10。Ifweseektoaccountfortheriseoftemporalideasonthebasisofthephenomenajustdiscussed，andoftheregularcombinationofsubjectivesensationalandaffectiveelementswithobjectiveimpressions，asitisthereapparent；wemuststartwiththefactthatasensationthoughtofbyitself，cannomorehavetemporalthatitcouldhavespacialattributes。Positionintimecanbepossibleonlywhensinglepsychicalelementsenterintocertaincharacteristicrelationswithothersuchelements。Thisconditionoftheunionofanumberofpsychicalelementsholdsfortemporalideasjustasmuchasforthoseofspace，butthekindofunionischaracteristic，andessentiallydifferentfromthatinspace-ideas。
Themembersofatemporalseriesabcdef，canallbeimmediatelypresentedasasinglewhole，whentheserieshasreachedjustaswellasiftheywereaseriesofpointsinspace。Inthelattercase，however，theywould，onac-[p。154]countoforiginalocularreflexes，bearrangedinrelationtothepointoffixation，andthisfixation-pointcould，atdifferenttimes，beanyoneoftheimpressionsatof。Intime-ideas，ontheotherhand，itisalwaystheimpressionofthepresentmomentinrelationtowhichalltherestarearrangedintime。Whenanewimpressionbecomes，inasimilarmanner，thepresentimpression，eventhoughitssensationalcontentsaxeexactlythesameasthatoftheearlier，still，itwillbeapprehendedassubjectivelydifferent，forthoughtheaffectivestateaccompanyingasensationmay，indeed，berelatedtothefeelingsofanothermoment，thetwocanneverbeidentical。Suppose，forexample，thatfollowingtheseriesabcdef，thereisasecondseriesofimpressions，a\'b\'c\'d\'
e\'f\'inwhicha\'=a，b\'=b，c\'=c，etc。，sofarastheirsensatiolialelementsareconcerned。Letusrepresenttheaccompanyingfeelingsbyabgdejanda\'b\'g\'d\'e\'j\'Thenaanda\'，bandb\'，gandg\'，ect。，willbesimilarfeelings，becausethesensationsarethesame；buttheywillnotbeidentical，becauseeveryaffectiveelementdependsnot，onlyuponthesensationwithwhichitisimmediatelyconnectedbutalsouponthestateofthesubjectasbythetotalityofitsexperiences。Thestateofthesubjectisdifferentforeachofthemembersoftheseriesa\'b\'c\'d\'……，fromwhatitwasforthecorrespondingmemberoftheseriesabcdbecausewhentheimpressiona\'arrives，ahasbeenpresent，andsoa\'canbereferredbacktoa，whilenosuchthingwaspossibleinthecaseofa。Analogousdifferencesintheaffectivestatesshowthemselvesincompositeserieswhenrepeated。
Thesestatesareneveridentical，howevermuchthesubjectiveconditionsofthemomentarilypresentfeelingsmayagree，foreveryoneofthemhasitscharacteristicrelationtothetotalityofpsychicalprocesses。Ifweassume，forexample，asuccessionofanumberofsimilarseries[p。
155]abcd，a\'b\'c\'d\'，a“b“c“d“，etc。，inwhichaequalsa\'anda“，bequalsb\'andb“，etc。，sofarastheirsensationalcontentsareconcerned，still，a“differsfroma\'initsaffectiveconditions，fora\'canbereferredbackonlytoa，whilea“canbereferredbacktobotha\'anda。Besidesthis，itistruethatotherdifferencesbetweenimpressionslikeinthemselvesalways，trisefromsomechanceaccompanyingsensationswhichinfluencetheaffectivestate。
11。Sinceeveryelementofatemporalideaisarrangedinrelationtotheimpressionimmediatelypresent，asaboveremarked，itfollowsthatthispresentimpressionwillhaveoneoftheattributesofthefixation-pointinspacialcompounds。Itwillbemoreclearlyanddistinctlyperceivedthanotherelementsofthesameidea。Butthereisagreatdifferenceinthefactthatthismostdistinctperceptionisnotconnected，asinthecaseofspacialideas，withthephysiologicalorganizationofthesense-organ，butisdueentirelytothegeneralattributesoftheideatingsubject，asexpressedintheaffectiveprocesses。Themomentaryfeelingaccompanyingtheimmediatelypresentimpressioniswhathelpstoitsclearestapprehension。Wemay，accordingly，callthepartofatemporalideawhichformstheimmediateimpressionthefixation-pointoftheideaoringeneral，sinceitdoesnotdependonexternalstructure，asdoesthefixation-pointofspacialideas，wemaycallitfigurativelytheinnerfixation-point。Theinnerfixation-pointis，then，thatpartofatemporalideawhichcorrespondstothemostclearlyideatedandtheimmediatelypresentimpression。
Theimpressionsthatlieoutsidethispointoffixation，thatis，impressionsthathaveprecededthepresent，aredirectlyperceived。Theyarearrangedinaregulargradationofdiminishingdegreesofclearness，fromthefixation-point。
Aunitarytemporalideaispossibleonlysolongasthedegreeofclear-
[p。156]nessforeachofitselementshassomepositivevalue。Whentheclearnessofanyelementsinkstozero，theideadividesintoitscomponents。
12。Theinnerfixation-pointofthetemporalsensesdiffersessentiallyfromtheouterfixation-pointofthespacialsenses，inthatitscharacterisprimarilydetermined，notbysensational，butbyaffectiveelements。Sincetheseaffectiveelementsarecontinuallychanging，inconsequenceofthevaryingconditionsofpsychicallife，theinnerfixation-pointisalsoalwayschanging。Thischangeoftheinnerfixation-pointiscalledthecontinuousflowoftime。Bycontinuousflowwemeantoexpressthefactthatnomomentoftimeislikeanyother，andthatnosuchmomentcanreturn(cf。sup。p。143，2a)。Thisfactisconnectedwiththeone-dimensionalcharacteroftime，whichisduetothisverycircumstance，thattheinnerfixation-pointoftemporalideasiscontinuallymovingforward，sothatasinglepointcanneverrecur。Thearrangementoftimeinonedimension，withreferencealwaystoachangingpointoffixation，inwhichthesubjectrepresentsitself，iswhatgivesrisetotheresultthattheelementsoftime-Ideashaveafixedrelation，notonlywithrespecttooneanother，butalsowithrespecttotheideatingsubject(p。143，2)。
13。Ifwetrytogiveanaccountofthemeansfortheformationofthisreciprocallyinterdependentorderofthepartsofanidea，andoftheirdeterminationinregardtotheideatingsubject，itisobviousthatthesemeanscanbenothingbutcertainoftheelementsoftheideaitself，，which，consideredinthemselves，havenotemporalattributes，butgainsuchattributesthroughtheirunion。Wemaycalltheseelementstemporalsigns，aftertheanalogyoflocalsigns。
Thecharacteristicconditionsforthedevelopmentoftemporalideasindicatefromthefirstthatthesetemporalsignsare，[p。157]inthemain，affectiveelements。Inthecourseofanyrhythmicalserieseveryimpressionisimmediatelycharacterizedbytheconcomitantfeelingofexpectation，whilethesensationisofinfluenceonlyinsofarasitarousesthefeeling。
Thismaybeclearlyperceivedwhenarhythmicalseriesissuddenlyinterrupted。
Furthermore，theonlysensationsthatareneverabsentascomponentsofalltime-ideasarethesensationofmovement。Inthecaseoftactualideasthesesensationsofmovementbelongtotheimmediateelementsoftheideasthemselves，inauditoryandothercompoundsthatarebroughtintothetimeform，theyarealwayspresentassubjectiveaccompanyingphenomena。Wemay，accordingly，regardthefeelingsofexpectationasthequalitative，thesensationsofmovementastheintensive，temporalsignsofatemporalidea。Theideaitselfmustthenbelookeduponasafusionofthetwokindsoftemporalsignswitheachotherandwiththeobjectivesensationsarrangedinthetemporalform。Thus，thesensationsofmovement，asaseriesofintensivesensations，giveauniformmeasureforthearrangementoftheobjectivesensationsascharacterizedinqualitybytheconcomitantfeelings。
13a。Thesensationsofmovementplayasimilarpartintheformationofbothtime-ideasandspace-ideas。
Thislikesensationalsubstratumleadsverynaturallytoarecognitionofarelationbetweenthesetwoformsofperception，whichfindsitsexpressioninthegeometricalrepresentationoftimebyastraightline。Still，thereisanessentialdifferencebetweenthecomplexsystemoftemporalsignsandthesystemsoflocalsignsinthefactthattheformerisbasedprimarily，notonthequalitativeattributesofsensations，connectedwithcertainspecialexternalsense-organs，butonfeelingswhichmaycomeinexactlythesamewayfromthemostwidelydifferingkindsofsensation，sincetheyarenotdependentontheobjectivecontentofthesesensations，butontheirsubjectivesynthesis。Thesecharacteristics[p。158]oftime-ideasaccountfortheuniversalsignificancethatweattributetothem。ThiswaswhatwasimproperlyexpressedintheKantianprinciple，thattimeisa“formoftheinnersense“。Thisexpressionistobecriticisedonthegroundofitserroneouspresuppositionofaninnersense(p。8sq。)
Hereagainwehavethesameopposednatativist，andgenetictheoriesonthepsychologicaloriginoftime-ideas，aswehadinthecaseofspacial-ideas(p。114，12a)。Inthiscase，however，nativismhasneverdevelopedatheoryinanypropersense。Itusuallylimitsitselftothegeneralassumptionthattimeisa“connateformofperception“，withoutattemptingtogiveanyaccountoftheinfluenceoftheelementsandconditionsoftemporalideaswhichcanbeactuallydemonstrated。Thegenetictheoriesofolderpsychology，as，forexample，thatofHerbart，seektodeducetime-perceptionfromideationalelementsonly。Thisis，however，purespeculationandlosessightoftheconditionsgiveninactualexperience。
ClassicsintheHistoryofPsychology——Wundt(1897)Section12OutlinesofPsychologyWilhelmMaxWundt(1897)TranslatedbyCharlesHubbardJudd(1897)II。PSYCHICALCOMPOUNDS§；12。COMPOSITEFEELINGS。
1。Inthedevelopmentoftemporalideasitappearsclearlythatthediscriminationofsensationalandaffectivecomponentsinimmediateexperienceispurelyaproductofabstraction。Fortime-ideastheabstractionprovesimpossible，because，inthiscase，certainfeelingsplayanessentialpartintheriseoftheideas。Time-ideasmay，therefore，becalledideasonlywhenthefinalresultsoftheprocess，thearrangementofcertainsensationsinrelationtooneanotherandtothesubject，areconsidered；
