13。Successiveassociationisbynomeansaprocessthatdiffersessentiallyfromthetwoformsofsimultaneousassociation，assimilationandcomplication。Itis，onthecontrary，duetothesamegeneralcausesasthese，anddiffersonlyinthesecondarycharacteristicthattheprocessofcombination，[p。236]whichintheformercasesconsisted，sofarasimmediateintrospectionwasconcerned，ofasingleinstantaneousact，ishereprotractedandmaythereforebereadilydividedtwoacts。Thefirstoftheseactscorrespondstotheappeararofthereproducingelements，thesecondtotheappearancethereproducedelements。Heretoo，thefirstactisoftenintroducedbyanexternalsense-impression，whicharuleimmediatelyunitedwithanassimilation。Otherreproductiveelementswhichmightenterintoanassimilationorcomplicationareheldbackthroughsomeinhibitoryinfluenceorother——as，forexample，throughotherassimilationsthatforcethemselvesearlieronapperception——anddonotbegintoexerciseaninfluenceuntillater。
Inthiswayhaveasecondactofapperceptionclearlydistinctfromfirst，anddifferingfromitinsensationalcontentthemoreessentiallythemorenumerousthenewelementsareaddedthroughtheretardedassimilationandcomplicationandthemorethesenewelementstendtodisplacetheearlierbecauseoftheirdifferentcharacter。
14。Inthegreatmajorityofcasestheassociationformedislimitedtotwosuccessiveideationaloraffectiveprocessesconnected，inthemannerdescribed，throughassimilationsorcomplications。Newsense-impressionsorapperceptivecombinations(§；
17)maythenconnectthemselveswiththesecondmemberoftheassociation。
Lessfrequentlyhappensthatthesameprocesseswhichledtothefirstdivisionofanassimilationorcomplicationintoasuccessiveprocess，mayberepeatedwiththesecondorevenwiththethirdmember，sothatinthiswaywehaveawholeassociationalseries。Still，thistakesplacegenerallyonlyunderexceptionalconditions，especiallywhenthenormalcourseofapperceptionhasbeendisturbed，as，forexample，intheso-called“flightofideas“oftheinsane。Innormalcasessuchasserialassociations，thatis，associationswithmorethantwomembers，hardlyeverappear。
14a。Suchserialassociationsmaybeproducedmosteasilyundertheartificialconditionsofexperimentation，whentheeffortispurposelymadetosuppressnewsensibleimpressionsandapperceptivecombinations。Buttheprocessresultinginsuchcasesdiffersfromthatdescribedaboveinthatthesuccessivemembersoftheseriesdonotconnect，eachwithitsimmediatepredecessor，butallgobacktothefirst，untilanewsense-impressionoranideawithanespeciallystrongaffectivetonefurnishesanewstartingpointforthesucceedingassociations。Theassociations-inthe“flightofideas“oftheinsanegenerallyshowthetypeofreturningtocertainpredominantcentres。a。SensibleRecognitionandCognition。
Thewayinwhichtheordinaryformofassociation，madeupoftwopartialprocesses，maybemostclearlyobserved，isinthesimultaneousassimilationsandcomplicationsofsensiblerecognitionandcognition。Thequalification“sensible“iswhenreferringtotheseassociativeprocesses，toindicate，ontheonehand，thatthefirstmemberofthepro-alwaysasense-impression，and，ontheother，todistinguishthesefromthelogicalprocessesofcognition。
Thepsychologicallysimplestcaseofrecognitionisthatanobjecthasbeenperceived——forexample，seen-onlyonceandisrecognizedasthesamewhenmetasecond。Ifthissecondperceptionfollowsverysoonafterthefirst，orifthefirstwasespeciallyemphaticandexciting，theassociationusuallytakesplaceimmediatelyasasimultaneousassimilation。Thisprocessdiffersfromotherassimilation，whichtakeplaceinconnectionwitheverysense-perception，onlyinthecharacteristicaccompanyingfeeling，offamiliarity。Suchafeelingisneverpresentexceptwhenthereissomedegreeof“consciousness“thatthe[p。238]impressionhasalreadybeenreceivedbefore。Itis，therefore，evidentlyoneofthosefeelingswhichcomesfromtheideasobscurelypresentinconsciousness。
Thepsychologicaldifferencebetweenthisandanordinarysimultaneousassimilationmustbelookedforinthefactthatatthemomentwhen，intheapperceptionoftheimpression，theassimilationtakesplace，thereariseintheobscureregionsofconsciousnesssomecomponentsoftheoriginalideawhichdonotenterintotheassimilation。Theirrelationtotheelementsoftheideathatisapperceivedfindsexpressioninthefeelingoffamiliarity。
Theunassimilatedcomponentsmaybeelementsoftheearlierimpressionthatweresodifferentfromcertainelementsofthenewthattheycouldnotbeassimilated，or，andthisisespeciallyoftenthecase，theymaybecomplicationsthatwereclearbefore，butnowremainunobserved。Thisinfluenceofcomplicationexplainshowitisthatthenameofavisualobject，forexamplethepropernamesofpersons，andoftenotherauditoryqualities，suchasthetoneofvoice，areverygreathelpsintherecognition。
Toserveassuchhelps，however，theyneednotnecessarilybeclearideasinconsciousness。Whenwe，haveheardaman\'sname，therecognitionofthemanthenexttimewemeethimmaybeaidedbythenamewithoutourcallingitclearlytomind。
