4。Ingeneral，instinctsmayberegardedasimpulsiveactsthatarisefromparticularsensationsandsense-feelings。
Thephysiologicalsourcesofthesensationschieflyconcernedininstinctsarethealimentaryandgenitalorgans。Allanimalinstinctsmayaccordingly，bereducedtoalimentiveand[p。279]sexualinstincts，thoughinconnectionwiththelatter，especiallyintheirmorecomplexforms，thereaxealwaysauxiliaryprotectiveandsocialimpulseswhichmay\'beregarded，fromthecharacteroftheirorigin，asspecialmodificationsofthesexualimpulse。Amongtheseauxiliaryformsmustbereckonedtheimpulsesofmanyanimalstobuildhousesandnests，asinthecaseofbeavers，birds，andnumerousinsects(forexample，spiders，wasps，bees，ants)，then，too，theinstinctofanimalmarriagefoundchieflyamongbirdsandappearingbothinthemonogamicandpolygamicforms。Finally，theso-called“animalstates“，asthoseofthebees，ofants，andoftermites，belongunderthishead。Theyareinrealitynotstates，butsexualcommunities，inwhichthesocialimpulsethatunitestheindividuals，aswellasthecommonprotectiveimpulse，aremodificationsofthereproduction-impulse。
Inthecaseofallinstinctstheparticularimpulsiveactsarisefromcertainsense-stimulipartlyexternal，partlyinternal。Theactsthemselvesaretobeclassedasimpulsiveacts，orsimplevolitions，sincetheyareprecededandaccompaniedbyparticularsensationsandfeelingsthatserveassimplemotives(p。85sq。)。Thecomplex，connatecharacteroftheseactscanbeexplainedonlyfromgeneralinheritedattributesofthenervoussystem，asaresultofwhichcertainconnatereflexmechanismsareimmediatelysetinactionbyparticularstimuli，withoutpracticeonthepartoftheindividual。Thepurposivecharacterofthesemechanismsmustalsoberegardedasaproductofgeneralpsycho-physicaldevelopment。
Asfurtherevidenceforthiswehavethefactthatinstinctsshownotonlyvariousindividualmodifications，butevenacertaindegreeofhigherdevelopmentthroughindividualpractice。Inthisway，thebirdgraduallylearnstobuilditsnestbetter；beesaccommodatetheirhivetochangingneeds；insteadofsendingoutnewcoloniestheyenlargethehive[p。280]iftheyhavethenecessaryroom。Evenabnormalhabitsmay，beacquiredbyasinglecommunityofbeesorants；thefirst，forexample，maylearntorobaneighboringhiveinsteadofgatheringthehoneyfromtheflowers，orthelattermayacquiretheremarkablehabitofmakingthemembersofanotherspeciesslaves，orofdomesticatingplant-liceforthesakeoftheirhoney。Therise，growth，andtransmissionofthesehabitsaswecantracethem，showclearlythewayinwhichallcomplicatedinstinctsmayarise。Suchaninstinctneverappearsalone，buttherearealwayssimpler。formsofthesameinstinctinrelatedclassesandspecies。Thustheholethatthewall-waspboresinthewalltolayhereggsin，isaprimitivepatternoftheingenioushiveofthehoney-bee。Betweenthesetwoextremesasthenaturaltransitionstagewehavethehiveoftheordinarywaspmadeofafewhexagonalcellsconstructedofcementedsticksandleaves。
Wemay，accordingly，explainthecomplexinstinctsasdevelopedformsoforiginallysimpleimpulsesthathavegraduallydifferentiatedmoreandmoreinthecourseofnumberlessgenerations，throughthegradualaccumulationofhabitsthathavebeenacquiredbyindividualsandthentransmitted。Everysinglehabitistoberegardedasastageinthispsychicaldevelopment。Itsgradualpassageintoaconnatedispositionistobeexplainedasapsycho-physicalprocessofpracticethroughwhichcomplexvolitionalactsgraduallypassintopurposivemovementsthatfollowimmediatelyandreflexly[sic]theappropriateimpression。
5。Ifwetrytoanswerthegeneralquestionofthegeneticrelationofmantotheanimalsonthegroundofacomparisonoftheirpsychicalattributes，itmustbeadmitted，inviewofthelikenessofpsychicalelementsandoftheirsimplestandmostgeneralformsofcombination，thatitis[p。281]possiblethathumanconsciousnesshasdevelopedfromalowerformofanimalconsciousness。Thisassumptionalsofindsstrongsupportinthefactthattheanimalkingdompresentsawholeseriesofdifferentstagesofpsychicaldevelopmentandthateveryhumanindividualpassesthroughananalogousdevelopment。Thedoctrineofpsychicaldevelopmentthusconfirmsingeneraltheresultsofthetheoryofphysicalevolution，stillwemustnotoverlookthefactthatthedifferencesbetweenthepsychicalattributesofmanandthoseoftheanimals，asexpressedintheintellectualandeffectiveprocessesresultingfromapperceptivecombinations，aremuchbroaderthanthedifferencesintheirphysicalcharacteristics。Then，too，thegreatstabilityofthepsychicalconditionofanimals，whichundergoeslittlechangeevenindomestication，rendersitexceedinglyimprobablethatanyofthepresentanimalformswilldevelopmuchbeyondthelimitsthattheyhavealreadyreachedintheirpsychicalattributes。
5a。Theattemptstodefinetherelationofmanandanimalsfromapsychologicalpointofviewvarybetweentwoextremes。Oneoftheseisthepredominatingviewoftheoldpsychologythatthehigher“facultiesofmind“，especially“reason“，wereentirelywantinginanimals。Theotheristhewide-spreadopinionofrepresentativesofspecialanimalpsychology，thatanimalsarefullyequaltomaninallrespects，inabilitytoconsider，tojudge，todrawconclusions，inmoralfeelings，etc。Withtherejectionoffaculty-psychologythefirstoftheseviewsbecomesuntenable。Thesecondrestsonthetendencyprevalentinpopularpsychologytointerpretallobjectivephenomenaintermsofhumanthought，especiallyintermsoflogicalreflection。Thecloserpsychologicalinvestigationofso-calledmanifestationofintelligenceamonganimalsshows，however，thattheyareinallcasesfullyexplicableassimplesensiblerecognitionsandassociations，andthattheylackthecharacteristicsbelongingtoconceptsproperandtologicaloperations。Butassociativeprocessespasswithoutabreakintoapperceptive，andthebeginningsofthelatter，thatissimpleactsofactiveattentionandchoice，appear[p。282]withoutanydoubtinthecaseofhigheranimals，sothatthedifferenceisafterallmoreoneofthedegreeandcomplexityofthepsychicalprocessesthanoneofkind。
Animalinstinctspresentedaverygreatdifficultytotheolderformsofpsychology，suchasthefaculty-theoryandtheintellectualistictheories(§；2)。Sincetheattempttodeducetheseinstinctsfromtheconditionsgivenineachindividualcaseledtoanimprobablyhighestimationofthepsychicalabilityoftheanimal，especiallywhentheinstinctwasmorecomplex，theconclusionwasoftenacceptedthatinstinctsareincomprehensible，or，whatamountstothesamething，duetoconnateideas。This“enigmaoftheinstincts“ceasestobeanenigmawhenwecometolookuponinstincts，aswe\'vedoneabove，asspecialformsofimpulsiveaction，andtoconsiderthemasanalogoustothesimpleimpulsiveactsofmenandanimals，forwhichwehaveapsychologicalexplanation。
Thisisespeciallytruewhenwefollowthereductionofwhatwereoriginallycomplicatedacts，toimpulsiveorreflexmovementsinthephenomenaofhabit，soeasilyobservedinthecaseofman，as，forexample，thehabituationtocomplexmovementsinlearningtoplaythepiano(comp。p。192sq。)。
Itisoftenarguedagainstthistheoryofinstinctthatitisimpossibletoproveempiricallythetransmissionofacquiredindividualvariationswhichwehaveassumed，that，forexample，therearenocertainobservationsinproofofthetransmissionofmutilations，asusedtobeassertedsofrequently。Manybiologistsaccepttheviewthatallthepropertiesoftheorganismarisethroughtheselectionresultingfromthesurvivaloftheindividualbestadaptedtonaturalconditions，thatallsuchpropertiesareaccordinglydeduciblefrom“naturalselection“，andthatinthiswayalonechangescanbeproducedinthegermandtransmittedtodescendants。
Thoughitmustbeadmittedthatanattributeacquiredbyasingleindividual，generallyhasnoeffectonthedescendents，still，thereisnoapparentreasonwhyhabitualacts，whichareindeedindirectlyduetoouternaturalconditions，butdependprimarilyontheinnerpsycho-physicalattributesoftheorganism，maynotcausechangesinthenatureofthegermwhentheseactsarerepeatedthroughmanyGenerations，justaswellasthedirectinfluencesofnaturalselection。Asfurtherevidenceforthisviewwehavethefactthatinsomecaseswholefamiliesinheritpeculiar[p。283]expressivemovementsortechnicalabilityinsomeline(p。285)。Thisdoesnotexcludeinanycasethecooperationofnaturalinfluences，butisinfullagreementwiththefactsofobservationwhichshowthattheseinfluencesactintwoways:first，directlyinthechangesthatnaturalselectionbringsaboutintheorganismwhiletheorganismremainspassive，andsecondly，indirectlyinthepsycho-physicalreactionsthatarecausedbytheouterinfluences，andtheninturngiverisetochangesintheorganism。Ifweneglectthelatterfact，wenotonlyloseanimportantmeansofaccountingfortheeminentlypurposivecharacterofanimalorganisms，butfurther，andmoreespecially，werenderimpossibleapsychologicalexplanationofthegradualdevelopmentofvolitionanditsretrogradationintopurposivereflexesasweseeitinalargenumberofconnateexpressivemovements(§；