whentheirrealcompositionislookedinto，theyarecomplexproductsofsensationsandfeelings。Theyarethustoacertainextenttransitionalformsbetweenideasandthosepsychicalcompoundsthataremadeupofaffectiveelements，andaredesignatedbythegeneralnameaffectiveprocesses。Theseaffectiveprocessesresembletime-ideasespeciallyintheimpossibilityofanabstractsepa-[p。159]rationoftheaffectivefromthesensationalelementsintheinvestigationoftheirrise。Thisisduetothefactthatinthedevelopmentofallkindsofaffectiveprocesses，sensationsandideasaredeterminingfactors，justasfeelingsareamongtheessentialfactorsoftemporalideas。
2。Intensiveaffectivecombinations，orcompositefeelings，mustbethefirstaffectiveprocessesdiscussed，becauseinthemthecharacteristicattributesofasinglecompoundaretheproductsofamomentarystate。Thedescriptionofthefeeling，therefore，requiresonlytheexactcomprehensionofthemomentarycondition，notacombinationofseveralprocessesoccurringintimeandproceedingfromoneanother。Inthisrespect，thecompositefeelingsstandinthesamerelationtoemotionsandvolitions，whichalwaysconsistofaffectiveprocessesextendingthroughperiodsoftime，asintensiveideasdotoextensive。Intensivepsychicalcompounds，inthebroadestsenseoftheterm，include，accordingly，intensiveideasandcompositefeelings。Extensivecompoundsincludeasspecialformsoftempora1arrangements，besidesthetemporalideas，alsoemotionsandvolitions。
3。Compositefeelings，then，areintensivestatesofunitarycharacterinwhichsinglesimpleaffectivecomponentsaretobeperceived。Wemaydistinguishineverysuchfeelingcomponentfeelingsandaresultantfeeling。Thelastcomponentfeelingsarealwayssimplesense-feelings。
Severalofthesemayunitetoformapartialresultantwhichentersintothewholeasacompoundcomponent。
Everycompositefeelingmay，accordingly，bedivided，1)intoatotalfeelingmadeupofallitscomponents，and2)intosinglepartialfeelingswhichgotomakeupthetotalfeeling。Thesepartialfeelingsareinturnofdifferentgradesaccordingastheyaresimplesense-feelings(partialfeelingsofthefirstorder)orfeelingswhicharethemselves[p。160]composite(partialfeelingsofthesecondorhigherorders)。Wherewehavepartialfeelingsofhigherorders，complicatedcombinationsorinterlacingsofthecomponentelementsmaytakeplace。Apartialfeelingoflowerordermay，atthesametime，enterintoseveralpartialfeelingsofhigherorder。Suchinterlacingsmayrenderthenatureofthetotalfeelingexceedinglycomplicated。Thewholemaysometimeschangeitscharacter，evenwhenitselementsremainthesame，accordingasoneortheotherofthepossiblecombinationsofpartialfeelingstakesplace。
3a。Thus，themusicalchordceghasacorrespondingtotalfeelingofharmonywhoselastelements，orpartialfeelingsofthefirstorder，arethefeelingscorrespondingtothesingleclangsc，e，andg。Betweenthesetwokindsoffeelingstand，aspartialfeelingsofthesecondorder，thethreefeelingsofharmonyfromthedoubleclangsce，egandcg。Thecharacterofthetotalfeelingmayhavefourdifferentshadesaccordingasoneofthesepartialfeelingsofthesecondorderpredominates，orallareequallystrong。Thecauseofthepredominanceofoneofthesecomplexpartialfeelingsmaybeeitherthegreaterintensityofitssensationalcomponents，ortheinfluenceofprecedingfeelings。If，forexample，cegfollowscegtheeffectofcbegwillbeintensified，whileifcegfollowsceathesamewillholdforcg。Similarly，anumberofcolorsmayhaveadifferenteffectaccordingasoneortheotherpartialcombinationpredominates。Inthelastcase，however，becauseoftheextensivearrangementoftheimpressions，thespacialproximityhasaninfluenceantagonistictothevariationinthemannerofcombinationand，furthermore，theinfluenceofthespacialformwithallitsaccompanyingconditionsisanessentiallycomplicatingfactor。
4。Thestructureofcompositefeelingsis，thus，ingeneralexceedinglycomplicated。Still，therearedifferentdegreesofdevelopmentevenhere。
Thecomplexfeelingsarisingfromimpressionsoftouch，smell，andtasteareessentiallysimpler[p。161]incharacterthanthoseconnectedwithauditoryandvisualideas。
Thetotalfeelingconnectedwithouterandinnertactualsensationsisdesignatedinparticularasthecommonfeeling，sinceitisregardedasthefeelinginwhichourtotalstateofsensiblecomfortordiscomfortexpressesitself。Fromthispointofview，thetwolowestchemicalsenses，thoseofsmellandtaste，mustalsoberegardedascontributorstothesensationalsubstratumofthecommonfeeling，forthepartialfeelingsthatarisefromthesetwosensesunitewiththosefromtouchtoforminseparableaffectivecomplexes。Insinglecases，tobesure，oneortheotherofthesefeelingsmayplaysuchanimportantpartthattheothersdisappearentirely。Still，inthemidstofallthischangeinitssensationalsubstratum，thecommonfeelingisalwaystheimmediateexpressionofoursensiblecomfortanddiscomfort，andis，therefore，ofallourcompositefeelingsmostcloselyrelatedtothesimplesense-feelings。Auditoryandvisualsensations，ontheotherhand，contributetothesensationalsubstratumofthecommonfeelingonlyinexceptionalcases，especiallywhentheintensityisunusuallygreat。
4a。Thecombinationofpartialfeelingstoacompositefeelingwasfirstnoticedinthecaseofthecommonfeeling。Thepsychologicallawsofthiscombinationwereindeedmisunderstood，and，asisusuallythecaseinphysiology，thefeelingwasnotdistinguishedfromitsunderlyingsensations。Commonfeelingwas，thus，sometimesdefinedasthe“consciousnessofoursensationalstate“，oragainasthe“totality，orunanalyzedchaosofsensations“whichcometousfromallpartsofourbody。Asamatteroffact，thecommonfeelingconsistsofanumberofpartialfeeling。Butitisnotthemeresumofthesefeelings；itisratheraresultanttotalfeelingofunitarycharacter。Atthesametimeitis，however，atotalfeelingofthesimplestpossiblecomposition，madeupofpartialfeelingsofthefirst[p。162]
order，thatis，ofsinglesense-feelingswhichgenerallydonotunitetoformpartialfeelingsofthesecondorofhigherorders。Intheresultantfeelingasinglepartialfeelingisusuallypredominant。Thisisregularlythecasewhenaverystronglocalsensationisaccompaniedbyafeelingofpain。Ontheotherhand，weakersensationsmaydeterminethepredominantaffectivetonethroughtheirrelativelygreaterimportance。Thisisespeciallyfrequentinthecaseofsensationsofsmellandtaste，andalsointhecaseofcertainsensationsconnectedwiththeregularfunctioningoftheorgans，suchastheinnertactualsensationsaccompanyingthemovementsofwalking。Oftentherelativelygreaterimportanceofasinglesensationissoslightthatthepredominatingfeelingcannotbediscoveredexceptbydirectingourattentiontoourownsubjectivestate。Insuchacasetheconcentrationoftheattentionuponitcangenerallymakeanypartialfeelingwhateverpredominant。
5。Thecommonfeelingisthesourceofthedistinctionbetweenpleasurableandunpleasurablefeelings。Thisdistinctionisthencarriedovertothesinglesimplefeelingsthatcomposeit，andsometimeseventoallfeelings。Pleasurableandunpleasurableareexpressionswelladaptedtotheindicationofthechiefextremesbetweenwhichthecommonfeeling，asatotalfeelingcorrespondingtothesensiblecomfortordiscomfortofthesubject，mayoscillate；thoughtobesure，thisfeelingmaynotinfrequentlylieforalongerorshorterperiodinanindifference-zone。
Inthesameway，theseexpressionsmaybeappliedtothesingleconstituentssofarastheygotomakeuponeofthetotalfeelings。Ontheotherhand，itisentirelyunjustifiabletoapplythesenamestoallotherfeelings，or，asissometimesdone，tomaketheirapplicabilityanecessaryfactorinthegeneraldefinitionoffeeling。Evenforthecommonfeeling，pleasurableandunpleasurablecanonlybeusedasgeneralclass-nameswhichincludeanumberofqualitativelydifferentfeelings。Thisvarietyamong[p。163]
feelingsofthesameclassresultsfromtheverygreatvariationsinthecompositionofthesingletotalfeelingsthatwehaveincludedunderthegeneralnamecommonfeeling(cf。p。82sq。)。
6。Thecompositecharactermentionedisthereasonwhytherearecommonfeelingswhichcannot，strictlyspeaking，becalledpleasurableorunpleasurable，becausetheycontainelementsbelongingtobothclasses，andundercircumstanceseithertheonekindortheothermaypredominate。Suchfeelingsmadeupofpartialfeelingsofoppositecharacterandderivingtheircharacteristicsfromthiscombination，maybecalledcontrast-feelings。Asimpleformofsuchamongthecommonfeelingsisthatoftickling。Itismadeupofaweakpleasurablefeelingaccompanyingaweakexternaltactualsensation，andoffeelingsconnectedwithmuscularsensationsarousedbythestrongrefleximpulsesfromthetactualstimuli。Theserefleximpulsesmayspreadmoreorless，andoftencauseinhibitionsofrespirationwhentheyreachthediaphragm，sothattheresultantfeelingmayvarygreatlyinsinglecasesinintensity，scope，andcomposition。
7。Thecompositefeelingsfromsightandhearingarecommonlycalledelementaryaestheticfeelings。Thisnameincludesallfeelingsthatareconnectedwithcompositeperceptionsandarethereforethemselvescomposite。
Asaspecialformoffeelingsbelongingtothisclassdefinedbythebroadermeaningoftheterm\'aisqhsiV，wehavethosewhicharetheelementsofaestheticeffectsinthenarrowersense。Thetermelementarydoesnotapplyinthiscasetothefeelingsthemselves，fortheyarebynomeanssimple，butitismerelyintendedtoexpresstherelativedistinctionbetweentheseandstillmorecompositehigheraestheticfeelings。
Theperceptive，orelementaryaesthetic，feelingsofsightandhearingmayserveasrepresentativesofallthecom-[p。164]positefeelingsthatariseinthecourseofintellectualprocesses，suchasthelogical，moral，andhigheraestheticalfeelings。Forthegeneralpsychologicalstructureofthesecomplexaffectiveformsisexactlythatofthesimplerperceptivefeelings，exceptthattheformerarealwaysconnectedwithfeelingsandemotionsthatarisefromthewholeinterconnectionofpsychicalprocesses。