15a。Thisinfluenceofcomplicationsmaybedemonstratedexperimentally。Ifwetakeanumberofdisksthatarealikeinallotherrespects，butdifferincolorfromwhitethroughvariousshadesofgreytoblack，andpresentthemtoviewonce，solongasonlyfive，shadesareused(white，black，andthreeshadesofgrey)eachdiskcanbeeasilyrecognizedagain。Butwhenmoreshadesareused，thisisnolongerpossible。Itisverynaturaltosurmisethatthisfactisrelatedtotheexistenceoffivefamiliarnames，white，lightgrey，grey，darkgreyandblack。Thisviewisconfirmedbythefactthatbypurposelyusingalargernumberofnamesmoreshades(evenasmanyasnine)axerecognized。
In[p。239]suchexperimentsthecomplicationmaybeclearlyobserved，butitisnotnecessarilyso，especiallyforthefiveordinaryshades。
Asarulethenameisherethoughtofaftertheactofrecognitionproperispassed。
16。Theobservationsdiscussedalsoshowwhattheconditionsareunderwhicharecognitionmaypassfromasimultaneoustoasuccessiveassociation。Ifacertainintervalelapsesbeforetheelementsoftheearlierideawhichgraduallyriseinconsciousness，canproduceadistinctfeelingoffamiliarity，thewholeprocessdividesintotwoacts:
intotheperceptionandtherecognition。Thefirstisconnectedwiththeordinarysimultaneousassimilationsonly，whileinthesecondtheobscure，unassimilatedelementsoftheearlierideashowtheirinfluence。
Thedivisionbetweenthepartsis，accordingly，moredistinctthegreaterthedifferencebetweentheearlierimpressionandthenewone。Insuchacase，notonlyisthereusuallyalongperiodofnoticeableinhibitionbetweenperceptionandrecognition，butcertainadditionalapperceptiveprocesses，namelytheprocessesofvoluntaryattentionthattakeplaceinthestateofrecollection，alsocometotheaidoftheassociation。
Asaspecialformofthiskindofprocesswehavethephenomenoncalled“mediaterecognition“。Thisconsistsintherecognitionofanobject，notthroughitsownattributes，butthroughsomeaccompanyingmarkorother，whichstandsinachanceconnectionwithit，as，forexample，whenapersonisrecognizedbecauseofhiscompanion。Betweensuchacaseandacaseofimmediaterecognitionthereisnoessentialpsychologicaldifference。
Foreventhosecharacteristicsthatdonotbelongtotherecognizedobjectinitself，stillbelongtothewholecomplexofideationalelementsthathelpinthepreparationandfinalcarryingoutoftheassociation。Andyet，asweshouldnaturallyexpect，theretardationwhichdividesthewholerecognitionintotwoideationalprocesses，[p。240]andoftenleadstothecooperationofvoluntaryrecollectiongenerallyappearsinitsmostevidentforminmediaterecognitions。
17。Thissimpleprocessofrecognitionwhichtakesplacewhenwemeetagainanobjectthathasbeenperceivedoncebefore，isastartingpointforthedevelopmentofvariousotherassociativeprocesses，boththosewhichlikeitselfstandontheboundarybetweensimultaneousandsuccessiveassociations，andthoseinwhichtheretardationintheformofassimilationsandcomplicationsthatleadstothesuccessprocesses，isstillmoreclearlymarked。Thus，therecognitionofanobjectthathasoftenbeenperceivediseasierand，therefore，asaruleaninstantaneousprocess，whichisalsomoreliketheordinaryassimilationbecausethefeelingoffamiliarityismuchlessintense。Sensiblecognitiondiffers，generallybutlittlefromtherecognitionofsinglefamiliarobjects。Thelogicaldistinctionbetweenthetwoconceptsconsistinthefactthatrecognitionmeanstheestablishmentofindividualidentityofthenewlyperceivedwithaformerlyperceivedobject，whilecognitionisthesubsumptionofobjectunderafamiliarconcept。Still，thereisnoreallogicalsubsumptioninaprocessofsensiblecognitionanymorethereisafullydevelopedclass-conceptunderwhichthesubsumptioncouldbemade。Thepsychologicalequivalentofsuchasubsumptionistobefoundinthiscaseintheprocessofrelatingtheimpressioninquestiontoanindefinitelylargenumberofobjects。
Thispresupposesanearlierperceptionofvariousobjectswhichagreeonlyincertainparticularproperties，sothattheprocessofcognitionapproachestheordinaryassimilationmoreandmoreinitspsychologicalcharacterthemorefamiliartheclasstowhichthe，perceivedobjectbelongs，andthemoreitagreeswiththegeneralcharacteristicsoftheclass。Inequalmeasurethe[p。241]feelingspeculiartotheprocessesofcognitionandrecognitiondecreaseandfinallydisappearentirely，sothatwhenwemeetveryfamiliarobjectswedonotspeakofacognitionatall。Theprocessofcognitionbecomesevidentonlywhentheassimilationishinderedinsomeway，eitherbecausetheperceptionoftheclassofobjectsinquestionhasbecomeunusual，orbecausethesingleobjectshowssomeuniquecharacteristics。Insuchacasethesimultaneousassociationmaybecomesuccessivebytheseparationofperceptionandcognitionintotwosuccessiveprocesses。Justinproportionasthishappens，wehaveaspecificfeelingofcognitionwhichisindeedrelatedtothefeelingoffamiliarity，but，asaresultofthedifferentconditionsfortheriseofthetwo，differsfromit，especiallyinitstemporalcourse。b。Memory-processes。