20，1)。
ClassicsintheHistoryofPsychology——Wundt(1897)Section20OutlinesofPsychologyWilhelmMaxWundt(1897)TranslatedbyCharlesHubbardJudd(1897)
IV。PSYCHICALDEVELOPMENTS。§；20。PSYCHICALDEVELOPMENTOFTHECHILD。
1。Thefactthatthepsychicaldevelopmentofmanisregularlyslowerthanthatofmostanimalsistobeseeninthemuchmoregradualmaturingofhissense-functions。Thechild，tobesure，reactsimmediatelyafterbirthtoallkindsofsense-stimuli，mostclearlytoimpressionsoftouchandtaste，withtheleastcertaintytothoseofsound。Still，itisimpossibletodoubtthatthespecialformsofthereaction-movementsinallthesecasesareduetoinheritedreflexes。Thisisespeciallytrueforthechild\'scryingwhenafectedbycoldandtactualimpressions，andforthemimeticreflexeswhenhetastessweet，sour，orbittersubstances。
Itisprobablethatalltheseimpressionsareaccompaniedbyobscuresensationsandfeelings，yetthecharacterofthemovementscannotbeexplainedfromthefeelingswhosesymptomstheymaybeconsideredtobe，butmustbereferredtoconnatecentralreflextracts。
Probablynothingisclearinconsciousnessuntiltheendofthe[p。
284]firstmonth，andeventhen，astherapidchangeofmoodsshows，sensationsandfeelingsmustberelativelyverychangeable。Itisataboutthistimethatwebegintoobservesymptomsofpleasurableandunpleasurablefeelingsinthechild\'slaughterandinlivelyrhythmicalmovementsofhisarmsandlegsaftercertainimpressions。Eventhereflexesarenotcompletelydevelopedatfirst——afactwhichwecaneasilyunderstandwhenwelearnfromanatomythatmanyoftheconnectingfibresbetweenthecerebralcentresdonotdevelopuntilafterbirth。Thustheassociativereflex-movementsofthetwoeyesarewanting。Fromthefirsteachoftheeyesbyitselfgenerallyturnstowardsalight，butthemovementsofthetwoeyesareentirelyirregular，anditisonlyinthecourseofthefirstthreemonthsthatthenormalcoordinationofthemovementsofthetwoeyeswithacommonfixation-point，beginstoappear。Eventhenthedevelopingregularityisnottoberegardedasaresultofcompletevisualperceptions，but，quitethereverse，asasymptomofthegradualfunctioningofareflex-centre，whichthenrendersclearvisualperceptionspossible。
2。Itis，generallyspeaking，impossibletogainanyadequateinformationaboutthequalitativerelationsofpsychicalelementsinthechild\'sconsciousness，forthereasonthatwehavenocertainobjectivesymptoms。
Itisprobablethatthenumberofdifferenttonalsensations，perhapsalsothenumberofcolor-sensations，isverylimited。Thefactthatchildrentwoyearsoldnotinfrequentlyusethewrongnamesforcolorsoughtnothowever，tobelookeduponasunqualifiedevidence，thattheydonothavethesensationinquestion。Itismuchmoreprobablethatlackofattentionandaconfusionofthenamesistherealexplanationinsuchcases。
Towardstheendofthefirstyearthedifferentialoffeelingsandtherelateddevelopmentofthevariousemotions[p。285]takeplace，andshowthemselvesstrikinglyinthecharacteristicexpressivemovementsthatgraduallyarise。Wehaveunpleasurablefeelingsandjoy，theninorder，astonishment，expectation，anger，shame，envy，etc。Eveninthesecasesthedispositionsforthecombinedmovementswhichexpressthesingleemotions，dependuponinheritedphysiologicalattributesofthenervoussystem，whichgenerallydonotbegintofunctionuntilafterthefirstfewmonths，inawayanalogoustothecombinedinnervationoftheocularmuscles。Asfurtherevidenceofthiswehavethefactthatnotinfrequentlyspecialpeculiaritiesintheexpressivemovementsareinheritedbywholefamilies。
3。Thephysicalconditionsfortheriseofspacialideasareconnateintheformofinheritedreflex-connectionswhichmakearelativelyrapiddevelopmentoftheseideaspossible。Butforthechildthespacialperceptionsseematfirsttobemuchmoreincompletethantheyareinthecaseofmanyanimals。Therearemanifestationsofpainwhentheskinisstimulated，butnoclearsymptomsoflocalization。Distinctgraspingmovementsdevelopgraduallyfromtheaimlessmovementsthatareobservedeveninthefirstdays，buttheydonot，asarule，becomecertainandconsciouslypurposiveuntilaidedbyvisualperceptions，afterthetwelfthweek。Theturningoftheeyetowardasourceoflightasgenerallyobservedveryearly，istoberegardedasreflex。Thesameistrueofthegradualcoordinationofocularmovements。Stillitisprobablethatalongwiththesereflexestherearedevelopedspacialideas，sothatallwecanobserveisthegradualcompletionoftheseideasfromverycrudebeginnings，fortheprocessiscontinuousandisalwaysinterconnectedwithitsoriginalphysiologicalsubstratum。Eveninthechildthesenseofsightshowsitselftobedecidedlymorerapidinitsdevelopmentthanthesenseoftouch，forthesymptoms[p。286]ofvisuallocalizationarecertainlyobservableearlierthanthoseoftactuallocalization，andthegraspingmovements，asmentionedabove，donotreachtheirfulldevelopmentuntilaidedbythesenseofsight。
Thefieldofbinocularvisionismuchlaterinitsdevelopmentthanthatofmonocularvision。Thelattershowsitselfinthediscriminationofdirectionsinspace。Thebeginningsofthedevelopmentofafieldforbinocularvisioncoincidewiththefirstcoordinationofocularmovementsandbelong，accordingly，tothesecondhalfofthefirstyear。Theperceptionofsize，ofdistance，andofvariousthree-dimensionalfiguresremainsforalongtimeveryimperfect。Especially，distantobjectsareallthoughttobenearathand，sothattheyappearrelativelysmalltothechild。
4。Temporalideasdevelopalongwiththespacialideas。Theabilitytoformregulartemporalideasandtheagreeablenessofthesetothechildshowsitselfinthefirstmonthsinthemovementsofhislimbsandespeciallyinthetendencytoaccompanyrhythmsthatareheard，withsimilarrhythmicalmovements。Somechildrencanimitatecorrectly，evenbefore，theycanspeak，therhythmicalmelodiesthattheyhear，insoundsandintonations。Still，theideasoflongerintervalsareveryimperfectevenattheendofthefirstyearandlater，sothatachildgivesveryirregularjudgementsastothedurationofdifferentperiodsandalsoastotheirsequence。
5。Thedevelopmentofassociationsandofsimpleapperceptivecombinationsgoeshandinhandwiththatofspacialandtemporalideas。
Symptomsofsensiblerecognition(p。237)areobservablefromtheveryfirstdays，intherapidlyaquiredabilitytofindthemother\'sbreastandintheobvioushabituationtotheobjectsandpersonsoftheenvironment。
Still，foralongtimetheseassociationscoveronlyveryshortintervalsoftime，atfirstonlyhours，thendays。Evenin[p。287]thethirdandfourthyearschildreneitherforgetentirelyorrememberonlyimperfectlypersonswhobaybeenabsentforafewweeks。
Thecasewithattentionissimilar。Atfirstitispossibletoconcentrateituponasingleobjectonlyforaveryshorttime，anditisobviousthatpassiveapperceptionwhichalwaysfollowsthepredominatingstimulus，thatistheonewhoseaffectivetoneisstrongest(p。217)，istheonlyformpresent。Inthefirstweeks，however，alastingattentionbeginstoshowitselfinthewaythechildfixatesandfollowsobjectsforalongertime，especiallyiftheyaremoving；andatthesametimewehavethefirsttraceofactiveapperceptionintheabilitytoturnvoluntarilyfromoneimpressiontoanother。Fromthispointon，theabilitybecomesmoreandmorefullydeveloped；still，theattention，eveninlaterchildhood，fatiguesmorerapidlythaninthecaseofadults，andrequiresagreatervarietyofobjectsoramorefrequentpauseforrest。