Whiletheextremesbetweenwhichthecommonfeelingsmovearechieflytheaffectivequalitiesthatwecallpleasurableandunpleasurableinthesenseofpersonalcomfortanddiscomfort，theelementaryaestheticfeelingsbelongtothesameaffectivedirection，butinthemoreobjectivesenseofagreeableanddisagreeable，feelings。Thesetermsexpresstherelationoftheobjecttotheideatingsubjectratherthananypersonalstate。Itisstillmoreapparentherethaninthecagedofpleasurableandunpleasurablefeelings，thateachofthesetermsisnotthenameofasinglefeeling，butindicatesageneraldirection，towhichbelonganendlessvarietyoffeelingswithindividualpeculiaritiesforeachsingleidea。Insinglecases，too，butmorevariably，theotheraffectivedirections(p。83)，thoseofthearousingandsubduing，ofthestrainingandrelaxingfeelings，mayshowthemselves。
8。Ifweneglectforthemomentthisgeneralclassificationmentioned，accordingtowhichthesingleformsarebroughtunderthechiefaffectivedirections，allperceptivefeelingsmaybedividedintothetwoclassesofintensiveandextensivefeelings，accordingtotherelationswhichexistbetweenthesensationalelementsanddeterminethequalityofthefeelings。Byintensivefeelingswemeanthosethatdependontherelationofthequalitativeattributesofthesensationalelementsoftheideas，byextensivefeelingsthosethatarisefromthespacialandtemporalarrangementoftheelements。Theexpressions“intensive“and“extensive“donotrefertothe[p。165]characterofthefeelingsthemselves，fortheyareinrealityalwaysintensive，buttotheconditionsfortheriseofthesefeelings。
Intensiveandextensivefeelingare，accordingly，notmerelythesubjectiveconcomitantsofthecorrespondingideas，but，sinceeveryideaconsistsusuallyofelementsthatarequalitativelydifferentandofsomeextensivearrangementoftheseimpressions，thesameideamaybeatoncethesubstratumofbothintensiveandextensivefeelings。Thus，avisualobjectmadeupofdifferentcoloredpartsarousesanintensivefeelingthroughthemutualrelationofthecolorsandanextensivefeelingthroughitsform。Asuccessionofclangsisconnectedwithanintensivefeelingwhichcorrespondstothequalitativerelationoftheclangs，andwithanextensivefeelingcomingfromtherhythmicalorarhythmicaltemporalsuccessionofthesame。Inthisway，bothintensiveandextensivefeelingsarealwaysconnectedwithvisualandauditoryideas，but，ofcourse，undercertainconditionsoneformmaypushtheotherintothebackground。Thus，whenwehearaclangforjustaninstant，the。onlyfeelingperceivedistheintensivefeeling。
Orwhen，ontheotherband，arhythmicalseriesofindifferentsoundsisheard，onlytheextensivefeelingisnoticeable。ForthepurposeofpsychologicalanalysisitisobviouslyofadvantagetoproduceConditionsunderwhichoneparticularaffectiveformispresentandotherssofaraspossibleexcluded。
9。Whenintensivefeelingsareobservedinthisway，itappearsthatthoseaccompanyingthecombinationofcolorsfollowtherulethatacombinationoftwocolorswhosequalitativedifferenceisamaximum，alsogivesamaximalagreeablefeeling。Still，everyparticularcolor-combinationhasitsspecificaffectivecharactermadeupofthepartialfeelingsfromthesinglecolors，andofthetotalfeelingarising[p。166]
asaresultant，ofthesame。Then，too，as，inthecaseofsimplecolor-feelings，theeffectiscomplicatedbychanceassociationsandthecomplexfeelingscomingfromthem(p。76)。Combinationsofmorethantwocolorshavenotbeenadequatelyinvestigated。
Thefeelingsconnectedwithcombinationofclangsareexceedinglynumerousandvarious。Theyconstitutetheaffectivesphereinwhichweseemostclearlytheformationofpartialfeelingsofdifferentordersdiscussedabove(p。160)，togetherwiththeirinterlacingsvaryingunderspecialconditions。Theinvestigationofthesinglefeelingsthatthusariseisoneoftheproblemsofthepsychologicalaestheticsofmusic。
10。Extensivefeelingsmaybesubdividedintospacialandtemporal。
Ofthese，thefirst，orthefeelingsofform，belongmainlytovision，andthesecond，orthefeelingsofrhythm，tohearing，whilethebeginningofthedevelopmentof\'botharetobefoundintouch。
Theopticalfeelingofformsshowsitselffirstofallinthepreferenceofregulartoirregularformsandtheninthepreferenceamongdifferentregularformsofthosewhichhavecertainsimpleproportionsintheirvariousparts。Themostimportantoftheseproportionsarethoseofsymmetry，or1:1，and，ofthegoldensection，orx+1:x=x:1(thewholeistothegreaterpartasthegreaterpartistothesmaller)。Thefactthatsymmetryisgenerallypreferredforthehorizontaldimensionsoffiguresandthegoldensectionforthevertical，isprobablyduetoassociations，especiallywithorganicforms，suchasthatofthehumanbody。Thispreferenceforregularityandcertainsimpleproportionscanhavenootherinterpretationthanthatt~hemeasurementofeverysingledimensionisconnectedwithasensationofmovementandanaccompanyingsense-feelingwhichentersasapartialfeelingintothe，total[p。167]
opticalfeelingofform。Thetotalfeelingofregulararrangementthatarisesatthesightofthewholeform，isthusmodifiedbytherelationofthedifferentsensationsaswellasofthepartialfeelingstooneanother。
Assecondarycomponents，whichalsofusewiththetotalfeeling，wemayhiveheretooassociationsandtheirconcomitantfeelings。
Thefeelingofrhythmisentirelydependentontheconditionsdiscussedinconsideringtemporalideas。Thepartialfeelingsareherethefeelingsofstrainedandfulfilledexpectation，whichintheirregularalternationconstitutetherhythmicaltime-ideasthemselves。Thewayinwhichthesepartialfeelingsareunited，however，andespeciallythepredominanceofspecialonesinthetotalfeeling，is，evenmorethanthemomentarycharacterofanintensivefeeling，dependentontherelationinwhichthefeelingpresentatagiveninstantstandstotheprecedingfeelings。Thisisespeciallyapparentinthegreatinfluencethateveryalterationinrhythmexercizesontheaccompanyingfeeling。Forthisreasonaswellasbecauseoftheirgeneraldependenceonaparticulartemporalformofoccurrence，thefeelingsofrhythmarethedirecttransitionstoemotions。Tobesure，anemotionmaydevelopfromanycompositefeeling，butinnoothercaseistheconditionfortheriseofafeeling，ashere，atthe，sametimeanecessaryconditionfortheriseofacertaindegreeofemotion。
Theemotionis，however，usuallymoderatedinthiscase，throughtheregularsuccessionoffeelings(cf。§；13，1，7)。
11。Theimmensevarietyofcompositefeelingsandtheequallygreatvarietyoftheirconditions，renderanysuchcomprehensiveandatthesametimeunitarypsychologicaltheoryasthatwhichwaspossibleforspacialandtemporalideas，entirelyoutofthequestion。Still，thereareevenheresomecommonattributes，throughwhichcompositefeelings[p。168]
maybebroughtundercertaingeneralpsychologicalheads。Therearetwofactorswhichgotomakeupeveryfeeling:first，therelationofthecombinedpartialfeelingstooneanother，andsecond，theirsynthesistoaunitarytotalfeeling。Thefirstofthesefactorsismoreprominentinintensive，thesecondinextensivefeelings。Butinrealitytheyarealwaysunited，anddetermineeachotherreciprocally。Thus，afigurewhichisallthetimeagreeable，maybemoreandmorecomplexthemoretherelationsofitspartsaccordwithcertainrules，andthesameholdsforarhythm。Ontheotherhand，theuniontoasinglewholehelpstoemphasizetheseparateaffectivecomponents。Inalltheserespectscombinationoffeelingsshowtheclosestresemblancetointensiveideas。Theextensivearrangementofimpressionsonthecontrary，especiallythespacialarrangement，tends，muchmoretofavorarelativelyindependentcoexistenceofseveralideas。
12。Thecloseintensiveunionofallthecomponentsofafeeling，eveninthecaseofthosefeelingswhosecorrespondingideasarespacialortemporal，isconnectedwithaprinciplethatholdsforallaffectiveprocesses，includingthosewhichweshallhavetodiscusslater。Thisprinciplewewillcallthatoftheunityoftheaffectivestate。Itmaybeformulatedasfollows:Inagivenmomentonlyonetotalfeelingispossible，orinotherwords，allthepartialfeelings，presentatagivenmomentunite，ineverycase，toformasingletotalfeeling。Thisprincipleoftheunityofaffective。statesisobviouslyconnectedwiththegeneralrelationbetweenideaandfeeling。Forthe“idea“dealswithanimmediatecontentofexperienceandthepropertiesthatbelongtoit，withoutregardtothesubject；the“feeling“expressestherelationthatinvariablyexistsbetweenthiscontentandthesubject。ClassicsintheHistoryofPsychology——Wundt(1897)Section13OutlinesofPsychologyWilhelmMaxWundt(1897)TranslatedbyCharlesHubbardJudd(1897)II。PSYCHICALCOMPOUNDS§；13。EMOTIONS。
1。Feelings，likeallpsychicalphenomenalareneverpermanentstates。
Inthepsychologicalanalysisofacompositefeeling，therefore，wemustalwaysthinkofamomentaryaffectivestateasheldconstant。Thisiseasierthemoreslowlyandcontinuouslythepsychicalprocessesoccur，sothatthewordfeelinghascometobeusedmainlyforrelativelyslowprocessesandforthosewhichintheirregularformofoccurenceneverpassbeyondacertainmediumintensity，suchasthefeelingsofrhythm。
Where，ontheotherhand，aseriesoffeelingssucceedingoneanotherintimeunitetoaninterconnectedprocesswhichisdistinguishedfromprecedingandfollowingprocessesasanindividualwhole，andhasingeneralamoreintenseeffectonthesubjectthanasinglefeeling，wecalltheunitarysuccessionoffeelingsanemotion。
Thisverynameindicatesthatitisnotanyspecificsubjectivecontentsofexperiencewhichdistinguishemotionfromfeeling，butrathertheeffectwhichcomesfromaspecialcombinationofparticularaffectivecontents。