18。Essentiallydifferentisthedirectionalongwhichthesimpleprocessofrecognitiondevelops，whenthehindrancestoimmediateassimilationwhichgiverisetothetransitionfromsimultaneoustosuccessiveassociationaregreatenough，sothattheideationalelementswhichdonotagreewiththenewperceptionunite——eitheraftertherecognitionhastakenplaceorevenwhenthereisnosuchrecognitionwhatever——toformaspecialideareferreddirectlytoanearlierimpression。Theprocessthatarisesundersuchcircumstancesisamemory-processandtheideathatisperceivedisamemory-idea，ormemory-image。
18a。Memory-processesweretheonestowhichassociation-psychologygenerallylimitedtheapplicationoftheconceptassociation。But，ashasbeenshown，theseareassociationsthattakeplaceunderespeciallycomplicatedconditions。Anunderstandingofthegenesisofassociationwasthusrenderedimpossiblefrom[p。242]thefirst，anditiseasytoseethatthedoctrineacceptedbytheassociationistsislimitedessentiallytoalogicalratherthanapsychologicalclassificationofthedifferentkindsofassociationthataretobeobservedinmemory-processes。
Aknowledgeofthesemorecomplexprocessesispossible，however，onlythroughastudystartingwiththesimplerassociativeprocesses，fortheordinarysimultaneousassimilationsandsimultaneousandsuccessiverecognitionspresentthemselvesverynaturallyastheantecedentsofmemory-associations。
Butevensimultaneousrecognitionitselfisnothingbutanassimilationaccompaniedbyafeelingwhichcomesfromtheunassimilatedideationalelementsobscurelypresentinconsciousness。Inthesecondprocesstheseunassimilatedelementsservetoretardtheprocess，sothattherecognitiondevelopsintotheprimitiveformofsuccessiveassociation。Theimpressionisatfirstassimilatedintheordinaryway，andthenagaininasecondactwithanaccompanyingfeelingofrecognitionwhichservestoindicatethegreaterinfluenceofcertainreproducedelements。Inthissimpleformofsuccessiveassociationthetwosuccessiveideasarereferredtooneandthesameobject，theonlydifferencebeingthateachtimesomedifferentideationalandaffectiveelementsareapperceived。Withmemory-associationsthecaseisessentiallydifferent。Heretheheterogeneouselementsoftheearlierimpressionspredominate，andthefirstassimilationoftheimpressionisfollowedbytheformationofanideamadeupofelementsoftheimpressionandalsoofthosebelonging，toearlierimpressions，thataresuitablefortheassimilationbecauseofcertainoftheircomponents。
Themoretheheterogeneouselementspredominate，themoreisthesecondideadifferentfromthefirst，or，ontheotherhand，themorethelikeelementspredominate，themorethetwoideaswillbealike。Inanycasethesecondideaisalwaysareproducedideaanddistinctfromthenewimpressionasanindependentcompound。
19。Thegeneralconditionsfortheriseofmemory-imagesmayexhibitshadesanddifferenceswhichrunparalleltotheformsofrecognitionandcognitiondiscussedabove。Variousmodificationsofthememory-processesmay。arisefromthedifferentkindsofordinaryassimilationthatwebecome[p。243]acquaintedwithabove(15，17)，astherecognitionofanobjectperceivedonceandthatofanobjectfamiliarthroughfrequentperceptions，andalsofromthecognitionofasubjectthatisfamiliarinitsgeneralclass-characteristics。
Simplerecognitionbecomesamemory-processwhentheimmediateassimilationoftheimpressionishinderedbyelementsthatbelongnottotheobjectitself，buttocircumstancesthatattendeditsearlierperception。Justbecausetheformerperceptionoccurredonlyonce，oratleastonlyoncesofarasthereproductionisconcerned，theseaccompanyingelementsmayberelativelyclearanddistinctandsharplydistinguishedfromthesurroundingsofthenewimpression。Inthiswaywehavefirstofalltransitionalformsbetweenrecognitionandremembering:
theobjectisrecognized，andatthesametimereferredtoaparticularearliersenseperceptionwhoseaccompanyingcircumstancesaddadefinitespacialandtemporalrelationtothememory-image。Thememory-processisespeciallypredominantinthosecaseswheretheelementofthenewimpressionthatgaverisetotheassimilationisentirelysuppressedbytheothercomponentsoftheimage，sothattheassociativerelationbetweenthememory-ideaandtheimpressionmayremaincompletelyunnoticed19a。Suchcaseshavebeenspokenofas“mediatememories“，or“mediateassociations“。Still，justaswith“mediaterecognitions“weare，heretoo，dealingwithprocessesthatarefundamentallythesameasordinaryassociations。Take，forexample，thecaseofapersonwho，sittinginhisroomatevening，suddenlyrememberswithoutanyapparentreasonalandscapethathepassedthroughmanyyearsbefore；examinationshowsthattherehappenedtobeintheroomafragrantflowerwhichhesawforthefirsttimeinthatlandscape。Thedifferencebetweenthisandanordinarymemory-processinwhichtheconnectionofthenewimpressionwithanearlierexperienceisclearlyrecognized，obviouslyconsistsinthefactthatheretheelementswhichrecalltheidea[p。244]arepushedintotheobscurebackgroundofconsciousnessotherideationalelements。