6。Thedevelopmentofself-consciousnesskeepspacewiththatoftheassociationsandapperceptions。Injudgingofthisdevelopmentwemustguardagainstacceptingassignsofself-consciousnessanysinglesymptoms，suchasthechild\'sdiscriminationofthepartsofhisbodyfromobjectsofhisenvironment，hisuseoftheword“I“，oreventherecognitionofhisownimageinthemirror。Theadultsavagewhohasneverseenhisownreflectedimagebefore，takesitforsomeotherperson。Theuseofthepersonalpronounisduetothechild\'simitationoftheexamplesofthoseabouthim。Thisimitationcomesatverydifferenttimesinthecasesofdifferentchildren，evenwhentheirintellectualdevelopmentinotherrespectsisthesame。Itis，tobesure，asymptomofthepresenceofself-consciousness，butthefirstbeginningsofself-consciousnessmayhaveprecededthisdiscrimination[p。288]inspeechbyalongerorshorterperiodoftimeasthecasemaybe。Again，thediscriminationofthebodyfromotherobjectsisasymptomofexactlythesamekind。Therecognitionofthebodyisaprocessthatregularlyprecedesthatoftherecognitionoftheimageinthemirror，butoneisaslittleacriterionofthebeginningofself-consciousnessastheother。Theybothpresupposetheexistenceofsomedegreeofself-consciousnessbeforehand。Justasthedevelopedself-consciousnessisbaseduponanumberofdifferentconditions(p。221)，sointhesamewaytheself-consciousnessofthechildisfromthefirstaproductofseveralcomponents，partlyideationalincharacter，partlyaffectiveandvolitional。Underthefirstheadwehavethediscriminationofaconstantgroupofideas，underthesecondthedevelopmentofcertaininterconnectedprocessesofattentionandvolitionalacts。Theconstantgroupofideasdoesnotnecessarilyincludeallpartsofthebody，as，forexample，thelegs，whichareusuallycovered，anditmay，asismoreoftenthecase，includeexternalobjects，as，forexample，theclothesgenerallyworn。Thesubjectiveaffectiveandvolitionalcomponents，andtherelationsthatexistbetweentheseandtheideationalcomponentsinexternalvolitionalacts，arethefactorsthatexercisethedecisiveinfluence。Theirgreaterinfluenceisshownespeciallybythefactthatstrongfeelings，especiallythoseofpain，veryoftenmarkinanindividual\'smemorythefirstmomenttowhichthecontinuityofhisself-consciousnessreachesback。Buttherecanbenodoubtthataformofself-consciousness，eventhoughlessinterconnected，existsevenbeforethisfirstclearlyrememberedmoment，whichgenerallycomesinthefifthorsixthyear。Still，sincetheobjectiveobservationofthechildisnotsuppliedatfirstwithanycertaincriteria，itisimpossibletodeterminetheexactmomentwhenself-consciousnessbegins。Probablythetracesofit[p。289]begintoappearinthefirstweeks；afterthisitcontinuallybecomesclearerundertheconstantinfluenceoftheconditionsmentioned，andincreasesintemporalextentjustasconsciousnessingeneraldoes。
7。Thedevelopmentofwillisintimatelyconnectedwiththatofself-consciousness。Itmaybeinferredpartlyfromthedevelopmentofattentiondescribedabove，partlyfromtheriseandgradualperfectionofexternalvolitionalacts，whoseinfluenceonself-consciousnesshasjustbeenmentioned。Theimmediaterelationofattentiontowillappearsinthefactthatsymptomsofactiveattentionandvoluntaryactioncomeatexactlythesametime。Verymanyanimalsexecuteimmediatelyafterbirthfairlyperfectimpulsivemovements，thatis，simplevolitionalacts。Thesearerenderedpossiblebyinheritedreflex-mechanismsofacomplexcharacter。
Thenew-bornchild，onthecontrary，doesnotshowanytracesofsuchimpulsiveacts。Still，weobserveinthefirstdaystheearliestbeginningsofsimplevolitionalactsofanimpulsivecharacter，asaresultofthereflexescausedbysensationsofhungerandbythesense-perceptionsconnectedwithappeasingit。Thesearetobeseenintheevidentquestafterthesourcesofnourishment。Withtheobviousgrowthofattentioncomethevolitionalactsconnectedwithimpressionsofsightandhearing:thechildpurposely，nolongermerelyinareflexway，followsvisualobjects，andturnshisheadtowardsthenoisesthathehears。Muchlatercomethemovementsoftheoutermusclesofthelimbsandtrunk。These，especiallythemusclesofthelimbs，showfromthefirstlivelymovements，generallyrepeatedtimeandtimeagain。Thesemovementsareaccompaniedbyallpossiblefeelingsandemotions，andwhenthelatterbecomedifferentiated，themovementsbegingraduallytoexhibitcertaindifferencescharacteristicforthequalityoftheemotions。Thechief[p。290]differenceconsistsinthefactthatrhythmicalmovementaccompanypleasurableemotions，whilearrhythmicaland，asrule，violentmovementsresultwhentheemotionsareunpleasurable。
Theseexpressivemovements，whichmustbelookeduponasreflexesattendedbyfeelings，then，assoonastheattentionbeginstoturnuponthesurroundings，passasoccasionoffersintoordinaryvoluntaryexpressivemovements。
Thus，thechildshowsthroughthedifferentaccompanyingsymptomsthathenotonlyfeelspain，annoyance，anger，etc。，butthatthewishestogiveexpressiontotheseemotions。Thefirstmovements，however，inwhichanantecedentmotiveistoberecognizedbeyondadoubt，arethegrayingmovementswhichbegininthetwelfthtothefourteenthweek。Especiallyatfirst，thefoottakespartinthesemovementsaswellasthehand。Wehaveherealsothefirstclearsymptomsofsense-perception，aswellasthefirstindicationsoftheexistenceofasimplevolitionalprocessmadeupofmotive，decision，andact。Somewhatlaterintentionalimitativemovementsaretobeobserved。Simplemimeticimitations，suchaspuckeringthelipsandfrowning，comefirst，andthenpantomimetic，suchasdoublingupthefist，beatingtime，etc。Verygradually，asarulenotuntilafterthebeginningofthesecondhalfofthefirstyear，complexvolitionalactsdevelopfromthesesimpleones。Theoscillationofdecision，thevoluntarysuppressionofanintendedactoronealreadybegun，commencetobeclearlyobservableatthisperiod。
Learningtowalk，whichusuallybeginsinthelastthirdofthefirstyear，isanimportantfactorinthedevelopmentofvoluntaryactsinthepropersenseoftheterm。Itsimportanceisduetothefactthatthegoingtocertainparticularplacesfurnishestheoccasionfortheriseofanumberofconflictingmotives。Thelearningitselfistoberegardedas[p。291]aprocessinwhichthedevelopmentofthewillandtheeffectofinheriteddispositionstocertainparticularcombinationsofmovementsarecontinuallyinteractinguponeachother。Thefirstimpulseforthemovementcomesfromvolitionalmotives；thepurposivewayinwhichitiscarriedout，however，isprimarilyaneffectofthecentralmechanismofcoordination，whichinturnisrenderedcontinuallymoreandmorepurposiveasaresultoftheindividual\'spracticedirectedbyhiswill。
8。Thedevelopmentofthechild\'sabilitytospeakfollowsthatofhisothervolitionalacts。This，too，dependsonthecooperationofinheritedmodificationsinthecentralorganofthenervoussystemononehand，andoutsideinfluencesontheother。Themostimportantoutsideinfluencesinthiscasearethosethatcomefromthespeechofthoseaboutthechild。
Inthisrespectthedevelopmentofspeechcorrespondsentirelytothatoftheotherexpressivemovements，amongwhichitis，fromitsgeneralpsycho-physicalcharacter，tobeclassed。Theearliestarticulationsofthevocalorgansappearasreflexphenomena，especiallyaccompanyingpleasurablefeelingsandemotions，asearlyasthesecondmonth。Afterthattheyincreaseinvarietyandexhibitmoreandmorethetendencytorepetition(forexample，ba-ba-ba，da-da-da，etc。)。Theseexpressivesoundsdifferfromthoseofmanyanimalsonlyintheirgreaterandcontinuallychangingvariety。Theyareproducedonallpossibleoccasionsandwithoutanyintentionofcommunicatinganything，sothattheyarebynomeanstobeclassedaselementsofspeech。
Throughtheinfluenceofthoseaboutthechildthesesoundsgenerallybecomeelementsofspeechafterthebeginningofthesecondyear。Thisresultisbroughtaboutchieflybycertainimitativemovements。Itcomes，intheformofsound-sensations，fromtwosides。Ontheonehand，thechildimitatesadults，ontheother，adultsimitatethechild。Infact，asarule，itistheadultswho[p。292]begintheimitating；theyrepeattheinvoluntaryarticulationsofthechildandattachaparticularmeaningtothem，as，forexample，“pa-pa“forfather，“ma-ma“formother，etc。Itisnotuntillater，afterthechildhaslearnedtousethese，soundsinaparticularsensethoughintentionalimmitation，thatherepeatsotherwordsoftheadults\'languagealso，andeventhenhemodifiesthemtofitthestockofsoundsthatheisabletoarticulate。
Gesturesareimportantasmeansbywhichadults，moreinstinctivelythanvoluntarily，helpthechildtounderstandthewordstheyuse。Thesearegenerallyindicativegesturestowardstheobjects；lessfrequently，ordinarilyonlyinthecaseofwordsmeaningseineactivitysuchasstrike，cut，walk，sleep，etc。，theytaketheformofdepictinggestures。Thechildhasanaturalunderstandingforthesegestures，butnotforwords。Eventheonomatopoeticwordsofchild-speech(suchasbow-bowfordog，etc。)
