlytheideasofone\'sownmovementsdepend，whenvisionispresent，onincompletefusions，justastheexternalspacialideasoftouchdo，onlyheretheinternalsensationsplaythepartthattheoutersensationsplayintheformercase。Thisleadstotheassumptionthattheinnertactualsensationsalsohavelocalsigns，thatis，thesensationsinthevariousjoints，tendons，andmusclesshowcertainseriesoflocaldifferences。Introspectionseemstoconfirmthisview。Ifwemovealternatelytheknee-joint，hip-joint，andshoulder-joint，oreventhecorrespondingjointsontherightandleftsides，thequalityofthesensationseemseachtimealittledifferent，evenifweneglecttheconnectionwithavisualimageofthelimb，whichcanneverbeentirelysuppressed。Then，too，itisimpossibletoseehowaccompanyingvisualimagescouldariseatallwithoutsuchdifferences。
Thatwouldrequirenotonlyaconnateideaofspaceinthemind，butalsoaconnateknowledgeofthepositionandmovementsofthelimbsinspaceforeverymoment。
11。Fromtherelationsthatexistinthenormalcaseswithvision，wecanunderstandthewayinwhichtheideasoftheirownmovementsariseinthecaseofthecongenitallyblind。Here，insteadofafusionwithavisualimage，theremustbeafusionofsensationsofmovementwiththelocalsigns。Outertactualsensationsalsoactisaidsinthiscase。Infact，theyaremuchmoreimportantherethanwhenvisionispresent。Theideasoftheblindastotheirownmove-[p。113]mentsareexceedinglyuncertainsolongastheyareunaidedbycontactwithexternalobjects。