Inthiswayitcomesthatthereisnosharplineofdemarcationbetweenfeelingandemotion。Everyfeelingofgreaterintensitypassesintoanemotion，andtheseparationbetweenthetwodependsonamoreorlessarbitraryabstraction。Inthecaseoffeelingsthathaveacertainparticularformofoccurence[sic]，thatisfeelingsofrhythm，suchanabstractionisstrictlyspeakingimpossible。Thefeelingofrhythmisdistinguishedatmostbythesmallintensityofitsmovingeffectonthesubject，whichiswhatgives“emotion“itsname。Still，eventhisdistinctionisbynomeansfixed，andwhenthefeelingsproducedbyrhythmicalimpressionsbecomesomewhatmoreintense，asisusuallythecase，especiallywhentherhythm[p。170]isconnectedwithsensationalcontentsthatarousethefeelingsgreatly，theybecomeinfactemotions。Feelingsofrhythmareforthisreasonimportantaidsbothinmusicandpoetryforportrayingemotionsandarousingthemintheauditor。
Thenamesofdifferentemotions，likethoseoffeelings，donotindicatesingleprocesses，butclassesinwhichalargenumberofsingleaffectiveprocessesaregroupedonthegroundofcertaincommoncharacteristics。
Emotionssuchasthoseofjoy，hope，anxiety，care，andanger，areaccompaniedinanyconcretecasebypeculiarideationalcontents，whiletheiraffectiveelementsalsoandeventhewayinwhichtheyoccurmayvarygreatlyfromtimetotime。Themorecompositea，psychicalprocessesis，themorevariablewillbeitssingleconcretemanifestations；aparticularemotion，therefore，willbelessapttorecurinexactlythesameformthanwillaparticularfeeling。Everygeneralnameforemotionsindicates，accordingly，certaintypicalformsinwhichrelatedaffectiveprocessesoccur。
Noteveryinterconnectedseriesofaffectiveprocessesisanemotionorcanbeclassedassuchunderoneofthetypicalformsdiscriminatedbylanguage。Anemotionisaunitarywholewhichisdistinguishedfromacompositefeelingonlythroughthetwocharacteristicsthatithasadefinitetemporalcourseandthatitexercisesamoreintensepresentandsubsequenteffectontheinterconnectionofpsychicalprocesses。Thefirstcharacteristicarisesfromthefactthatanemotionisaprocessofahigherorderascomparedwithasinglefeeling，foritalwaysincludesasuccessionofseveralfeelings。Thesecondiscloselyconnectedwiththisfirstcharacteristic；
itdependsontheintensificationoftheeffectproducedbyasummationofthefeelings。
Asaresultofthesecharacteristicsemotionshaveinthe[p。171]midstofalltheirvariationsinformaregularityinthemanneroftheiroccurence。
Theyalwaysbeginwithamoreorlessintenseinceptivefeelingwhichisimmediatelycharacteristicinitsqualityanddirectionforthenatureoftheemotion，andisdueeithertoanideaproducedbyanexternalimpression(outeremotionalstimulation)ortoapsychicalprocessarisingfromassociativeorapperceptiveconditions(innerstimulation)。Afterthisinceptivefeelingcomesanideationalprocessaccompaniedbythecorrespondingfeelings。
Thisprocessshowscharacteristicdifferencesinthecasesofparticularemotionsbothinthequalityofthefeelingsandintherapidityoftheprocess。Finally，theemotioncloseswithaterminalfeelingwhichcontinuesevenaftertheemotionhasgivenplacetoaquietaffectivestate，andinwhichtheemotiongraduallyfadesaway，unlessitpassesdirectlyintotheinceptivefeelingofanewemotion。Thislastcaseoccursespeciallyinfeelingsoftheintermittenttype(cf。inf。13)。
4。Theintensificationoftheeffectwhichmaybeobservedinthecourseofanemotion，relatesnotmerelytothepsychicalcontentsofthefeelingsthatcomposeit，buttothephysicalconcomitantsaswell。Forsinglefeelingstheseaccompanyingphenomenaarelimitedtoveryslightchangesintheinnervationoftheheartandrespiratoryorgans，whichcanbedemonstratedonlybyusingexactgraphicmethods(p。86sq)。Withemotionsthecaseisessentiallydifferent。Asaresultofthesummationandalternationofsuccessiveaffectivestimulithereisherenotonlyanintensificationoftheeffectonheart，blood-vessels，andrespiration，buttheexternalmusclesarealwaysaffectedinanunmistakablemanner。Movementsoftheoralmusclesappearatfirst(mimeticmovements)，thenmovementsofthearmsandofthewholebody(pantomimeticmovements)。Inthecaseof[p。172]strongeremotionstheremaybestillmoreextensivedisturbancesofinnervation，suchastrembling，convulsivecontractionsofthediaphragmandofthefacialmuscles，andparalyticrelaxationofthemuscles。
Becauseoftheirsymptomaticalsignificancefortheemotions，allthesemovementsarecalledexpressivemovements。Asaruletheyareentirelyinvoluntary，eitherreflexesfollowingemotionalexcitations，orimpulsiveactspromptedbytheaffectivecomponentsoftheemotion。Theymaybemodified，however，inthemostvariouswaysthroughvoluntaryintensificationorinhibitionofthemovementsoreventhroughintentionalproductionofthesame，sothatthewholeseries，ofexternalreactionswhichweshallhavetodiscussundervolitionalacts，maytakepartintheseexpressivemovements(§；14)。Thesedifferentformsofmovementmaybeentirelyalikeinexternalcharacterandmaypassintoeachotherwithoutsharplimitationsontheirpsychicalside，sothatfortheoutsideobservertheyareasaruleindistinguishable。
5。Accordingtotheirsymptomaticalcharacter，expressivemovementsmaybedividedintothreeclasses。1)Purelyintensivesymptoms；
thesearealwaysexpressivemovementsformoreintenseemotions，andconsistofstrongermovementsforemotionsofmiddleintensity，andofsuddeninhibitionandparalysisofmovementforviolentemotions。2)Qualitativeexpressionoffeelings；thesearemimeticmovements，themostimportantofwhicharethereactionsoftheoralmuscles，resemblingthereflexesfollowingsweet，sour，andbitterimpressionsoftaste；thereactionforsweetcorrespondstopleasurableemotions，thoseforsourandbittertounpleasurable，whiletheothermodificationsoffeeling，suchasexcitementanddepression，strainandrelief，areexpressedbyatensionofthemuscles。3)Expressionofideas；thesearegenerallypantomimeticmovementsthateitherpointtothe[p。173]objectoftheemotion(indicativegestures)orelsedescribetheobjectsaswellastheprocessesconnectedwiththembytheformofthemovement(depictinggestures)。Obviouslythesethreeclassesofexpressivemovementscorrespondexactlytothepsychicalelementsofemotionsandtheirfundamentalattributes:thefirsttotheirintensity，thesecondtothequalityofthefeelings，andthethirdtotheirideationalcontent。
Aconcreteexpressivemovementmayuniteallthreeformsinitself。Thethirdclass，thatofexpressionsofideas，isofspecialpsychologicalsignificancebecauseofitsgeneticrelationstospeech(cf。§；
21，3)。
6。Thechangesinpulseandrespirationthataccompanyemotionsareofthreekinds。1)Theymayconsistoftheimmediateeffectsofthefeelingsthatmakeuptheemotions，as，forexample，alengtheningofthepulse-curveandrespiration-curvewhenthefeelingsarepleasurable，andashorteningofthesameforunpleasurablefeelings(cf。sup。p。87)。
Thisholdsonlyforrelativelyquietemotionswherethesinglefeelingshavesufficienttimetodevelop。Whenthisisnotthecase，otherphenomenaappearwhichdependnotmerelyonthequalityofthefeelings，butalso，andthatmainly，ontheintensityoftheinnervationsduetotheirsummation。
2)Suchsummationsmayconsistofintensifiedinnervation，whicharisesfromanincreaseintheexcitationresultingfromasummationwhenthesuccessionoffeelingsisnottoorapid。Thisincreaseshowsitselfinretardedandstrengthenedpulse-beats，sincetheintenseexcitationeffectsmosttheinhibitorynervesoftheheart。Besidesthesethereisusuallyanincreasedinnervationofthemimeticandpantometicmuscles。
Thesearecalledsthenicemotions。3)Ifthefeelingsareveryviolentorlastanunusuallylongtimeinasingledirection，theemotionbringsaboutamoreorlessextendedparalysisoftheinnervationoftheheartand[p。174]ofthetensionoftheoutermuscles。Undercertaincircumstancesdisturbancesintheinnervationofspecialgroupsofmusclesappear，especiallythoseofthediaphragmandthesympatheticfacialmuscles。Thefirstsymptomoftheparalysisoftheregulativecardiacnervesisamarkedaccelerationofthepulseandacorrespondingaccelerationoftherespiration，accompaniedbyaweakeningofthesame，andarelaxationofthetensionoftheexternalmusclestoadegreeequaltothatinparalysis。Thesearetheasthenicemotions。Thereisstillanotherdistinction，whichisnotimportantenough，however，toleadtotheformationofanindependentclassofphysicaleffectsofemotions，sincewehavetodohereonlywithmodificationsofthephenomenacharacteristicofsthenicandasthenicemotions。Itisthedistinctionbetweenrapidandsluggishemotions，baseduponthegreaterorlessrapiditywithwhichtheincreaseorinhibitionoftheinnervation[sic]appears。
6a。Olderpsychology，followingthemethodofSpinoza\'sfamousdoctrineofemotions，generallyofferedallkindsoflogicalreflectionsaboutemotions，foratheoryofemotionsorevenfordescriptionofthem。Inrecenttimes，ontheotherhand，theexpressivemovementsandtheotherconcomitantsofemotioninthechangesofinnervationinpulse，respiratoryorgans，andblood-vessels，haveattractedthemostattention。Still，thesephenomena，whichareindeedvaluablewhenrightlyinterpreted，areoftenusedinaverywrongwayasameansfortheinvestigationofthepsychologicalnatureofaffectiveprocesses。Thishasinturnledtoaclassificationofemotionsbasedentirelyontheirphysicalcharacteristics，andthestrangetheoryhasgainedadherencethatemotionsarenothingbuttheresultsofexpressivemovements。Theemotionofsorrow，forexample，isregardedasmadeupentirelyofthesensationsthatcomefromthemimeticofweeping。Inasomewhatmoremoderatewaytheattempthasbeenmadetousetheexpressivemovementscharacteristicswhosepresencemaybe[p。175]regardedasamarktodistinguishemotionsfromfeelings。Thisis，however，unjustifiablesincesimilarphysicalexpressivephenomenaappearevenforthefeelings，andtheminorcircumstancethatthesesymptomsareinonecaseexternallymoreorlessclearlyvisible，evidentlycannotbedecisive。Theessentialdifferencebetweenemotionandfeelingispsychological。Theemotionismadeupofaseriesoffeelingsunitedintoaunitarywhole。Expressivemovementsaretheresults，onthephysicalside，oftheincreasewhichtheprecedingpartsofsuchaserieshaveonthosesucceeding。Itfollowsdirectlythatthedecidingcharacteristicsfortheclassificationofemotionsmustbepsychological(cf。inf。9)。