neverbecomeintelligibletohimuntiltheobjectshavebeenfrequentlypointedout。Thechildisnotthecreatorofthesewords，butitisrathertheadultwhoseeksinstinctivelytoaccommodatehimselfinthisrespectalsotothestageofthechild\'sconsciousness。
Allthisgoestoshowthatthechild\'slearningtospeakistheresultofaseriesofassociationsandapperceptionsinwhoseformationboththechildandthoseabouttotakepart。Adultsvoluntarilydesignateparticularideaswithcertainwordstakenfromtheexpressivesoundsmadebythechild，orwithonomatopoeticwordsmadearbitrarilyafterthepatternofthefirstclass。Thechildapperceivesthiscombinationofwordandideaafterithasbeenmadeintelligibletohimwithgestures，andassociatesitwithhisownimitativearticulativemovements。Followingthepatternofthesefirstapperceptionsandassociationsthechildtheirformsothers，byimitatingofhisownaccordmoreandmorethewordsand[p。293]verbalcombinationsthatheaccidentallyhearsadultsusing，andbymakingtheappropriateassociationswiththeirmeanings。Thewholeprocessisthustheresultofapsychicalinteractionbetweenthechildandthoseabouthim。Thesoundsareatfirstproducedbythechildalone，thoseabouthimtakeupthesesoundsandmakeuseofthemforpurposesofspeech。
9。Thefinaldevelopmentthatcomesfromallthesimplerprocessesthusfardiscussed，isthatofthecomplexfunctionofapperception，thatistherelatingandcomparingactivities，andtheactivitiesofimaginationandunderstandingmadeupofthese(&；sect；17)。
Apperceptivecombinationinitsfirstformisexclusivelytheactivityofimagination，thatisthecombination，analysis，andrelatingofconcretesensibleideas。Thus，individualdevelopmentcorroborateswhathasbeensaidingeneralaboutthegeneticrelationofthesefunctions(p。266)。Onthebasisofthecontinuallyincreasingassociationofimmediateimpressionswithearlierideas，therearisesinthechild，assoonashisactiveattentionisaroused，atendencytoformsuchcombinationsvoluntarily。
Thenumberofmemory-elementsfreelycombiningwiththeimpressionandaddedtoit，furnishuswithameasureforthefertilityoftheindividualchild\'simagination。Assoonasthiscombiningactivityofimaginationhasoncebeguntooperate，itshowsitselfwithanimpulsiveforcethatthechildisunabletoresist，forthereisnotasyet，asillthecaseofadults，anyactivityoftheunderstandingtoprescribedefiniteintellectualendsregulatingandinhibitingthefreesweepoftheideasofimagination。
Thisuncheckedrelatingandcouplingofideasinimaginationisconnectedwithvolitionalimpulsesaimingtofindfortheideassomestarting-pointsinimmediatesense-perception，howevervaguethesestarting-pointsmaybe。Thisiswhatgivesrisetothechild\'splay-impulse。Theearliestgamesofthe[p。294]childarethoseofpureimagination；while，onthecontrary，thoseofadults(cards，chess，lotto，etc。)arealmostasexclusivelyintellectualgames。Onlywhereaestheticaldemandsexertaninfluencearethegamesofadultstheproductionsoftheimagination(drama，piano-playing，etc。)，butevenheretheyarenotwhollyuntrammeledlikethoseofthechild，butareregulatedbytheunderstanding。Whentheplayofachildtakesitsnaturalcourse，itshowsatdifferentperiodsofitsdevelopmentalltheintermediatestagesbetweenthegameofpureimaginationandthatinwhichimaginationandunderstandingareunited。Inthefirstyearsthisplayconsistsintheproductionofrhythmicalmovementsofthearmsandlegs，thenthemovementsarecarriedovertoexternalobjectsaswell，withpreferencetosuchobjectsasgiverisetoauditorysensations，orsuchasareofbrightcolors。Intheiroriginthesemovementsareobviouslyimpulsiveactsarousedbycertainsensationalstimulianddependentfortheirpurposivecoordinationoninheritedtraitsofthecentralnervousorgans。Therhythmicalorderofthemovementsandofthefeelingsandsound-impressionsproducedbythem，obviouslyarousepleasurablefeelings，andthisverysoonresultsinthevoluntaryrepetitionofthemovements。Afterthis，duringthefirstyears，playbecomesgraduallyavoluntaryimitationoftheoccupationsandscenesthatthechildseesabouthim。Therangeofimitationthenwidensandisnolongerlimitedtowhatisseen，butincludesafreereproductionofwhatisheardinnarratives。Atthesametimetheinterconnectionbetweenideasandactsbeginstofollowamorefixedplan。
Thisistheregulativeinfluenceoftheactivityofunderstanding，whichshowsitselfinthegamesoflaterchildhoodinperscribedrules。Thisdevelopmentisoftenacceleratedthroughtheinfluenceofthoseaboutthechildandthroughartificialformsofplaygenerallyinventedbyadultsandnotalwayssuitedtothechild\'simagination；[p。295]still，thedevelopmentistoberecognizedasnaturalandnecessarilyconditionedbythereciprocalinterconnectionofassociativeandapperceptiveprocesses，sinceitagreeswiththegeneraldevelopmentoftheintellectualfunctions。Thewayinwhichtheprocessesofimaginationaregraduallycurtailedandthefunctionsofunderstandingmoreandmoreemployed，rendersitprobablethatthecurtailingisduenotsomuchtoaquantitativedecreaseofimaginationastoanobstructionofitsactionthroughabstractthinking。Whenthishasoncesetin，becauseofthepredominatingexerciseofabstractthinking，theactivityofimaginationmayitselfthroughlackofusebeinterferedwith。Thisviewseemstobesupportedbythefactthatsavagesusuallyhaveallthroughtheirlivesanimaginativeplay-impulserelatedtothatofthechild。
10。Fromimaginativeformsofthoughtasastartingpointthefunctionsofunderstandingdevelopverygraduallyinthewayalreadydescribed(p。264)。Aggregateideasthatarepresentedinsense-perceptionorformedbythecombination，activityofimaginationaredividedintotheirconceptualcomponents，intoobjectsandtheirattributes，intoobjectsandtheiractivities，orintotherelationsofdifferentobjectstooneanother。
Thedecisivesymptomfortheriseofthefunctionsofunderstandingisthereforetheformationofconcepts。Ontheotherhand，actionsthatcanbeexplainedfromthepointofviewoftheobserverbylogicalreflection，arebynomeansproofsoftheexistenceofsuchreflectiononthepartoftheactor，fortheyareveryoftenobviouslyderivedfromassociations，justasinthecaseofanimals。Inthesamewaytheremaybethefirstbeginningsofspeechwithoutabstractthinkinginanypropersense，sincewordsreferoriginallyonlytoconcretesensibleimpressions。
Still，themoreperfectuseoflanguageisnotpossibleuntilideasareconceptuallyanalyzed，related，andtransferred，even[p。296]thoughtheprocessesareineachcaseentirelyconcreteandsensible。Thedevelopmentofthefunctionsofunderstandingandthatofspeechaccordinglygohandinhand，andthelatterisanindispensableaidinretainingconceptsandfixingtheoperationsofthought。
10a。Child-psychologyoftensuffersfromthesamemistakethatismadeinanimalpsychology:namely，thattheobservationsaren\'tinterpretedobjectively，butarefilledoutwithsubjectivereflections。Thus，theearliestideationalcombinations，whichareinrealitypurelyassociative，areregardedasactsoflogicalreflection，andtheearliestmimeticexpressivemovements，as，forexample，thoseofanew-bornchildduetotaste-stimuli，arelookeduponasreactionstofeelings，whiletheyareobviouslyatfirstnothingbutconnatereflexeswhichmay，indeed，beaccompaniedbyobscureconcomitantfeelings，buteventhesecannotbedemonstratedwithcertainty。
Theordinaryviewastothedevelopmentofvolitionandofspeech，laborsunderalikemisconception。Generallythereisatendencytoconsiderthechild\'slanguage，becauseofitspeculiarities，asacreationofhisown。
Closerobservation，however，showsthatitiscreatedbythoseabouthim，thoughindoingthistheyusethesoundsthatthechildhimselfproduces，andconformasfaraspossibletobigstageofconsciousness。Thusitcomesthatsomeoftheverydetailedandpraise-worthyaccountsofthementaldevelopmentofthechildinmodernliteraturecanserveonlyassourcesforfindingobjectivefacts。Becausetheystandonthebasisofareflectivepopularpsychology，theirpsychologicaldeductionsrequirecorrectionalongthelinesmarkedoutabove。
ClassicsintheHistoryofPsychology——Wundt(1897)Section21OutlinesofPsychologyWilhelmMaxWundt(1897)TranslatedbyCharlesHubbardJudd(1897)
IV。PSYCHICALDEVELOPMENTS。§；21。DEVELOPMENTOFMENTALCOMMUNITIES。