Thenotinfrequentexperience，commonlyknownasthe“spontaneousrise“
ofideas，inmemory-imagesuddenlyappearsinourmindwithoutanycause，isinallprobabilityreducibleineverycasetosuchlatentassociations。
20。Memory-processesthatdevelopfromrecognitionswhichhavebeenoftenrepeatedandfromcognitions，areinconsequenceofthegreatercomplexityoftheirconditions，differentfromthoseconnectedwiththerecognitionofobjectsperceivedbutonce。
Whenweperceiveanobjectthatisfamiliareitherinitsownindividualcharacteristicsorinthoseofitsclass，therangeofpossibleassociationsisincomparablygreater，andthewayinwhichthememory-processesshallarisefromaparticularimpressiondependlessonthesingleexperiencesthatgiverisetotheassociation，thanitdoesonthegeneraldispositionandmomentarymoodofconsciousnessandespeciallyontheinterferenceofcertainactiveapperceptiveprocessesandtheintellectualfeelingsandemotionsthatareconnectedwiththem。Whentheconditionsaresovarious，itiseasytoseethatasageneralthingitisimpossible，tocalculatebeforehandwhattheassociationwillbe。Assoonastheactofmemoryisended，however，thetracesofitsassociativeoriginseldomescapecarefulexamination，sothatwearejustifiedinregardingassociationastheuniversaland，onlycauseofmemory-processesunderallcircumstances。
21。Inthusderivingmemoryfromassociation，itisnottobeforgottenthateveryconcretememory-processisbynomeansasimpleprocess，butismadeupofalargenumberofelementaryprocesses，asisapparentfromthefactthatitproducedbyapsychologicaldevelopmentofitssimpleantecedents，namely，thesimultaneousassassinations。Themostimportantoftheseelementaryprocessesistheassimilative[p。245]
interactionbetweensomeexternalimpressionandtheelementsofanearlierpsychicalcompound，orbetweenamemory-imagealreadypresentandsuchelements。Connectedwiththistherearetwootherprocessesthatarecharacteristicformemoryprocesses:oneisthehindranceoftheassimilationbyunlikeelements，theothertheassassinationsandcomplicationsconnectedwiththeseelementsandgivingrisetoapsychicalcompoundwhichdiffersfromthefirstimpressionandisreferredmoreorlessdefinitelytosomepreviousexperience，especiallythroughitscomplications。Thisreferencetotheearlierexperienceshowsitselfthroughacharacteristicfeeling，thefeelingofremembering，whichisrelatedtothefeelingoffamiliarity，butisinitstemporalgenesischaracteristicallydifferent，probablyinconsequenceofthegreaternumberofobscurecomplicationsthataccompanytheappearanceofthememory-image。
Ifwetrytofindtheelementaryprocessestowhichbothmemory-processesandallcomplexassociationsarereducible，weshallfindtwokinds，combinationsfromidentityandfromcontiguity。Ingeneralthefirstclassispredominantwhentheprocessismorelikeanordinaryassimilationandrecognition，whilethesecondappearsmoreprominentlythemoretheprocessesapproachmediatememoryincharacter，thatis，themoretheytakeonthesemblanceofspontaneousideas。
21a。Itisobviousthattheusualclassification，whichmakesallmemory-processesassociationsbyeithersimilarityorcontiguity，isentirelyunsuitableifweattempttoapplyittothemodesofpsychologicalgenesisthattheseprocessesmanifest。Ontheotherbland，itistoogeneralandindefiniteifwetrytoclassifytheprocesseslogicallyaccordingtotheirproducts，withoutreferencetotheirgenesis。Inthelattercasethevariousrelationsofsubordination，superordination，andcoordination，ofcauseandend，oftemporalsuccessionandexistence，andthevariouskindsofspacialconnection，findonlyinadequateexpressioninthevery[p。246]generalconcepts“similarity“and“contiguity“。When，ontheotherhand，themanneroforiginisstudied，everymemory-processisfoundtobemadeupofelementaryprocessesthatmaybecalledpartlyassociationsbysimilarity，partlyassociationsbycontiguity。Theassimilationswhichservetointroducetheprocessandalsothosewhichservetobringaboutthereferencetoaparticularearlierexperienceatitsclose，maybecalledassociationsbysimilarity。Buttheterm“similarity“isnotexactlysuitableevenhere，becauseitisidenticalelementaryprocessesthatgiverisetotheassimilation，andwhensuchanidentitydoesnotexist，itisalwaysproducedbythereciprocalassimilation。Infact，theconceptof“associationbysimilarity“isbasedonthepresuppositionthatcompositeideasarepermanentpsychicalobjectsandthatassociationstakeplacebetweenthesefinishedideas。Theconceptitselfmustberejectedwhenoncethispresuppositionisgivenupasentirelycontradictorytopsychicalexperienceandfataltoaproperunderstandingofthesame。Whencertainproductsofassociation，as，forexample，twosuccessivememory-images，aresimilar，thislikenessisalwaysreducibletoprocessesofassimilationmadeupofelementarycombinationsthroughidentityorcontiguity。Theassociationthroughidentitymaytakeplaceeitherbetweencomponentsthatwereoriginallythesame，orbetweenthosethathavegainedthischaracterthroughassimilation。