7。Thoughimportantconstituentsofemotions，thephysicalconcomitantsstandinnoconstantrelationtothepsychicalqualityofthesame。
Thisholdsespeciallyfortheeffectsonpulseandrespiration，butalsoforthepantomimeticexpressivemovementsofstrongeremotions。Itmaysometimeshappenthatemotionswithverydifferent，evenoppositekindsofaffectivecontents，maybelongtothesameclasssofarastheaccompanyingphysicalphenomenaareconcerned。Thus，forexample，joyandangermaybeinlikemannersthenicemotions。Joyaccompaniedbysurprisemay，onthecontrary，presenttheappearance，onitsphysicalside，ofanasthenicemotion。Thegeneralphenomenaofinnervationwhichgiverisetothedistinctionbetweensthenicandasthenic，andrapidandsluggishemotions，donotshowthecharacterofaffectivecontentsoftheseemotions，butonlytheformalattributesoftheintensityandrapidityofthefeelings。Thisisclearlyprovedbythefactthatdifferencesininvoluntaryinnervationanalogoustothosewhich，accompanythedifferentemotions，maybeproducedbyameresuccessionofindifferentimpressions，as，forexample，bythestrokesofametronome。Itisobservedinsuchacasethatespeciallytherespirationtendstoadaptitselfto[p。176]thefasterorslowerrateofthestrokes，becomingmorerapidwhentherapidityofthemetronomeincreases。Asarule，too，certainphasesofrespirationcoincidewithparticularstrokes。Tobesure，thehearingofsuchanindifferentrhythmisnotunattendedbyemotion。Whentheratechanges，weobserveatfirstaquiet，thenasthenic，andfinallywhentherapidityisgreatestanasthenicemotion。Stilltheemotionsinthiscasehavetoacertainextentamereformalcharacter；theyexhibitagreatindefinitenessintheircontents。Thisindefinitenessdisappearsonlywhenwethinkintothemconcreteemotionsoflikeformalattributes。Thisisveryeasy，andistheconditionofthegreatutilityofrhythmicalimpressionsfordescribingandproducingemotions。Allthatisnecessarytoarouseanemotioninallitsfulnessisamerehintofqualitativeaffectivecontent，suchasitispossibletogiveinmusicthroughtheclangsofamusicalcomposition。
7a。Itfollowsfromthisrelationofthephysicaleffectstothepsychicalcontentofemotions，thattheformercanneverbeputintheplaceofthepsychologicalobservationoftheemotions。Theyaregeneralsymptoms，butofsuchequivocalcharacterthat，thoughtheyareofgreatvaluewhenconnectedwithintrospectioncontrolledbyexperimentalmethods，alonetheyhavenovaluewhatever。Theyareespeciallyusefulascheeksforexperimentalintrospection。Theprinciplethattheobservationofpsychicalprocesseswhichpresentthemselvesinthenaturalcourseoflifeisentirelyinadequate，holdsespeciallyfortheemotions。Inthefirstplace，emotionscometothepsychologistbychance，atmomentswhenheisnotinaconditiontosubjectthemtoscientificanalysis；andsecondly，inthecaseofstrongemotionswhosecausesarerealweareleastofallabletoobserveourselveswithexactness。Thiscanbedonemuchmoresuccessfullywhenwearouseinourselvesvoluntarilyaparticularemotionalstate。Insuchacase，however，itisnotpossibletoestimatehownearlythesubjectivelyarousedemotionagreesin[p。177]intensityandmodeofoccurence[sic]
withoneoflikecharacterduetoexternalcircumstances。Forthispurposethesimultaneousinvestigationofthephysicaleffects，especiallyofthosemostremovedfromtheinfluenceofthewillofthoseonthepulseandrespiration，furnishesacheckforintrospection。Forwhenthepsychologicalqualityofemotionsisalike，wemayinferfromtheirlikephysicaleffectsthattheirformalattributesalsoagree。
8。Bothinnaturalandinvoluntarilyarousedemotions，thephysicalconcomitantshave，besidestheirsymptomaticalsignificance，theimportantpsychologicalattributeofintensifyingtheemotion。Thisattributeisduetothefactthattheexcitationorinhibitionofcertainparticulargroupsofmusclesisaccompaniedbyinnertactualsensationswhichproducecertainsense-feelings。Thesefeelingsunitewiththeotheraffectivecontentsoftheemotionandincreaseitsintensity。Fromtheheart，respiratoryorgans，andblood-vesselswehavesuchfeelingsonlyforstrongemotions，wheretheymayindeedbeveryintense。Ontheotherhand，eveninmoderateemotionsthestateofgreaterorlesstensionofthemusclesexercisesaninfluenceontheaffectivestateandtherebyontheemotion。
9。Thegreatnumberoffactorsthatmustbetakenintoconsiderationfortheinvestigationofemotionsrendersapsychologicalanalysisofthesingleformsimpossible。Thisisallthemoresobecauseeachofthenumerousdistinguishingnamesmarksoffawholeclass，withinwhichthereisagreatvarietyofspecialforms，includinginturnanendlessnumberofsinglecasesofthemostvariousmodifications。Allwecandoistotakeageneralsurveyofthefundamentalformofemotions。Thegeneralprinciplesofdivisionhereemployedmust，ofcourse，bepsychological，thatis，suchasarederivedfromtheimmediateattributesoftheemotionsthemselves，fortheaccompanyingphysicalphenomenahave[p。178]
onlyasymptomaticalvalueandareeventhen，asnotedabove，equivocalincharacter。
Threesuchpsychologicalprinciplesofclassificationmaybemadethebasisforthediscriminationofemotions:1)accordingtothequalityofthefeelingsenteringintotheemotions，2)accordingtotheintensityofthesefeelings，3)accordingtotheformofoccurence，whichisconditionedbythecharacterandrateoftheaffectivechanges。
10。Onthebasisofqualitywemaydistinguishcertainfundamentalemotionalformscorrespondingtothechiefaffectivedirectionsdistinguishedbefore(p。83)。Thisgivesuspleasurableandunpleasurable，excitinganddepressing，strainingandrelaxingemotions。Itmustbenoted，however，thatbecauseoftheirmorecompositecharactertheemotions，arealways，evenmorethanthefeelings，mixedforms。Generally，onlyasingleaffectivedirectioncanbecalledtheprimarytendencyforaparticularemotion。Thereareaffectiveelementsbelongingtootherdirections，thatenterinassecondaryelements。Theirsecondarycharacterusuallyappearsinthefactthatunderdifferentconditionsvarioussub-formsoftheprimaryemotionmayarise。Thus，forexample，joyisprimarilyapleasurableemotion。Ordinarilyitisalsoexciting，sinceitintensifiesthefeelings，butwhenthefeelingsaretoostrong，itbecomesadepressingemotion。
Sorrowisanunpleasurableemotion，generallyofadepressingcharacter；
whentheintensityofthefeelingsbecomessomewhatgreater，however，itmaybecomeexciting，andwhentheintensitybecomesmaximal，itpassesagainintoverymarkeddepression。Angerismuchmoreemphaticallyexcitingandunpleasantinitspredominantcharacteristics，butwhentheintensityofthefeelingsbecomesgreater，aswhenitdevelopsintorage，itmaybecomedepressing。Thus，excitinganddepressingtendenciesarealwaysmeresecondaryqualities[p。179]connectedwithpleasurableandunpleasurableemotions。Feelingsofstrainandrelaxation，onthecontrary，maymorefrequentlybethechief，oratleasttheprimarycomponentsofemotions。
Thus，inexpectation，thefeelingofstrainpeculiartothisstateistheprimaryelementoftheemotion。Whenthefeelingdevelopsintoanemotion，itmayeasilybeassociatedwithunpleasurablefeelingswhichare，accordingtocircumstanceseitherexcitingordepressing。Inthecaseofrhythmicalimpressionsormovementstherearisefromalternationoffeelingsofstrainwiththoseofrelaxationpleasurableemotionswhichmaybeeitherexcitingordepressingaccordingtothecharacteroftherhythm。Whentheyaredepressingwemayevenhaveunpleasurablefeelingsintermingledwiththem，ortheymayallbeofthiskind，especiallywhenotheraffectiveelementscooperate，forexamplefeelingsofclangorharmony。
11。Languagehaspaidthemostattentioninitsdevelopmentofnamesforemotionstothequalitativesideoffeelings，andamongthesequalitiesparticularlytopleasurableandunpleasurable。Thesenamesmaybedividedintothreeclasses。Firstwehavethoseofemotionsthataresubjectivelydistinguished，chieflythroughthenatureoftheaffectivestateitself，suchasjoyandsorrowand，assubformsofsorrowinwhicheitherdepressing，straining，orrelaxingtendenciesofthefeelingarealsoexhibited，sadness，care，grief，andfright。Secondly，therearenamesofobjectiveemotionsreferringtosomeexternalobject，suchasdelightanddispleasureand，assubformsofthelatterinwhich，asabove，varioustendenciesunite，annoyance，resentment，anger，andrage。
Thirdly，wehavenamesofobjectiveemotionsthatreferrathertooutereventsnotexpecteduntilthefuture，suchashopeandfearand，asmodificationsofthelatter，worryandanxiety。Theyarecombinationsoffeelingsofstrain[p。180]withpleasurableandunpleasurablefeelingsand，indifferentways，withexcitinganddepressingtendenciesaswell。
Obviouslylanguagehasproducedamuchgreatervarietyofnamesforunpleasurableemotionsthanforpleasurable。Infact，observationrendersitprobablethatunpleasurableemotionsexhibitagreatervarietyoftypicalformsofoccurence。andthattheirdifferentformsarereallymore，numerous。