1。Justasthepsychicaldevelopmentofthechildistheresultantofhisinteractionwithhisenvironment，somaturedconsciousnessstandscontinuallyinrelationtothementalcommunityinwhichithasareceptiveandanactivepart。Amongmostanimalssuchacommunityisentirelywanting。[p。
297]Inanimalmarriage，animalstates，andflocks，wehaveonlyincompleteforerunnersofmentalcommunities，andtheyaregenerallylimitedtotheaccomplishmentofcertainsingleends。Themorelastingforms，animalmarriageandthefalselynamedanimalstates(p。279)，arereallysexualcornmunities。
themoretransientformsorflocks，as，forexample，flocksofmigratorybirds，arecommunitiesforprotection。Inallthesecasesitiscertaininstinctsthathavegrownmoreandmorefixedthroughtransmission，whichholdtheindividualstogether。Thecommunity，therefore，showsthesameconstancyasinstinctingeneral，andisverylittlemodifiedbytheinfluencesofindividuals。
Whileanimalcommunitiesare，thus，mereenlargementsoftheindividualexistence，aimingatcertainphysicalvitalends，humandevelopmentseeksfromthefirstsotounitetheindividualwithhismentalenvironmentthatthewholeiscapableofdevelopment，servingatoncethesatisfactionofthephysicalneedsoflifeandthepursuitofthemostvariousmentalends，whilepermittingalsogreatvariationsintheseends。Asaresulttheformsofhumansocietyareexceedinglyvariable。Themorefullydevelopedforms，however，enterintoacontinuoustrainofhistoricaldevelopmentwhichextendsthementaltiesthatconnectindividualsalmostunlimitedlybeyondtheboundsofimmediatespacialandtemporalproximity。Thefinalresultofthisdevelopmentistheformationofthenotionofhumanityasagreatgeneralmentalcommunitywhichisdividedupaccordingtothespecialconditionsoflifeintosingleconcretecommunities，peoples，states，civilizedsocietiesofvariouskinds，races，andfamilies。Thementalcommunitytowhichtheindividualbelongsis，therefore，notone，butachangingpluralityofmentalunionswhichareinterlacedinthemostmanifoldwaysandbecomemoreandmorenumerousasdevelopmentprogresses。[p。298]
2。Theproblemoftracingthesedevelopmentsintheirconcreteformsorevenintheirgeneralinterconnection。belongstothehistoryofcivilizationandtogeneralhistory，nottopsychology。Still，wemustgivesomeaccounthereofthegeneralpsychicalconditionsandthepsychicalprocessesarisingfromtheseconditionsthatdistinguishsocialfromindividuallife。
Theconditionwhichisprimenecessityofeverymentalcommunityatitsbeginning，andacontinuallyoperativefactorinitsfurtherdevelopment，isthefunctionofspeech。Thisiswhatmakesthedevelopmentofmentalcommunitiesfromindividualexistencespsychologicallypossible。
Initsoriginitcomesfromtheexpressivemovementsoftheindividual，butasaresultofitsdevelopmentitbecomestheindispensableformforallthecommonmentalcontents。Thesecommoncontents，orthementalprocesseswhichbelongtothewholecommunity，maybedividedintotwoclasses，whicharemerelyinterrelatedcomponentsofsociallife，notdistinctprocessesanymorethanaretheprocessesofideationandvolitioninindividualexperience。Thefirstoftheseclassesisthatofthemythologicalideas，wherewefindespeciallytheacceptedconclusionsonthequestionofthecontentandsignificanceoftheworld——thesearethemythologicalideas。Thesecondclassconsistsofthecommonmotivesofvolition，whichcorrespondtothecommonideasandtheirattendingfeelingsandemotions——thesearethelawsofcustom。A。SPEECH。
3。Weobtainnoinformationinregardtothegeneraldevelopmentofspeechfromtheindividualdevelopmentofthechild，becauseherethelargerpartoftheprocessdependsonthoseabouthimratherthanonhimself(p。292sq。)Still，thefactthatthechildlearnstospeakatall，showsthathe[p。299]haspsychicalandphysicaltraitsfavorabletothereceptionoflanguagewhenitiscommunicated。Infact，itmaybeassumedthatthesetraitswould，eveniftherewerenocommunicationsfromwithout，leadtothedevelopmentofsomekindofexpressivemovementsaccompaniedbysounds，whichwouldformanincompletelanguage。Thissuppositionisjustified\'byobservationsonthedeafanddumb，especiallydeafanddumbchildrenwhohavegrownupwithoutanysystematiceducation。Inspiteofthislackofeducation，anenergeticmentalintercoursemaytakeplacebetweenthem。Insuchacase，however，sincethedeafanddumbcanperceiveonlyvisualsigns，theintercoursemustdependonthedevelopmentofanaturalgesture-languagemadeupofacombinationofsignificantexpressivemovements。Feelingsareingeneralexpressedbymimeticmovements，ideasbypantomimetic，eitherbypointingattheobjectwiththefingerorbydrawingsomekindofpictureoftheideaintheair，thatis，bymeansofindicativeordepictinggestures(p。173)。Theremayevenbeacombinationofsuchsignscorrespondingtoaseriesofsuccessiveideas，andthusakindofsentencemaybeformed，bymeansofwhichthingsaredescribedandoccurrencesnarrated。Thisnaturalgesture-languagecannevergoanyfurther，however，thanthecommunicationofconcretesensibleideasandtheirinterconnection。Signsforabstractconceptsareentirelywanting。
4。Theprimitivedevelopmentofarticulatelanguagecanhardlybethoughtofexceptaftertheanalogyoftheriseofthisnaturalgesture-language。
Theonlydifferenceisthatinthiscasetheabilitytohearresultsintheadditionofathirdformofmovementstothemimeticandpantomimeticmovements。Thesearethearticulatorymovements，andsincetheyaremuchmoreeasilyperceived，andcapableofincomparablymorevariousmodification，itmustofnecessityfollowthat[p。300]they，soonexceedtheothersinimportance。Butjustasmimeticandpantomimeticgesturesowetheirintelligibilitytotheimmediaterelationthatexistsbetweenthecharacterofthemovementanditsmeaning，-soherealsowemustpresupposealikerelationbetweentheoriginalarticulatorymovementanditsmeaning。
Then，too，，itisnotimprobablethatarticulationwasatfirstaidedbyaccompanyingmimeticandpantomimeticgestures。Asevidenceforthisviewwehavetheunrestraineduseofsuchgesturesbysavages，andtheimportantparttheyplayinthechild\'slearningtospeak……Thedevelopmentofarticulatelanguageis，accordingly，inallprobabilitytobethoughtofasaprocessofdifferentiation，inwhichthearticulatorymovementshavegraduallygainedthepermanentascendencyoveranumberofdifferentvariableexpressivemovementsthatoriginallyattendedthem，andhavedispensedwiththeseauxiliarymovementsastheythemselvesgainedasufficientdegreeoffixity。
Psychologicallytheprocessmaybedividedintotwoacts。Thefirstconsistsintheexpressivemovementsoftheindividualmemberofthecommunity。
Theseareimpulsivevolitionalacts，amongwhichthemovementsofthevocalorgansgaintheascendencyovertheothersintheeffortoftheindividualtocommunicatewithhisfellows。Thesecondconsistsinthesubsequentassociationsbetweensoundandidea，whichgraduallybecomemorefixed，andspreadfromthecentreswheretheyoriginatedthroughwidercirclesofsociety。
5。Fromthefirstthereareotherphysicalandpsychicalconditionsthattakepartintheformationoflanguageandproducecontinualandunceasingmodificationsinitscomponents。Suchmodificationsmaybedividedintotwoclasses:thoseofsoundandthoseofmeaning。
Thefirstclasshavetheirphysiologicalcauseinthegradualchangesthattakeplaceinthephysicalstructureof[p。301]thevocalorgans。
Thesechangesare，toagreatextentatleast，eitherphysicallyorpsycho-physicallyconditioned。Theycomepartlyfromthegeneralchangeswhichthetransitionfromasavagetoacivilizedconditionproducesinthephysicalorganism，partlyfromthespecialconditionsthatresultfromincreasedpracticeintheexecutionofarticulatorymovements。Manyphenomenagotoshowthatthegraduallyincreasingrapidityofarticulationisofespeciallygreatinfluence。Then，too，thewordsthatareinanywayanalogouseffectoneanotherinawaythatindicatestheinterferenceofthepsychicalfactorofassociation。
Asthechangeinsoundmodifiestheouterformofwords，sothechangeinmeaningmodifiestheirinnercontent。Theoriginalassociationbetweenawordandtheideaitexpressesismodifiedbythesubstitutionofanotherdifferentidea。Thisprocessofsubstitutionmaybeseveraltimesrepeatedwiththesameword。Thechangeinthemeaningofwordsdepends，therefore，onagradualmodificationoftheassociativeconditionsdeterminingtheideationalcomplicationthatshallariseinthefixation-pointofconsciousnesswhenawordisheardorspoken。Itmay，accordingly，bebrieflydefinedasashiftingoftheideationalcomponentofthecomplicationsconnectedwitharticulatesounds(p。234)。