Associationbycontiguityistheformofcombinationbetweenthoseelementsthathindertheassimilation，thusdividingthewholeprocessintoasuccessionoftwoprocesses，andalsocontributingtothememory-imagethosecomponentswhichgiveitthecharacterofanindependentcompounddifferentfromthatoftheimpressionwhichgaverisetoit。
22。Thecharacterofmemory-ideasisintimatelyconnectedwiththecomplexnatureofthememory-processes。Thedescriptionoftheseideasasweaker，butotherwisefaithful，copiesofthedirectsensibleidea，isasfaroutofthewayasitcouldpossiblybe。Memory-imagesanddirectsensibleideasdiffernotonlyinqualityandintensity，butmostemphaticallyinirelementarycomposition。Wemaydiminishtheintensityofasensibleimpressionasmuchas[p。247]welike，butsolongasitisperceptibleatallitisanessentiallydifferentcompoundfromamemory-idea。Theincompletenessofthememory-ideaismuchmorecharacteristicthanthesmallintensityofitssensationalelements。Forexample，whenIrememberanacquaintance，theimageIhaveofhisfaceandfigurearenotmereobscurereproductionsofwhatIhaveinconsciousnesswhenIlookdirectlyathim，butmostofthefeaturesdonotexistatallinthereproducedideas。Connectedwiththefewideationalelementsthatarereallypresentandthatcanbebutlittleincreasedinnumberevenwhentheattentionisintentionallyconcentrateduponthetask，areaseriesofcombinationsthroughcontiguityandofcomplications，suchastheenvironmentsinwhichIsawmyacquaintance，hisname，finallyandmoreespecially，certainaffectiveelementsthatwerepresentatthemeeting。
Theseaccompanyingcomponentsarewhatmaketheimageamemory-image。
23。Therearegreatindividualdifferencesintheeffectivenessoftheseaccompanyingelementsandinthedistinctnessofthesensationalelementsofthememory-image。Somepersonslocatetheirmemory-imagesinspaceandtimemuchmorepreciselythanothersdo；theabilitytoremembercolorsandtonesisalsoexceedinglydifferent。Veryfewpersonsseemtohavedistinctmemoriesforodorsandtastes；inplaceofthesewehave，assubstitutecomplications，accompanyingmotorsensationsofthenoseandtaste-organs。
Thesevariousdifferentfunctionsconnectedwiththeprocessesofrecognitionandrememberingareallincludedunderthename“memory“。Thisconceptdoesnot，ofcourse，refertoanyunitarypsychicalforce，asfaculty-psychologyassumed(p。11)，still，itisausefulsupplementaryconceptinemphasizingthedifferencesbetweendifferentindividuals。Wespeakofafaithful，comprehensive，andeasymemory，orofagood[p。247]spacial，temporal，andverbalmemory，etc。Theseexpressionsservetopointoutthedifferentdirectionsinwhich，accordingtotheoriginaldispositionorhabitoftheperson，theelementaryassimilationsandcomplicationsoccur。
Oneimportantphenomenonamongthevariousdifferencesreferredto，isthegradualweakeningofmemorywitholdage。Thedisturbancesresultingfromdiseasesofthebrainagreeingeneralwiththisphenomenon。Bothareofspecialimportancetopsychologybecausetheyexhibitveryclearlytheinfluenceofcomplicationsonmemory-processes。
Oneofthemoststrikingsymptomsoffailingmemory，inbothnormalandpathologicalcases，istheweakeningofverbalmemory。Itgenerallyappearsasalackofabilitytoremember，first。propernames，thennamesofconcreteobjectsintheordinaryenvironments，stilllaterabstractwords，andfinallyparticlesthatareentirelyabstractincharacter。Thissuccessioncorrespondsexactlytothepossibilityofsubstitutinginconsciousnessforsingleclassesofwordsotherideasthatareregularlyconnectedwiththemthroughcomplication。Thispossibilityitobviouslygreatestforpropernames，andleastforabstractparticles，whichcanberetainedonlythroughtheirverbalsigns。
[1]Theauthor[Wundt]remarksthattheEnglishwordideaashereusedcorrespondstotheGermanVorstellung。Tr。[Judd]ClassicsintheHistoryofPsychology——Wundt(1897)Section17OutlinesofPsychologyWilhelmMaxWundt(1897)TranslatedbyCharlesHubbardJudd(1897)III。INTERCONNECTION
OFPSYCHICALCOMPOUNDS。§；17。APPERCEPTIVECOMBINATIONS。
1。Associationsinalltheirformsandalsothecloselyrelatedprocessesoffusionthatgiverisetopsychicalcompounds，areregardedbyusaspassiveexperiences，becausethefeelingofactivity，whichischaracteristicforallprocessesofvolitionandattention，neverappearsexceptinconnectionwiththeapperceptionofthecompletedproduct，presentedasaresultofthecombination(cf。p。217)。Associationsare，accordingly，processesthatcanarousevolitions，[p。249]butarenotthemselvesdirectlyinfluencedbyvolitions。
Thisis，however，thecriterionofapassiveprocess。
Thecaseisessentiallydifferentwiththesecondkindofcombinationsthatareformedbetweendifferentpsychicalcompoundsandtheirelements，theapperceptivecombinations。Herethefeelingofactivitywithitsaccompanyingvariablesensationsoftensiondoesnotmerelyfollowthecombinationsasanafter-effectproducedbythem，butitprecedesthemsothatthecombinationsthemselvesareimmediatelyrecognizedasformedwiththeaidoftheattention。Inthissensetheyarecalledactiveexperiences。