12。Onthebasisoftheintensityofthefeelingswemaydistinguishweakandstrongemotions。Theseconcepts，derivedfromthepsychicalpropertiesofthefeelings，donotcoincidewiththoseofsthenicandasthenicemotions，baseduponthephysicalconcomitants，fortherelationofthepsychologicalcategoriestothepsycho-physicalisdependentnotonlyontheintensityofthefeelings，butontheirqualityaswell。Thus，weakandmoderatelystrongpleasurableemotionsarealwayssthenic，while，onthecontrary，unplesurableemotionsbecomeasthenicafteralongerduration，evenwhentheyareofalowdegreeofintensity，as，forexample，careandanxiety。Finally，thestrongestemotions，suchasfright，worry，rage，andevenexcessivejoy，arealwaysasthenic。Thediscriminationofthepsychicalintensityofemotionsisaccordinglyofsubordinatesignificance，especiallysinceemotionsthatagreeinallotherrespects，maynotonlyhavedifferentdegreesofintensityatdifferenttimes，butmayonthesameoccasionvaryfrommomenttomoment。Thentoosincethisvariationfrommomenttomomentisessentiallydeterminedbythesense-feelingsthatarisefromtheaccompanyingphysicalphenomena，inaccordancewiththeprincipleoftheintensificationofemotionsdiscussedabove(p。177)，itisobviousthattheoriginallyphysiologicalantithesisofsthenicandasthenicoftenhasamoredecisiveinfluenceevenonthepsychologicalcharacteroftheemotionthantheprimarypsychicalintensityitself。[p。
181]
13。Thethirddistinguishingcharacteristicofemotionstheformofoccurence，ismoreimportant。Herewedistinguishthreeclasses。
First，therearesudden，irruptiveemotions，suchassurprise，astonishment，disappointment，fright，andrage。Theyallreachtheirmaximumveryrapidlyandthengraduallysinktoaquietaffectivestate。Secondly，wehavegraduallyarisingemotions，suchasanxiety，doubt，care，mournfulness，expectation，andinmany，casesjoy，anger，worry。Theserisetotheirmaximumgraduallyandsinkinthesameway。Asathirdformandatthesametimeamodificationoftheclassjustmentionedwehaveintermittentemotions，inwhichseveral，periodsofriseandfallfollowoneanotheralternately。Allemotionsoflongdurationbelonghere。Thus，especiallyjoy，anger，mournfulness，andthemostvariousformsofgraduallyarisingemotions，comeinwavesandoftenpermitadistinctionbetweenperiodsofincreasingandthoseofdecreasingemotionalintensity。Thesudden，irruptiveemotions，onthecontrary，areseldomintermittent。Thishappensonlyincasesinwhichtheemotionmayalsobelongtothesecondclass。Suchemotionsofaverychangeableformofoccurence[sic]are，forexample，joyandanger。Theymaysometimesbesuddenandirruptive。Inthiscase，tobesure，angergenerallybecomesrage。Ortheymaygraduallyriseandfall；theyarethengenerallyoftheintermittenttype。Intheirpsycho-physicalconcomitants，thesuddenirruptiveemotionsareallasthenic，thosegraduallyarisingmaybeeithersthenicorasthenic。
13a。Theformofoccurence[sic]，then，howevercharacteristicitmaybeinsinglecases，isjustaslittleafixedcriterionforthePsychologicalclassificationofemotionsasistheintensityofthefeelings。
Obviouslysuchaclassificationcanbebasedonlyonthequalityoftheaffectivecontents，whileintensityandformofoccurencemayfurnishthemeansofsubdivision。Theway[p。182]inwhichtheseconditionsareconnectedwithoneanotherandwiththeaccompanyingphysicalphenomenaandthroughthesewithsecondarysense-feelings，showstheemotionstobemosthighlycompositepsychicalprocesseswhicharethereforeinsinglecasesexceedinglyvariable。Aclassificationthatisinanydegreeexhaustivemust，therefore，subdividesuchvaryingemotionsasjoy，anger，fear，andanxietyintotheirsubforms，accordingtotheirmodesofoccurence，theintensityoftheircomponentfeelings，andfinallyaccordingtotheirphysicalconcomitantswhicharedependentonboththepsychicalfactorsmentioned。Thus，forexample，wemaydistinguishastrong，aweak，andavariableformofanger，asudden，agraduallyarising，andanintermittentformofitsoccurence，andfinallyasthenic，asthenic，andamixedformofitsexpressivemovements。
Forthepsychologicalexplanation，anaccountofthecausalinterconnection，ofthesingleformsineachparticularcaseismuchmoreimportantthanthismereclassification。Ingivingsuchanaccountswehaveinthecaseofeveryemotiontodowithtwofactors，first，thequalityandintensityofthecomponentfeelings，andsecond，therapidityofthesuccessionofthesefeelings。Thefirstfactordeterminesthegeneralcharacteroftheemotion，theseconditsintensityinpartandmoreespeciallyitsformofoccurence，whilebothtogetherdetermineitsphysicalaccompanimentsandthepsycho-physicalchangesresultingfromthesense-feelingsconnectedwiththeseaccompanyingphenomena(p。177)。Itisforthisveryreasonthatthephysicalconcomitantsareasaruletobecalledpsycho-physical。Theexpressions“psychological“and“psycho-physical“shouldnot，however，beregardedasabsoluteoppositesinthiscase，wherewehavetodomerelywithsymptomsofemotion。Wespeakofpsychologicalemotionalphenomenawhenwemeanthosethatdonotshowanyimmediatelyperceptiblephysicalsymptoms，evenwhensuchsymptomscanbedemonstratedwithexactapparatus(as，forexample，changesinthepulseandinrespiration)。Ontheotherhandwespeakofpsycho-physicalphenomenainthecaseofthosewhichcanbeimmediatelyrecognizedastwo-sided。
ClassicsintheHistoryofPsychology——Wundt(1897)Section14OutlinesofPsychologyWilhelmMaxWundt(1897)TranslatedbyCharlesHubbardJudd(1897)
II。PSYCHICALCOMPOUNDS§；14VOLITIONALPROCESSES。
1。Everyemotion，madeup，asitis，ofaseriesofinterrelatedaffectiveprocesseshavingaunitarycharacter，mayterminateinoneoftwoways。
Itmaygiveplacetotheordinaryvariableandrelativelyunemotionalcourseoffeelings。Suchaffectiveprocessesthatfadeoutwithoutanyspecialresult，constitutetheemotionsinthestrictsenseasdiscussedinthelastparagraph。Theprocessmay，inasecondclassofcases，passintoasuddenchangeinsensationalandaffectivecontent，whichbringstheemotiontoaninstantaneousclose；suchchangesinthesensationalandaffectivestatewhicharepreparedforbyanemotionandbringaboutitssuddenend，arecalledvolitionalacts。Theemotionitselftogetherwithitsresultisavolitionalprocess。
Avolitionalprocessisthusrelatedtoanemotionasaprocessofahigherstage，inthesamewaythatanemotionisrelatedtoafeeling。
Volitionalactisthenameofonlyonepartoftheprocess，thatpartwhichdistinguishesavolitionfromanemotion。Thewaytothedevelopmentofvolitionsoutofemotionsispreparedbythoseemotionsinconnectionwithwhichexternalpantomimeticmovements(p。173)appear。Thesemovementsappearchieflyattheendoftheprocessandgenerallyhastenitscompletion；
thisisespeciallytrueofanger，buttosomeextentalsoofjoy，care，etc。Still，inthesemereemotions，thechangesinthetrainofideaswhicharetheimmediatecausesofthemomentarycompletionoftheemotioninvolitionsandalsothecharacteristicfeelingsattendingthesechanges，areallwanting。
Thiscloseinterconnectionofvolitionalactswithpantomimeticmovementsnecessarilyleadsustolookuponthosevolitionswhichendincertainbodilymovementsresultingfromtheprecedingtrainofideasandfeelings，thatis，those[p。184]endinginexternalvolitionalacts，astheearlieststagesinthedevelopmentofvolitions。Theso-calledinternalvolitionalacts，ontheotherhand，orthosewhichclosesimplywitheffectsonideasandfeelings，appearineverycasetobeproductsofamorehighlydevelopedintelligence。
Avolitionalprocessthatpassesintoanexternalactmaybedefinedasanemotionwhichcloseswithapantomimeticmovementthathas，inadditiontothecharacteristicsbelongingtoallsuchmovementsandduetothequalityandintensityoftheemotion，thespecialpropertyofproducinganexternaleffectwhichremovestheemotionitself。Suchaneffectisnotpossibleforallemotions，butonlyforthosewhichtheverysuccessionofcomponentfeelingsproducesfeelingsandideaswhichareabletoremovetheprecedingemotion。Thisis，ofcourse，mostcommonlythecasewhenthefinalresultoftheemotionisthedirectoppositeoftheprecedingfeelings。Thefundamentalpsychologicalconditionforvolitionalactsis，therefore，thecontrastbetweenfeelings，andtheoriginofthefirstvolitionsismostprobablyinallcasestobetracedbacktounpleasurablefeelingsthatarouseexternalmovementswhoseresultsarecontrastedpleasurablefeelings。Theseizingoffoodtoremovehunger，thestruggle，againstenemiestoappeasethefeelingofrevenge，andother，similarprocessesareoriginalvolitionalprocessesofthiskind。Theemotionscomingfromsense-feelings，andthemostwidespreadsocialemotions，suchaslove，hate，anger，andrevenge，arethusbothformenandanimalsthecommonoriginofwill。Avolitionisdistinguishedinsuchcasesfromanemotiononlybythefactthattheformerhasaddedtoitsemotionalcomponentsanexternalactthatgivesrisetofeelingswhich，throughcontrastwiththefeelingscontainedintheemotion，bringtheemotionitselftoanend。Theexecutionofthevolitionalactmaythenleaddirectly，aswasoriginally[p。185]alwaysthecase，orindirectlythroughanemotionofcontrastedaffectivecontent，intotheordinaryquietflowoffeelings。
3。Therichertheideationalandaffectivecontentsofexperience，thegreaterthevarietyoftheemotionsandthewiderthesphereofvolitions。
Thereisnofeelingoremotionthatdoesnotinsomewayprepareforavolitionalactoratleasthavesomepartinsuchapreparation。Allfeelings，eventhoseofarelativelyindifferentcharacter，containinsomedegreeanefforttowardsorawayfromsomeend。Thiseffortmaybeverygeneralandaimedmerelyatthemaintenanceorremovalofthepresentaffectivestate。Whilevolitionsappearasthemostcomplexformofaffectiveprocesses，presupposingallothers——thatis，feelingsandemotions——astheircomponents，still，wemustnotoverlookthefactthatsinglefeelingscontinuallyappearwhichdonotunitetoformemotions，andemotionsappearwhichdonotendinvolitionalacts。Inthetotalinterconnectionofpsychicalprocesses，however，thesethreestagesconditiononeanotherandformtherelatedpartsofasingleprocesswhichiscompleteonlywhenitbecomesavolition。