Thesechangesinthesoundandmeaningofwordsoperatetogetherinbringingaboutthegradualdisappearanceoftheoriginallynecessaryrelationbetweensoundandmeaning，sothatawordfinally-comestobelookeduponasamereexternalsignoftheidea。Thisprocessissocompletethateventhoseverbalformsinwhichthisrelationseemstobestillretained，onomatopoeticwords，appeartobe，forthemostpart，productsofarelativelylateandsecondaryassimilativeprocesswhichseekstoreestablishthelostaffinitybetweensoundandmeaning。[p。302]
Anotherimportantconsequenceofthiscombinedactionofchangesinsoundandmeaning，istobefoundinthefactthatmanywordsgraduallyloseentirelytheiroriginalconcretesensiblesignificance，andbecomesignsofgeneralconceptsandmeansfortheexpressionoftheapperceptiverelatingandcomparingfunctionsandtheirproducts。Inthiswayabstractthinkingisdeveloped。Itwouldbeimpossiblewithoutthechangeinmeaningofwordsuponwhichitisbasedanditis，therefore，aproductofthepsychicalandpsycho-physicalinteractionsfromwhichtheprogressivedevelopmentoflanguageresults。
6。Justasthecomponentsoflanguage，orwords，areundergoingacontinualdevelopmentinsoundandmeaning，sointhesameway，thoughgenerallymoreslowly，changesaregoingoninthecombinationsofthesecomponentsintocompletewholes，thatis，insentences。Nolanguagecanbethoughtofwithoutsomesuchsyntacticorderofitswords。Sentencesandwordsare，therefore，equallyprimitiveaspsychologicalformsofthought。
Inacertainsensethesentencemayevenbecalledtheearlier，for，especiallyinthemoreincompletestagesoflanguage，thewordsofasentencearesouncertainlydistinguishedthattheyseemtobenothingbuttheproductsofabreakingupofanoriginallyunitarythoughtexpressedbythewholesentence。Thereisnouniversalrulefortheorderofwords，anymorethanthereisfortherelationofsoundtomeaning。Theorderthatlogicfavorswithaviewtotherelationsofreciprocallogicaldependencebetweenconcepts，hasnopsychologicaluniversality；itappears，infact，tobeafairlylateproductofdevelopment，dueinparttoarbitraryconvention，andapproachedonlybytheproseformsofsomemodernlanguageswhicharesyntacticallynearlyfixed。Theoriginalprinciplefollowedinapperceptivecombinationofwordsisobviouslythis，the[p。303]orderofthewordscorrespondstothesuccessionofideas。Especiallythosepartsofspeechthatrepresenttheideaswhicharousethemostintensefeelingsandattracttheattention，areplacedfirst。Followingthisprinciple，certainregularitiesintheorderofwordsaredevelopedinanygivencommunity。Infact，sucharegularityistobeobservedeveninthenaturalgesture-languageofthedeafanddumb。Still，itiseasytounderstandthatthemostvariousmodificationsinthisrespectmayappearunderspecialcircumstances，andthatthepossiblerangeofthesemodificationsisverygreat。Ingeneral，however，thehabitsofassociationleadmoreandmoretothefixationofparticularsyntacticforms，sothatacertainrigidityusuallyresults。
Apartfromthegenerallawspresentedinthediscussionofapperceptivecombinations，andthereshowntoarisefromthegeneralpsychicalfunctionsofrelatingandcomparing(p。264)，thedetaileddiscussionofthecharacteristicsofsyntacticcombinationsandtheirgradualchanges，mustbeleft，inspiteoftheirpsychologicalimportance，tosocialpsychology，becausetheydependsomuchonthespecificdispositionsandconditionsofcivilizationinagivencommunity。B。MYTHS。
7。Thedevelopmentofmythsiscloselyrelatedtothatoflanguage。
Mythologicalthoughtisbased，tobesure，justaslanguageitself，uponcertainattributesthatareneverlostinhumanconsciousness；still，theseattributesaremodifiedandlimitedbyagreatvarietyofinfluences。Asthefundamentalfunctionwhichinitsvariousformsofactivitygivesrisetoallmythologicalideas，wehaveacharacteristickindofapperceptionbelongingtoallnaiveconsciousnessandsuitablydesignatedbythenamepersonifyingapperception。Itconsistsinthecompletedeterminationoftheapperceived[p。304]objectsthroughthenatureoftheperceivingsubject。
Thesubjectnotonlyseeshisownsensations，emotions，anvoluntarymovementsreproducedintheobjects，butevenhismomentaryaffectivestateisineachcaseespeciallyinfluentialindeterminingthisviewofthephenomenaperceived，andinarousingideasoftheirrelationstohisownexistence。
Asanecessaryresultofsuchaviewthesamepersonalattributesthatthesubjectfindsinhimselfareassignedtotheobject。Theinnerattributes，offeeling，emotion，etc。，areneveromitted，whiletheouterattributesofvoluntaryactionandothermanifestationslikethoseofmen，aregenerallydependentonmovementsactuallyperceived。Thesavagemaythusattributetostones，plants，andworksofart，aninnercapacityforsensationsandfeelingsandtheirresultingeffects，butheusuallyassumesimmediateactiononlyinthecaseofmovingobjects，suchasclouds，heavenlybodies，winds，etc。Inallthesecasesthepersonificationisfavoredbyassociativeassimilationswhichmayreadilyreachtheintensityofillusionsoffancy(p。268)。
8。Myth-making，orpersonifying，apperceptionisnottoberegardedasaspecialformorevenasadistinctsub-formofapperception。Itisnothingbutthenaturalincentivestageofapperceptioningeneral。Thechildshowscontinuallyobvioustracesofit，partlyintheactivitiesofhisimaginationinplay(p。293)，partlyinthefactthatstrongemotions，especiallyfearandfright，easilyarouseillusionsoffancywithanaffectivecharacteranalogoustothatoftheemotion。Inthiscase，however，themanifestationsofatendencytoformmythsareearlycheckedandsoonentirelysuppressedthroughtheinfluencesofthechild\'senvironmentandeducation。
Withsavageandpartlycivilizedpeoplesitisdifferent。Therethesurroundinginfluencespresentawholemassofmythologicalideastotheindividualconsciousness。These，too，originated[p。305]inthemindsofindividuals，andhavegraduallybecomefixedinsomeparticularcommunity，andincontinualinterrelationwithlanguagehave，likethelatter，beentransmittedfromgenerationtogenerationandbecomegraduallymodifiedinthetransitionfromsavagetocivilizedconditions。
9。Thedirectioninwhichthesemodificationstakeplace，isdeterminedingeneralbythefactthattheaffectivestateofthesubjectatthetimeis，asaboveremarked，thechief。influenceinsettlingthecharacterofthemyth-makingapperception。Inordertogainsomenotionofthewayinwhichtheaffectivestateofthesubjecthaschangedfromthefirstbeginningsofmentaldevelopmenttothepresent，wemustappealtothehistoryofthedevelopmentofmythologicalideas，forotherevidencesareentirelywanting。Itappearsthatinallcasestheearliestmythologicalideasreferred，ontheonehand，tothepersonalfateintheimmediatefuture，andweredetermined，ontheother，bytheemotionsarousedbythedeathofcomradesandbythememoryofthem，andalsoinahighdegreebythememoriesofdreams。Thisisthesourceofso-called“animism“，thatis，allthoseideasinwhichthespiritsofthedeadtakethepartsofcontrollersoffortuneandbringabouteitherwealorwoeinhumanlife。“Fetishism“isabranchofanimism，inwhichtheattributeofabilitytocontrolfateiscarriedovertovariousobjectsintheenvironment，suchasanimals，plants，stones，worksofart，especiallythosethatattracttheattentiononaccountoftheirstrikingcharacterorofsomeaccidentaloutercircumstance。Thephenomenaofanimismandfetishismare。notonlytheearliest，butalsothemostlasting，productionsofmyth-makingapperception。Theycontinue，evenafterallothersaresuppressed，inthevariousformsofsuperstitionsamongcivilizedpeoples，suchasbeliefinghosts，enchantments，charms，etc。[p。306]
10。Afterconsciousnessreachesamoreadvancedstagepersonifyingapperceptionbeginstodealwiththegreaternaturalphenomenawhichactuponhumanlifeboththroughtheirchangesandthroughtheirdirectinfluencesuchastheclouds，rivers，winds，andgreaterheavenlybodies。Theregularityofcertainnaturalphenomena，suchasthealternationofnightandday，ofwinterandsummer，theprocessesinathunderstorm，etc。，givesoccasionfortheformationofpoeticalmyths，inwhichaseriesofinterconnectedideasarewovenintooneunitedwhole。Inthewaythenature-mytharises，whichfromitsverycharacterchallengesthepoeticpowerofeachindividualtodevelopitfurther。Itthusbecomesgraduallyacomponentofpopularandthenofliterarypoetry，andundergoesachangeinmeaningthroughthefadingoutofsomeofthefeaturesofthesinglemythicalfiguresandtheappearanceofothernewfeatures。Thischange，inturn，makespossibleaprogressiveinnerchangeofthemyth，analogoustothechangeinwords，bywhichitisalwaysaccompanied。Astheprocessgoeson，singlepoetsandthinkersgainanincreasinginfluence。