2。Apperceptivecombinationsincludealargenumberofpsychicalprocessesthataredistinguishedinpopularparlanceunderthegeneraltermsthinking，reflection，imagination，understanding，etc。Theseareallregardedashigherpsychicalprocessesthansense-perceptionsorpurememory-processes，still，theyaxealllookeduponasdifferentfromoneanother。Especiallyisthistrueoftheso-calledfunctionsofimaginationandunderstanding。Incontrastwiththislooseviewofpopularpsychologyandofthefaculty-theory，whichfollowedinitstracks，association-psychologysoughttofindaunitaryprinciplebysubsumingtheapperceptivecombinationsofideasalsounderthegeneralconceptofassociation，atthesametimelimitingtheconcept，asnotedabove(p。224)，tosuccessiveassociation。
Thisreductiontoassociationwaseffectedeitherbyneglectingtheessentialsubjectiveandobjectivedistinguishingmarksofapperceptivecombinations，orbyattemptingtoavoidthedifficultiesofanexplanation，throughtheintroductionofcertainsupplementaryconceptstakenfrompopularpsychology。
Thus，“interest“or“intelligence“wascreditedwithaninfluenceonassociations。
Veryoftenthisviewwasbasedontheerroneousnotionthattherecognitionofcertaindistinguishingfeaturesinapperceptivecombinations[p。250]
andassociationsmeanttheassertionofanabsoluteindependenceoftheformerfromthelatter。Ofcourse，thisisnottrue。Allpsychicalprocessesareconnectedwithassociationsasmuchaswiththeoriginalsense-perceptions。
Yet，justmassociationsalwaysformapartofeverysense-perceptionandinspiteofthatappearinmemory-processesasrelativelyindependentprocesses，soapperceptivecombinationsarebased，entirelyonassociations，buttheiressentialattributesarenottraceabletotheseassociations。
3。Ifwetrytoaccountfortheessentialattributesofapperceptivecombinations，wemayfirstofalldividethepsychicalprocessesthatbelongtothisclassintosimpleandcomplexapperceptivefunctions。Thesimplefunctionsarethoseofrelatingandcomparing，thecomplexthoseofsynthesisandanalysis。A。SIMPLEAPPERCEPTIVEFUNCTIONS。(RelatingandComparing。)
4。Themostelementaryapperceptivefunctionistherelatingoftwopsychicalcontentstoeachother。Thegroundsforsuchrelatingisalwaysgiveninthesinglepsychicalcompoundsandtheirassociations，buttheactualcarryingoutoftheprocessitselfisaapperceptiveactivitythrough，whichtherelationitselfassumesaspecialconsciouscontentdistinctfromthecontentswhicharerelated，thoughindeedinseparablyconnectedwiththem。Forexample，whenwerecognizetheidentityofanobjectwithoneperceivedbefore，orwhenweareconsciousofadefiniterelationbetweenarememberedeventandapresentimpression，thereisinbothcasesarelatingapperceptiveactivityconnectedwiththeassociations。
Solongastherecognitionremainsapureassociation，theprocessofrelatingislimitedtothefeelingoffamiliaritythat[p。251]followstheassimilationofthenewimpressioneitherimmediatelyorafterashortinterval。When，onthecontrary，apperceptionisaddedtoassociation，thisfeelingissuppliedwithaclearlyrecognizedideationalsubstratum。Theearlierperceptionandthenewimpressionareseparatedintimeandthenbroughtintoarelationofidentityonthebasisoftheiressentialattributes。Thecaseissimilarwhenweareconsciousofthemotivesofamemory-act。Thisalsopresupposesthatacomparisonofthememory-imagewiththeimpressionthatoccasionedit，beaddedtothemerelyassociativeprocesswhichgaverisetotheimage。This，again，isaprocessthatcanbebroughtaboutonlythroughactiveattention。
5。Thus，therelatingfunctionisbroughtintoactivitythroughassociations，wherevertheythemselvesortheirproductsaremadetheobjectsofvoluntaryobservation。Thisfunctionisalwaysconnected，astheexamplesmentionedshow，withthefunctionofcomparing，sothatthetwomustberegardedasinterdependentpartialfunctions。Everyactofrelatingincludesacomparisonoftherelatedpsychicalcontents，andacomparisonis，inturn，possibleonlythroughtherelatingofthecontentscomparedwithoneanother。Theonlydifferenceisthatinmanycasesthecomparisoniscompletelysubordinatedtotheendofreciprocallyrelatingthecontents，whileinothersitisinitselftheend。Wespeakofaprocessofrelatinginthestrictsenseinthefirstcase，andofaprocessofcomparinginthesecond。IcallitrelatingwhenIthinkofapresentimpressionasthereasonforrememberinganearlierexperience；Icallitcomparing，ontheotherhand，whenIestablishcertaindefinitepointsofagreementordifferencebetweentheearlierandthepresentevent。