Inthissenseafeelingmaybethoughtofasthebeginningofavolition，oravolitionmaybethoughtofasacompositeaffectiveprocess，andanemotionmayberegardedasanintermediatestagebetweenthetwo。
4。Thesinglefeelingsinanemotionthatcloseswithavolitionalactareusuallyfarfrombeingofequalimportance。Certainonesamongthem，togetherwiththeirrelatedideas，areprominentasthosewhicharemostimportantinpreparingfortheact。Thosecombinationsofideasandfeelingswhichinoursubjectiveapprehensionofthevolitionaretheimmediateantecedentsoftheact，arecalledmotivesofvolition。Everymotivemaybedividedintoanideationaland[p。186]anaffectivecomponent。
Thefirstwemaycallthemovingreason，thesecondtheimpellingforceofaction。Whenabeastofpreyseizeshisvictim，themovingreasonisthesightofthesame，theimpellingforcemaybeeithertheunpleasurablefeelingofhungerortherace-hatearousedbythesight。
Thereasonforacriminalmurdermaybetheremovalofanenemy，orsomesuchidea，theimpellingforcethefeelingofwant，hate，revenge，orenvy。
Whentheemotionsare，ofcompositecharacter，thereasonsandimpellingforcesaregenerallymixed，oftentosogreatanextentthatitwouldbedifficultfortheauthoroftheacthimselftodecidewhichwastheleadingmotive。Thisisduetothefactthattheimpellingforcesofavolitionalactcombine，justastheelementsofacompositefeelingdo，toformaunitarywholeinwhichallotherimpulsesaresubordinatedunderasinglepredominatingone；thefeelingsoflikedirectionstrengtheningandacceleratingtheeffect，thoseofoppositedirectionweakeningit。Inthecombinationsofideasandfeelingswhichwecallmotives，thedecidingimportanceinpreparingfortheactofwillbelongstothefeelings，thatis，totheimpellingforces，ratherthantotheideas。Thisfollowsfromtheveryfactthatfeelingsareintegralcomponentsofthevolitionalprocessitself，while，theideasareofinfluenceonlyindirectly，throughtheirconnectionswiththefeelings。Theassumptionofavolitionarisingfrompureintellectualconsiderations，ofadecisionopposedtotheinclinationsexpressedinthefeelings，isapsychologicalcontradictioninitself。Itrestsupontheabstractconceptofatranscendentalwillabsolutelydistinctfromactualpsychicalvolitions。
5。Thecombinationofanumberofmotives，thatis，ofideasandfeelingswhicharedistinguishedinthecompositetrainofemotionstowhichtheybelong，asthosedetermining[p。186]thedischargeoftheact，furnishtheessentialconditionsforthedevelopmentofwill，andalsoforthediscriminationofthesingleformsofvolitionalaction。
Thesimplestcaseofvolitionisthatinwhichasinglefeelinginanemotionofsuitableconstitution，togetherwithitsaccompanyingidea，becomesamotiveandbringstheprocessestoaclosewithitscorrespondingexternalmovement。Suchvolitionalprocessesdeterminedbyasinglemotive，maybecalledsimplevolitions。Themovementsinwhichtheyterminateareoftendesignatedimpulsiveacts。Inpopularparlance，however，thisdefinitionofimpulsebythesimplicityofthemotive，isnotsufficientlyadheredto。Anotherelement，namely，thecharacterofthefeelingthatactsasimpellingforce，ishereusuallybroughtin。Allactsthataredeterminedbysense-feelings，especiallycommonfeelings，aregenerallycalledimpulsiveactswithoutregardtowhetheronlyasinglemotiveorapluralityofmotivesisoperative。Thisbasisofdiscriminationispsychologicallyinappropriateandthecompleteseparationofimpulsivefromvolitionalactsasaspecificallydistinctkindofpsychicalprocesses，whichfollowsverynaturallyfromit，isentirelyunjustifiable。
Byimpulsiveact，then。wemeanasimplevolitionalact，thatis，oneresultingfromasinglemotive，withoutreferencetothepositionofthismotiveintheseriesofaffectiveandideationalprocesses。Impulsiveaction，thusdefined，mustnecessarilybethestartingpointforthedevelopmentofallvolitionalacts，eventhoughitmaycontinuetoappearalongwiththecomplexvolitionalacts。Tobesure，theearliestimpulsiveactsarethosewhichcomefromsense-feeling。Inthissensemostoftheactsofanimalsareimpulsive，butsuchimpulsiveactsappearcontinuallyinthecaseofman，partlyastheresultsofsimplesense-emotions，partlyasthe[p。188]productsofthehabitualexecutionofcertainvolitionalactswhichwereoriginallydeterminedbycomplexmotives。
6。Whenseveralfeelingsandideasinthesameemotiontendtoproduceexternalaction，andwhenthosecomponentsofanemotionaltrainwhichhavebecomemotivestendatthesametimetowardsdifferentexternalends，whetherrelatedorantagonistic，thentherearisesoutofthesimpleactacomplexvolitionalprocess。Inordertodistinguishthisfromtheimpulsiveactsthatprecedeitinthelineofdevelopment，wecallitavoluntaryact。
Voluntaryandimpulsiveactshaveincommonthecharacteristicofproceedingfromsinglemotives，orfromcomplexesofmotivesthathavefusedtogetherandoperateasasingleunequivocalimpellingforce。Theydifferinthefactthatinvoluntaryactsthedecisivemotivehasrisentododominancefromamonganumberofsimultaneousandantagonisticmotives。Whenaclearlyperceptiblestrifebetweentheseantagonisticmotivesprecedestheact，wecallthevolitionbytheparticularnameselectiveact，andtheprocessprecedingitachoice。Thepredominanceofoneoverothersimultaneousmotivescanbeunderstoodonlywhenwepresupposesuchastrifeineverycase。Butweperceivethisstrifenowclearly，nowobscurely，andnownotatall。Onlyinthefirstcasecanwespeakofaselectiveactinthepropersense。Thedistinctionbetweenvoluntaryandselectiveactsisbynomeanshardandfast。Still，inordinaryvoluntaryactsthepsychicalstateismorelikethatinimpulsiveacts，whilethedifferencebetweenthelatterandselectiveactsisclearlyrecognizable。
7。Thepsychicalprocessimmediatelyprecedingtheact，inwhichthefinalmotivesuddenlygainstheascendency，iscalledinthecaseofvoluntaryactsresolution，inthecaseofselectiveactsdecision。Thefirstwordindicatesmerely[p。189]thatactionistobecarriedoutinaccordancewithsomeconsciouslyadoptedmotive；thesecondimpliesthatseveralcoursesofactionhavebeenpresentedaspossibleandthatachoicehasfinallybeenmade。
Incontrasttothefirststagesofavolition，whichcannotbeclearlydistinguishedfromanordinaryemotionalprocess，thelaststagesareabsolutelycharacteristic。Theyareespeciallymarkedbyaccompanyingfeelingsthatneverappearanywherebutinvolitions，andmustthereforeberegardedasthespecificelementspeculiartowill。
Thesefeelingsarefirstofallthoseofresolutionandofdecision。Thelatterdiffersfromtheformeronlyinitsgreaterintensity。Theyarebothexcitingandrelaxingfeelings，andmaybeunitedundervariouscircumstanceswithpleasurableorunpleasurablefactors。Therelativelygreaterintensityofthefeelingofdecisionisprobablyduetoitscontrastwiththeprecedingfeelingofdoubtwhichattendsthewaveringbetweendifferentmotives。Itsoppositiontothisdoubtgivesthefeelingofrelaxationagreaterintensity。Atthemomentwhenthevolitionalactbegins，thefeelingsofresolutionanddecisiongiveplacetothespecificfeelingofactivity，whichhasitssensationalsubstratum，inthecaseofexternalvolitionalacts，intheinnertactualsensationaccompanyingthemovement。Thisfeelingofactivityisclearlyexcitinginitscharacter，andis，accordingtothespecialmotivesofthevolition，accompaniednowbypleasurable，nowbyunpleasurableelements，whichmayinturnvaryinthecourseofthe，actandalternatewithoneanother。Asatotalfeeling，thisfeelingofactivityisarisingandfallingtemporalprocessextendingthroughthewholeactandfinallypassingintothemostvariousfeelings，suchasthoseoffulfilment，satisfaction，ordisappointment，orintothefeelingsandemotionsconnectedwiththespecialresultoftheact。Taking[p。190]theprocessasseeninvoluntaryandselectiveactsascomplete，volitionalacts，wemustdistinguishcompulsiveactsfromthemessentiallybytheabsenceoftheantecedentfeelingsofresolutionanddecision。Thefeelingconnectedwiththemotivepassesinthelattercasedirectlyintothatofactivity，andthenintothosewhichcorrespondtotheeffectoftheact。
8。Thetransitionfromsimpletocomplexvolitionalactsbringswithitanumberofotherchangeswhichareofgreatimportanceforthedevelopmentofwill。Thefirstofthesechangesistobefoundinthefactthattheemotionswhichintroducethevolitionslosetheirintensitymoreandmore，asaresultofthecounteractionofdifferentmutuallyinhibitingfeelings，sothatfinallyavolitionalactmayresultfromanapparentlyunemotionalaffectivestate。Tobesure，emotionisneverentirelywanting；inorderthatthemotivewhicharisesinanordinarytrainoffeelingsmaybringaboutaresolutionordecision，itmustalwaysbeconnectedwithsomedegreeofemotionalexcitement。Thiscan，however，besoweakandtransientthatweoverlookit。Wedothisthemoreeasilythemoreweareinclinedtouniteashortemotionofthiskind，attendingmerelytheriseandactionofthemotive，withtheresolutionandexecutioninthesingleconceptofavolitionalact。Thisweakeningoftheemotionsresultsmainlyfromthecombinationsofpsychicalprocesseswhichwecallintellectualdevelopmentandofwhichweshalltreatmorefullyinthediscussionoftheinterconnectionofpsychicalcompounds(§；17)。Intellectualprocessescan，indeed，neverdoawaywithemotionstheyare，onthecontrary，inmanycasesthesourcesofnewandcharacteristicemotions。Avolitionentirelywithoutemotion，determinedbyapurelyintellectualmotive，is，asalreadyremarked(p。186)，apsychologicalimpossibility。Still，intellectualdevelopmentexercisesbeyondadoubtamoderatinginfluence[p。191]onemotions，particularlyonthosethatpreparethewayforvolitionalactswhereverintellectualmotivesenterintothem。Thismaybeduepartlytothecounteractionofthefeelingswhichisgenerallypresent，partlytotheslowdevelopmentofintellectualmotives，foringeneralemotionsarethestrongerthemorerapidlytheircomponentfeelingsrise。