Inthisway，theregraduallyresultsadivisionofthewholecontentofmythologicalthoughtintoscience(philosophy)andreligion，while，atthesametime，thenature-godsinreligiongiveplacemoreandmoretoethicalideasofdeity。Afterthisdivisionhastakenplace，thetwodepartmentsinfluenceeachothermutuallyinmanyimportantways。
Still，thesefactsmustbelefttosocialpsychologyandthehistoryofcivilization，fortheymustbediscussedinthelightofspecialsocialconditionsaswellasofgeneralpsychologicallaws。C。CUSTOMS。
11。Thedevelopmentofcustomsisrelatedtothatofmythsinthesamewaythatoutervolitionalactsarerelated[p。307]toinnermotives。
Whereverwecantraceouttheoriginofancientandwide-spreadcustomswithanydegreeofprobability，wefindthattheyareremnantsormodificationsofcertaincult-forms。Thus，thefuneralfeastsandburialceremoniesofcivilizedpeoplespointtoaprimitiveancestor-worship。Numerousfeastsandceremoniesconnectedwithparticulardays，withthechangeoftheseasons，thetillageofthefields，andthegatheringoftheharvest，allpointbacktonature-myths。Thecustomofgreeting，initsvariousformsbetraysitsdirectderivationfromtheceremoniesofprayer。
Thisdoesnotexcludethepossibilitythatothermotives，also，especiallythoseofpracticalutility，havegivenrisetowhatwereatfirstindividualhabits，butgradually。spreadthroughoutacommunityandthusbecamelawsofcustom。Thepredominantfeatureofthisdevelopment，however，isthefactthatprimitivecustoms，evenwhentheyincidentallyservepracticalneeds，as，forexample，thecustomofwearingauniformpatternofclothes，ofhavingmealsataregulartimeetc。，stilldependmoreorlessonparticularmythologicalideas。Infact，itwouldbehardtothinkofitasotherwiseatatimewhenconsciousnesswasunderthecompletecontrolofamyth-makingapperception。
12。Withcustoms，aswithlanguage，thechangeinmeaninghasexercisedamodifyinginfluenceontheirdevelopment。Asaresultofthischange，twochiefkindsoftransformationhavetakenplace。Inthefirst，theoriginalmythicalmotivehasbeenlostandnonewonehastakenitsplace。Thecustomcontinuesasaconsequenceofassociativehabit，butlosesitsimperativecharacterandbecomesmuchweakerinitsoutwardmanifestations。
Inthesecondclassoftransformationsofamoral-socialpurposetakestheplaceoftheoriginalmytho-religiousmotive。Thetwokindsofchangemayinanysinglecasebemostintimatelyunited；andeven[p。308]
whenacustomdoesnotserveanyparticularsocialenddirectly，asisthecase，forexample，withcertainrulesofdeportment，ofetiquette，onthemannerofdressing，eating，etc。，stillitmaydosoindirectlyinthattheexistenceofsomecommonrulesforthemembersofacommunityisfavorabletotheirunitedlifeandthereforetotheircommonmentaldevelopment。
13。Thepsychologicalchangesincustomsaspointedout，constitutethepreparationfortheirdifferentiationintothreespheres，namelythoseofcustomoflaw，andofmorality。Thelasttwoaretoberegardedasspecialformsofcustomaimingatmoral-socialends。Thedetailedinvestigationofthepsychologicaldevelopmentanddifferentiationofcustomsingeneralis，however，aproblemofsocialpsychology，andthediscussionoftheriseoflawandmoralitybelongalsotogeneralhistoryandethics。
14。Wehavehere，inmentalcommunities，andespeciallyintheirdevelopmentoflanguage，myths，andcustoms，mentalinterconnectionsandinteractionsthatdifferinessentialrespectsfromtheinterconnectionofthepsychicalcompoundsinanindividualconsciousness，butstillhavejustasmuchrealityastheindividualconsciousnessitself。Inthissensewemayspeakoftheinterconnectionoftheideasandfeelingsofasocialcommunityasacollectiveconsciousness，andofthecommonvolitionaltendenciesasacollectivewill。Indoingthiswearenottoforgetthattheseconceptsdonotmeansomethingthatexistsapartfromtheconsciousandvolitionalprocessesoftheindividual，anymorethanthecommunityitselfissomethingbesidestheunionofindividuals。Sincethisunion，however，bringsforthcertainmentalproducts，suchaslanguage，myths，andcustoms，forwhichonlythegermsarepresentintheindividual，andsinceitdeterminesthedevelopmentoftheindividualfromaveryearly[p。309]period，itisjustasmuchanobjectofpsychologyastheindividualconsciousness。Forpsychologymustgiveanaccountoftheinteractionswhichgiverisetotheproductsandattributesofcollectiveconsciousnessandofthecollectivewill。
14a。Thefactsarisingfromtheexistenceofmentalcommunitieshaveonlyrecentlycomewithinthepaleofpsychologicalinvestigation。Theseproblemswereformerlyreferredeithertothespecialmentalsciences(philology，history，jurisprudence，etc。)or，ifofamoregeneralcharacter，tophilosophy，thatistometaphysics。Ifpsychologydidtouchuponthematall，itwasdominated，aswerethespecialsciences，history，jurisprudence，etc。，bythereflectivemethodofpopularpsychology，whichtendstotreatallmentalproductsofcommunities，toasgreatanextentaspossible，asvoluntaryinventionsaimedfromthefirstatcertainutilitarianends。Thisviewfounditschiefphilosophicalexpressioninthedoctrineofasocialcontract，accordingtowhichamentalcommunityisriotsomethingoriginalandnatural，butisderivedfromthevoluntaryunionofanumberofindividuals。Thispositionispsychologicallyuntenable，andcompletelyhelplessinthepresenceoftheproblemsofsocialpsychology。Asoneofitsafter-effectswehaveevento-daythegrossestmisunderstandingsoftheconceptscollectiveconsciousnessandcollectivewill。Insteadofregardingthemsimplyasexpressionsfortheactualagreementandinteractionofindividualsinacommunity，somestillsuspectthatthereisbehindthemamythologicalbeingofsomekind，oratleastametaphysicalsubstance。
ClassicsintheHistoryofPsychology——Wundt(1897)Section22OutlinesofPsychologyWilhelmMaxWundt(1897)TranslatedbyCharlesHubbardJudd(1897)
V。PSYCHICALCAUSALITYANDITSLAWS。§；22。CONCEPTOFMIND。
1。Everyempiricalsciencehas，asitsprimaryandcharacteristicsubjectoftreatment，certainparticularfactsofexperiencewhosenatureandreciprocalrelationsitseekstoinvestigate。Insolvingtheseproblemsitisfoundtobenecessary，ifwetrynottogiveupentirelythegroupingofthefactsunderleadingheads，tohavegeneralsupplementaryconceptsthatarenotcontainedinexperienceitself，butaregainedbyaprocessoflogicaltreatmentofthisexperience。Themostgeneralsupplementaryconceptofthiskindthathasfounditsplaceinalltheempiricalsciences，istheconceptofcausality。Itcomesfromthenecessityofthought。
thatallourexperiencesshallbearrangedaccordingtoreasonandconsequent，andthatweshallremove，bymeansofsecond“supplementaryconceptsandifneedbebymeansofconceptsofahypotheticalcharacter，allcontradictionsthatstandinthewayoftheestablishmentofaconsistentinterconnectionofthiskind。Inthissensewemayregardallthesupplementaryconceptsthatservefortheinterpretationofanysphereofexperience，asapplicationsofthegeneralprincipleofcausation。Theyarejustifiedinsofarastheyarerequired，oratleastrenderedprobable，bythisprinciple；theyareunjustifiablesosoonastheyprovetobearbitrary[p。311]fictionsresultingfromforeignmotives，andcontributingnothingtotheinterpretationofexperience。