6。Theprocessofcomparingis，inturn，madeupoftwoelementaryfunctionswhichareasaruleintimatelyinterconnected:oftheperceptionofagreementsontheonehand，[p。252]andofdifferencesontheother。Theerroneousviewstillfrequentacceptancethattheexistenceofpsychicalelementsandcompoundsisthesameastheirapperceptivecomparison。Thetwoaretobeheldcompletelyapart。Ofcourse，theremustbeagreementsanddifferencesinourpsychicalprocessesthemselves，orwecouldnotperceivethem；stillthecomparingactivitybywhichweperceive，isdifferentfromtheagreementsanddifferencesthemselvesandadditionaltothem。
7。Psychicalelements，thesensationsandsimplefeelings，arecomparedinregardtotheiragreementsanddifferencesandthusbroughtintodefinitesystems，eachofwhichcontainsuchelementsasarecloselyrelated。Withinsuchasystem，especiallyasensationalsystem，twokindsofcomparisonarepossible:thatinrespecttoquality，andthatinrespecttointensity。Then，too，acomparisonbetweengradesofclearnessispossiblewhenattentionispaidtothewayinwhichtheelementsappearinconsciousness。Inthesamewaycomparisonisappliedtointensiveandextensivepsychicalcompounds。Everypsychicalelementandeverypsychicalcompound，insofarasitisamemberofaregulargradedsystem，constitutesapsychicalquantity。Adeterminationofthevalueofsuchaquantityispossibleonlythroughitscomparisonwithsomeotherquantityofthesamesystem。Quantityis，accordingly，anoriginalattributeofeverypsychicalelementandcompound。Itisofvariouskinds，asintensity，quality，extensive(spacialandtemporal)
value，and，whenthedifferentstatesofconsciousnessareconsidered，clearness。Butthedeterminationofquantitycanbeeffectedonlythroughtheapperceptivefunctionofcomparison。
8。Psychicalmeasurementdiffersfromphysicalmeasurementinthefactthatthelattermaybecarriedoutinactsofcomparisonseparatedalmostindefinitelyintime，becauseitsobjectsarerelativelyconstant。Forexample，[p。253]wecandeterminetheheightofacertainmountainto-daywithabarometerandthenafteralongtimetheheightofanothermountainandifnosensiblechangesintheconfigurationofthelandhavetakenplaceintheinterval，wecancomparetheresultsofourtwomeasurements。Psychicalcompounds，ontheotherhand，arenotrelativelypermanentobjects，butcontinuallychangingprocesses，sothatwecancomparetwosuchpsychicalquantitiesonlyundertheconditionthattheyaxepresentedinimmediatesuccession。Thisconditionhasasitsimmediatecorollaries:first，thatthereisnoabsolutestandardforthecomparisonofpsychicalquantities，buteverysuchcomparisonstandsbyitselfandisofmerelyrelativevalue；secondly，thatfinercomparisonsarepossibleonlybetweenquantitiesofthesamedimension，sothatatransferanalogoustothatbywhichthemostwidelyseparatephysicalquantities，suchasperiodsoftimeandphysicalforces，arereducedtospacialquantitiesofonedimension，areoutofthequestioninpsychicalcomparisons。
9。Itfollowsthatnoteveryrelationbetweenpsychicalquantitiescanbeestablishedbydirectcomparison，butthisispossibleonlyforcertainparticularlyfavorablerelations。Thesefavorablecasesare1)theequalitybetweentwopsychicalquantities，and2)thejustnoticeabledifferencebetweentwosuchquantities，as，forexample，twosensationalintensitiesoflikequality，ortwoqualitiesoflikeintensitybelongingtothesamedimension。Asasomewhatmorecomplexcasewhichstilllieswithinthelimitsofimmediatecomparisonwehave3)theequalityoftwodifferencesbetweenquantitiesespeciallywhenthesequantitiesbelongtocontiguouspartsofthesamesystem。Itisobviousthatineachofthesethreekindsofpsychicalmeasurementsthetwofundamentalfunctionsinapperceptivecomparison，theperceptionofagreementsandofdifferences，arebothappliedtogether。Inthe[p。
254]firstcasethesecondoftwopsychicalquantitiesAandBisgraduallyvarieduntilitagreesforimmediatecomparisonwithA。InthesecondcaseAandBaretakenequalatfirstandthenBischangeduntilitappearseitherjustnoticeablygreaterorjustnoticeablysmallerthanA。Finally，thethirdcaseisusedtothegreatestadvantagewhenawholelineofpsychicalquantities，as，forexample，ofsensationalintensifies，extendingfromAasalowertoCasanupperlimit，issodividedbyamiddlequantityB，whichhasbeenfoundbygradualvariations，thatthepartialdistanceABisapperceivedasequaltoBC。
10。Themostdirectandmosteasilyutilizableresultsderivedfromthesemethodsofcomparisonaregivenbythesecondmethod，orthemethodofminimaldifferencesasitiscalled。
ThedifferencebetweenthePhysicalstimuliwhichcorrespondstothejustnoticeabledifferencebetweenpsychicalquantitiesiscalledthedifference-thresholdofthestimulus。Thestimulusfromwhichtheresultingpsychicalprocess，forexample，asensation，canbejustapperceived，iscalledthestimulus-threshold。Observationshowsthatthedifference-thresholdofthestimulusincreasesinproportiontothedistancefromthestimulus-threshold，insuchawaythattherelationbetweenthedifference-thresholdandtheabsolutequantityofthestimulus，ortherelativedifferthreshold，remainconstant。If，forexample，acertainsoundwhoseintensityis1mustbeincreased1/3inorderthatthesensationmay，bejustnoticeablygreater，onewhoseintensityis2mustbeincreased2/3，one3，3/3，etc。，toreachthedifference-threshold。ThislawiscalledWeber\'slaw，afteritsdiscovererE。H。Weber。Itiseasilyunderstoodwhenwelookuponitasalawofapperceptivecomparison。Fromthispointofviewitmullobviouslybeinterpretedtomeanthatpsychicalquantitiesarecomparedaccordingtotheirrelativevalues。[p。255]