9。Connectedwiththismoderationoftheemotionalcomponentsofvolitionsundertheinfluenceofintellectualmotivesisstillanotherchange。Itconsistsinthefactthattheactwhichclosesthevolitionisnotanexternalmovement。Theeffectwhichremovestheexcitingemotionisitselfapsychicalprocessthatdoesnotshowitselfdirectlythroughanyexternalsymptomwhatever。Suchaneffectwhichisimperceptibleforobjectiveobserversiscalledaninternalvolitionalact。Thetransitionfromexternaltointernalvolitionalactsissoboundupwithintellectualdevelopmentthattheverycharacteroftheintellectualprocessesthemselvesaretobeexplainedtoagreatextentbytheinfluenceofvolitionsonthetrainofideas(§；15，9)。Theactthatclosesthevolitioninsuchacaseissomechangeinthetrainofideas，whichfollowstheprecedingmotivesastheresultofsomeresolutionordecision。Thefeelingsthataccompanytheseactsofimmediatepreparation，andthefeelingofactivityconnectedwiththechangeitself，agreeentirelywiththoseobservedinthecaseofexternalvolitionalacts。Furthermore，actionisfollowedbymoreorlessmarkedfeelingsofsatisfaction，ofremovalofprecedingemotionalandaffectivestrain，sothatobviouslytheonlydifferencebetweenthesespecialvolitionsconnectedwiththeintellectualdevelopmentandtheearlierforms，istobefoundinthefactthatherethefinaleffectofthevolitiondoesnotshowitselfinanexternalbodilymovement。
Still，wemayhaveabodilymovementasthesecondary[p。192]resultofaninternalvolitionalact，whentheresolutionreferstoanexternalacttobeexecutedatsomelatertime。Insuchacasetheactitselfalwaysresultsfromaspecialexternalvolitionwhosedecisivemotivescomefromtheprecedinginternalvolition，butwhichwemustconsiderasanewprocessdistinctfromtheearlier。Thus，forexample，theformation。ofaresolutiontoexecuteanactinthefutureundercertainexpectedconditions，isaninternalvolition，whilethelater，performanceoftheactisanexternalactiondifferentfromthefirst，butrequiringitasanecessaryantecedent。
Itisevidentthatwhereanexternalvolitionalactarisesfromadecisionafteraconflictamongthemotives，wehaveatransitioninwhichitisimpossibletodistinguishclearlybetweenthetwokindsofvolition，namelythatconsistinginasingleunitaryprocessandthatmadeupoftwosuchprocesses，aninternalandanexternal。Insuchatransitionalform，ifthedecisionisatallseparatedintimefromtheactitself，itmayberegardedasaninternalvolitionalactpreparatorytotheexecution。
10。Thesetwochangesconnectedwiththedevelopmentofwill，namely，themoderationofemotionsandtherenderingindependentofinternalvolitions，arechangesofaggressiveorder。Incontrastwiththesethereisathirdprocessoroneofretrogradation。Whencomplexvolitionswiththesamemotiveareoftenrepeated，theconflictbetweenthemotivesgrowslessintense；theopposingmotivesthatwere，overcomeinearliercasesgrowweakerandfinallydisappearsentirely。Thecomplexacthasthenpassedintoasimple，orimpulsiveact。Thisretrogradationofcomplexvolitional，processesintoimpulsiveprocessesshowsclearlytheutterinappropriatenessofthelimitationoftheconcept“impulsive“toactsofwillarisingfromsense-feelings。Asaresultofthegradualeliminationofopposingmotives，thereare，[p。
193]intellectual，moral，andaesthetic，aswellassimplesensuous，impulsiveacts。
Thisretrogradationisbutonestepinaprocessthatunitesalltheexternalactsofalivingbeing，boththevolitionalactsandtheautomaticreflexmovements。Whenthehabituatingpracticeofcertainactsiscarriedfurther，thedeterminingmotivesfinallybecome，eveninimpulsiveacts，weakerandmoretransient。Theexternalstimulusoriginallyarousedastronglyaffectiveideawhichoperatedasamotive，butnowitcausesthedischargeoftheactbeforeitcanbeapprehendedasanidea。Inthiswaytheimpulsivemovementfinallybecomesanautomaticmovement。Themoreoftenthisautomaticmovementisrepeated，theeasierit，inturn，becomes，evenwhenthestimulusisnotsensed，as，forexample，indeepsleeporduringcompletediversionoftheattention。Themovementnowappearsasapurephysiologicalreflex，andthevolitionalprocesshasbecomeasimplereflexprocess。
Thisgradualreductionofvolitionaltomechanicalprocesses，whichdependsessentiallyontheeliminationofalltheelementsbetweenthephysicalbeginningandendoftheact，maytakeplaceeitherinthecaseofmovementsthatwereoriginallyimpulsiveorinthatofmovementswhichhavesecondarilybecomesuchthroughtheretrogradationofvoluntaryacts。
Itisnotimprobablethatallthereflexmovementsofbothanimalsandmenoriginateinthisway。Asevidenceforthiswehave，besidesthereductionofvolitionalactstopuremechanicalprocessesthroughpractice，asdescribedabove，alsotheappropriatecharacterofreflexes，whichpointtothepresenceatsometimeofapurposiveideaasmotive。Furthermore，thecircumstancethatthemovementsofthelowestanimalsareallevidentlysimplevolitionalacts，notreflexes，tellsforthesameview，sothathere[p。194]toothereisnojustificationfortheassumptionfrequentlymadethatactsofwillhavebeendevelopedfromreflexmovements。Finally，wecanmosteasilyexplainfromthispointofviewthefactsmentionedin§；13(p。172)，thatexpressivemovementsmaybelongtoanyoneoftheformspossibleinthescaleofexternalacts。Obviouslythesimplestmovementsareimpulsiveacts，whilemanycomplicatedpantomimeticmovementsprobablycameoriginallyfromvoluntaryactswhichpassedfirstintoimpulsiveandthenintoreflexmovements。Observedphenomenamakeitnecessarytoassumethattheretrogradationsthatbeginintheindividuallifearegraduallycarriedfurtherthroughthetransmissionofacquireddispositions，sothatcertainactswhichwereoriginallyvoluntarymayappearilllaterdescendantsfromthefirstasimpulsiveorreflexmovements(§；19and§；20)。
10a。Forreasonssimilartothosegiveninthecaseofemotions，theobservationofvolitionalprocessesthatcomeintoexperiencebychance，isaninadequateandeasilymisleadingmethodforestablishingtheactualfactsinthecase。Whereverinternalorexternalvolitionalactsareperformedinmeetingeitherthetheoreticalorpracticaldemandsoflife，ourinterestistoomuchtakenupintheactionitselftoallowusatthesametimetoobservewithexactnessthepsychicalprocessesthataregoingon。Inthetheoriesofvolitiongivenbyolderpsychologists——theoriesthatveryoftencasttheirshadowsinthescienceofto-day——wehaveaclearreflectionoftheundevelopedstateofthemethodsofpsychologicalobservation。
Externalactsofwillaretheonlyonesinthewholesphereofvolitionalprocessesthatforcethemselvesemphaticallyontheattentionoftheobserver。
Asaresultthetendencywastolimittheconceptwilltoexternalvolitionalacts，andthusnotonlytoneglectentirelythewholespheresoimportantforthehigherdevelopmentofwill，namely，internalvolitionalacts，butalsotopayverylittleattentiontothecomponentsofthevolitionthatareantecedenttotheexternalacts，[p。195]oratmostonlytothemorestrikingideationalcomponentsofthemotive。Itfollowedthattheclosegeneticinterconnectionbetweenimpulsiveandvoluntaryactswasnotobserved，andthat，theformerwereregardedasnotbelongingtowill，butascloselyrelatedtoreflexes。Willwasthuslimitedtothevoluntaryandselectiveactions。Furthermore，theone-sidedconsiderationoftheideationalcomponentsofthemotivesledtoacompleteoversightofthedevelopmentofvolitionalactsfromemotions，andthesingularideafoundacceptancethatvolitionalactsarenottheproductsofantecedentmotivesandofpsychicalconditionswhichactuponthesemotivesandbringoneofthemintotheascendency，butthatvolitionisaprocessapartfromthemotivesandindependentofthem，aproductofametaphysicalvolitionalfaculty。Thisfacultywas，onthegroundofthelimitationoftheconceptvolitiontovoluntaryacts，evendefinedasthechoosingfacultyofthemind，orasitsfacultyforpreferringonefromamongthedifferentmotivesthatinfluenceit。
Thus，insteadofderivingvolitionfromtheantecedentpsychicalconditions，thefinalresultalone，thevolitionalact，wasusedtobuildupageneralconceptwhichwascalledwillandthisclass-conceptwastreatedinaccordancewiththefaculty-theoryasafirstcausefromwhichallconcretevolitionalactsarise。ItwasonlyamodificationofthisabstracttheorywhenSchopenhauerand，followinghim，manymodernpsychologistsandphilosophersdeclaredthatvolitioninitselfisan“unconscious“occurrencewhichcomestoconsciousnessonlyinitsresult，thevolitionalact。Inthiscase，obviously，theinadequateobservationofthevolitionalprocessprecedingtheact，hasledtotheassertionthatnosuchprocessexists。Here，again，thewholevarietyofconcretevolitionalprocessesissupplantedbytheconceptofasingleunconsciouswill，andtheresultforpsychologyisthesameasbefore:inplaceofacomprehensionofconcretepsychicalprocessesandtheircombination，anabstractconceptissetupandthenerroneouslylookeduponasageneralcause。
Modernpsychologyandevenexperimentalpsychologyisstilltoagreatextentunderthebanofthisdeep-rootedabstractdoctrineofwill。Indenyingfromthefirstthepossibilityofexplaininganactfromtheconcretepsychicalcausalityoftheantecedentvolitionalprocess，itleavesastheonlycharacteristic[p。196]ofanactofwillthesumofthesensationsthataccompanytheexternalact，andmayimmediatelyprecedeitaspalememoimagesincaseswheretheacthasoftenbeenrepeated。Thephysicalexcitationsinthenervoussystemareregardedasthecausesoftheact。