ThisviewthatWeber\'slawisanexpressionofthegenerallawoftherelativityofpsychicalquantities，assumesthatthepsychicalquantitiesthatarecompared，themselvesincreaseinproportiontotheirstimuliwithinthelimitsofthevalidityofthelaw。Ithasnotyetbeenpossibletodemonstratethetruthofthisassumptiononitsphysiologicalside，onaccountofthedifficultiesofmeasuringexactlythestimulationofnervesandsense-organs。Still，wehaveevidenceinfavorofitinthepsychologicalexperiencethatincertainspecialcases，wheretheconditionsofobservationleadverynaturallytoacomparisonofabsolutedifferencesinquantity，theabsolutedifferencethreshold，insteadoftherelativethreshold，isfoundtobeconstant。
Wehavesuchacase，forexample，inthecomparison，withinwidelimits，ofminimaldifferencesinpitch。Then，too，inmanycaseswherelargedifferencesinsensationsarecomparedaccordingtothethirdmethoddescribedabove(p。254)，equalabsolutestimuli-differences，notrelativedifferences，areperceivedasequal。Thisshowsthatapperceptivecomparisonfollowstwodifferentprinciplesunderdifferentconditions:aprincipleofrelativecomparisonthatfindsitsexpressioninWeber\'slawandmustberegardedasthemoregeneral，andaprincipleofabsolutecomparisonofdifferenceswhichtakestheplaceofthefirstunderspecialconditionswhichfavorsuchaformofapperception。
10a。Weber\'slawhasbeenshowntohold，firstofall，fortheintensityofsensationsandthen，withincertainlimits，forthecomparisonofextensivecompounds，especiallytemporalideas，also，tosomeextent，forspacialideasofsightandformotorideas。Ontheotherhand，itdoesnotholdforthespacialideasofexternaltouch，obviouslyonaccountofthecomplexityofthelocalsigns(p。105)；anditcannotbeverifiedforsensationalqualities。Infact，forthecomparisonofpitchestheabsolute，nottherelativedifference-thresholdisconstantwithinwidelimits。Still，thescaleoftonalintervalsisrelative，foreveryintervalcorrespondstoa[p。256]certainratiobetweenthenumberofvibrations(forexample，anoctave1:2，afifth2:3，etc。)。Thisisprobablyduetotherelationshipbetweenclangswhichisduetotherelationofthefundamentaltonetoitsovertones(comp。p。
95sq。)。EvenwhereanabsolutecomparisontakesplaceinsteadofacomparisonaccordingtoWeber\'slawofrelativity，wemustnot，ofcourse，confusethiswiththeestablishmentofanabsolutemeasure。Thatwouldpresupposeanabsoluteunit，thatis，thepossibilityoffindingaconstantstandard，which，asnotedabove(p。253)，isinthepsychicalworldimpossible。Absolutecomparisonmusttaketheformofarecognitionoftheequalityofequalabsolutedifference。Thisispossibleinthevarioussinglecaseswithoutaconstantunit。Thus，forexample，wecomparetwosensationallinesAB
andBCaccordingtotheirrelativevalues，whenwethinkinbothcasesoftherelationoftheuppertothelowerextremesensation。InsuchacasewejudgeABandBCtobeequalwhenB/A=C/B(Weber\'slaw)。Ontheotherhand，wecompareABandBCaccordingtotheirabsolutevalueswhenthedifferencebetweenCandBinthesinglesensationaldimensioninquestionappearsequaltothatbetweenBandA，thatis，whenC-B=B-A(lawofproportionality)。Weber\'slawhassometimesbeenregardedastheexpressionofthefunctionalrelationbetweensensationandstimulus，andithasbeenassumedthatthelawholdsforinfinitelysmallchangesonbothsides。Onthisbasistherehasbeengiventoitthemathematicalformofthelogarithmicfunction:sensationincreasesinproportiontothelogarithmofthestimulus(Fechner\'spsycho-physicallaw)。
ThemethodsforthedemonstrationofWeber\'slaw，ofrelationsbetweenpsychicalquantities，whetherelementarycompound，areusuallycalledpsycho-physicalmethods。isunsuitable，however，becausethefactthatphysicalhereemployedisnotunique，butholdsforalltheexperimentalpsychology。Theycouldbetterbecapable，forthemeasurementofpsychicalquantities“。Withthesemethodsitispossibletofollowoneoftwocoursesinrelationsmentionedasfavorableforjudgment。Adirectmodeofprocedureisasfollows:oneoftwopsychicalquantitiesAandB，as，forexample，Aiskeptconstant，andBis[p。257]graduallyvarieduntilitstandsinoneoftherelationsmentioned，thatis，eitherequalsAorisjustnoticeablygreaterorsmaller，etc。Thesearetheadjustment-methods。Amongthesewehaveasthemethodmostfrequentlyappliedandthatwhichleadsmostdirectlytoconclusions，the“methodofminimalchanges“，andthenasakindofmodificationofthisforthecaseofadjustmentuntilequalityisreached，the“methodofaverageerror“。Thesecondmodeofprocedureistocompareinalargenumberofcasesanytwostimuli，AandB，whichareverylittledifferent，andtoreckonfromthenumberofcasesinwhichthejudgmentsareA=B，A>B，A