2。Inthissensetheconceptmatterisafundamentalsupplementaryconceptofnaturalscience。Initsmostgeneralsignificanceitdesignatesthepermanentsubstratumassumedasexistinginuniversalspace，towhoseactivitieswemustattributeallnaturalphenomena。Inthismostgeneralsensetheconceptmatterisindispensabletoeveryexplanationofnaturalscience。Theattemptinrecenttimestoraiseenergytothepositionofagoverningprinciple，doesnotsucceedindoingawaywiththeconceptmatter，butmerelygivesitadifferentcontent。Thiscontent，however，isgiventotheconceptbymeansofasecondsupplementaryconcept，whichrelatestothecausalactivityofmatter。Theconceptofmatterthathasbeenacceptedinnaturalscienceuptothepresenttime，isbaseduponthemechanicalphysicsofGalileo，andusesasitssecondarysupplementaryconcepttheconceptofforcewhichisdefinedastheproductofthemassandthemomentaryacceleration。Aphysicsofenergywouldhavetouseeverywhereinsteadofthistheconceptenergy，whichinthespecialformofmechanicalenergyisdefinedashalftheproductofthemassmultipliedbythesquareofthevelocity。Energy，however，must，justaswellasforce，haveapositioninobjectivespace，andundercertainparticularconditionsthepointsfromwhichenergyproceedsmay，justaswellasthe。pointsfromwhichforceproceeds，changetheirplaceinspace，sothattheconceptofmatterasasubstratumcontainedinspace，isretainedinbothcases。Theonlydifference，anditisindeedanimportantone，isthatwhenweusetheconceptforce，wepresupposethereducibilityofall，naturalphenomenatoformsofmechanicalmotion，whilewhenweusetheconceptofenergy，weattributetomatternotonlythepropertyofmotionwithoutachangeintheformof[p。312]energy，butalsothepropertyofthetransformabilityofqualitativelydifferentformsofenergyintooneanotherwithoutachangeinthequantityoftheenergy。
3。Theconceptofmindisasupplementaryconceptofpsychology，inthesamewaythattheconceptmatterissupplementaryconceptofnaturalscience。Ittooisindispensableinsofarasweneedaconceptwhichshallexpressinacomprehensivewaythetotalityofpsychicalexperiencesinanindividualconsciousness。Theparticularcontentoftheconcept，however，isinthiscasealsoentirelydependentonthesecondaryconceptsthatgiveamoredetaileddefinitionofpsychicalcausality。Inthedefinitionofthiscontentpsychologysharedatfirstthefortuneofthenaturalsciences。
Boththeconceptofmindandthatofmatteraroseprimarilynotsomuchfromtheneedofexplainingexperienceasfromtheefforttoreachasystematicdoctrineofthegeneralinterconnectionofallthings。Butwhilethenaturalscienceshavelongsinceoutgrownthismythologicalstageofspeculativedefinition，andmakeuseofsomeofthesingleideasthatoriginated]atthattime，onlyforthepurposeofgainingdefinitestarting-pointsforastrictmethodicaldefinitionoftheirconcepts，psychologyhascontinuedunderthecontrolofthemythological，metaphysicalconceptofminddowntomostmoderntimes，andstillremains，inpartatleast，underitscontrol。
Thisconceptisnotusedasageneralsupplementaryconceptthatservesprimarilytogathertogetherthepsychicalfactsandonlysecondarilytogiveacausalinterpretationofthembutitisemployedasameanstosatisfysofaraspossibletheneedofageneraluniversalsystem，includingbothnatureandtheindividualexistence。
4。Theconceptofamind-substanceinitsvariousformsisrootedinthismythologicalandmetaphysicalneed。Initsdevelopmenttherehavenotbeenwantingeffortstomeet[p。313]fromthisposition，sofaraspossible，thedemandforapsychologicalcausalexplanation，still，sucheffortshaveinallcasesbeenafterthoughts；anditisperfectlyobviousthatpsychologicalexperiencealone，independentofallforeignmetaphysicalmotives，wouldneverhaveledtoaconceptofmind-substance。Thisconcepthasbeyondadoubtexercisedaharmfulinfluenceonthetreatmentofexperience。
Theview，forexample，thatallthecontentsofpsychicalexperienceareideas，andthattheseideasaremoreorlesspermanentobjects，wouldhardlybecomprehensiblewithoutsuchpresuppositions。Thatthisconceptisreallyforeigntopsychology，isfurtherattestedbythecloseinterconnectioninwhichitstandstotheconceptofmaterialsubstance。Itisregardedeitherasidenticalwiththelatterorelseasdistinctinnature，butstillreducibleinitsmostgeneralformalcharacteristicstooneoftheparticularformsoftheconceptmatter，namelytotheatom。
5。Twoformsoftheconceptmind-substancemaybedistinguished，correspondingtothetwotypesofmetaphysicalpsychologypointedoutabove(&；sect；2，p。6)。Theoneismaterialisticandregardspsychicalprocessesastheactivitiesofmatterorofcertainmaterialcomplexes，suchasthebrain-elements。Theotherisspiritualisticandlooksupontheseprocessesasstatesandchangesinanextendedandthereforeinvisibleandpermanentbeingofaspeciallyspiritualnature。Inthiscasematteristhoughtofasmadeupofsimilaratomsofalowerorder(monistic，ormonado-logicialspiritualism)，orthemind-atomisregardedasspecificallydifferentfrommatterproper(dualisticspiritualism)(comp。
p。7)。
Inbothitsmaterialisticandspiritualisticforms，theconceptmind-substancedoesnothingfortheinterpretationofpsychologicalexperience。Materialism，doesawaywithpsychologyentirelyandputsinitsplaceanimaginarybrain-
[p。314]physiologyofthefuture，orwhenittriestogivepositivetheories，fallsintodoubtfulandunreliablehypothesesofcerebralphysiology。Inthusgivinguppsychologyinanypropersense，thisdoctrinegivesupentirelytheattempttofurnishanypracticalbasisforthementalsciences。Spiritualismallowspsychologyissuchtocontinue，butsubordinatesactualexperiencetoentirelyarbitrarymetaphysicalhypotheses，throughwhichtheunprejudicedobservationofpsychicalprocessesisobstructed。
Thisappearsfirstofallintheincorrectstatementoftheproblemofpsychology，withwhichthemetaphysicaltheoriesstart。Theyregardinnerandouterexperienceistotallyheterogeneous，thoughinsomeexternalwayinteracting，spheres。
6。Ithasbeenshown(&；sect；1，p。3)thattheexperiencedealtwithinthenaturalsciencesandinpsychologyarenothingbutcomponentsofoneexperienceregardedfromdifferentpointsofview:inthenaturalsciencesasaninterconnectionofobjectivephenomenaand，inconsequenceoftheabstractionfromtheknowingsubject，asmediateexperience；inpsychologyasimmediateandunderivedexperience。
Whenthisrelationisonceunderstood，theconceptofamind-substanceimmediatelygivesplacetotheconceptoftheactualityofmindasabasisforthecomprehensionofpsychicalprocesses。Sincethepsychologicaltreatmentofexperienceissupplementarytothatofthenaturalsciences，inthatitdealswiththeimmediaterealityofexperience，itfollowsnaturallythatthereisnoplaceinpsychologyforhypotheticalsupplementaryconceptssuchasarenecessaryinthenaturalsciencesbecauseoftheirconceptofanobjectindependentofthesubject。Inthissense，theconceptoftheactualityofminddoesnotrequireanyhypotheticaldeterminantstodefineitsparticularcontents，astheconcept[p。315]
ofmatterdoes，butquitetothecontrary，itexcludessuchhypotheticalelementsfromthefirstbydefiningthenatureofmindastheimmediaterealityoftheprocessesthemselves。Still，sinceoneimportantcomponentoftheseprocesses，namelythetotalityofideationalobjects，isatthesametimethesubjectofconsiderationinthenaturalsciences，itnecessarilyfollowsthatsubstanceandactualityareconceptsthatrefertooneandthesamegeneralexperiencewiththedifferencethatineachcasethisexperienceislookedatfromadifferentpointofview。Ifweabstractfromtheknowingsubjectinourtreatmentoftheworldofexperience，itappears，isamanifoldofinteractingsubstances；if，onthecontrary，weregarditasthetotalcontentoftheexperienceofthesubjectincludingthesubjectitself，itappearsasamanifoldofinterrelatedoccurrences。
Inthefirstcase，phenomenaarelookeduponasouterphenomena，inthesensethattheywouldtakeplacejustthesame，eveniftheknowingsubjectwerenotthereatall，sothatwemaycalltheformofexperiencedealtwithinthenaturalsciencesouterexperience。Inthesecondcase，onthecontrary，allthecontentsofexperienceareregardedasbelongingdirectlytotheknowingsubject，sothatwemaycallthepsychologicalattitudetowardsexperiencethatofinnerexperience。Inthissenseouterandinnerexperienceareidenticalwithmediateandimmediate，orwithobjectiveandsubjectiveformsofexperience。Theyallservetodesignate，notdifferentspheresofexperience，butdifferentsupplementarypointsofviewintheconsiderationofanexperiencewhichispresentedtousasanabsoluteunity。
7。Thatthemethodoftreatingexperienceemployedinnaturalscienceshouldhavereacheditsmaturitybeforethatemployedinpsychology，iseasilycomprehensibleinviewofthepracticalinterestconnectedwiththediscoveryofregular[p。316]naturalphenomenathoughtofasindependentofthesubject；anditwasalmostunavoidablethatthispriorityofthenaturalsciencesshould，foralongtime，leadtoaconfusionofthetwopointsofview。Thisdidreallyoccurasweseebythedifferentpsychologicalsubstance-concepts。Itisforthisreasonthatthereforminthefundamentalpositionofpsychology，whichlooksforthecharacteristicsofthisscienceandforitsproblems，notinthespecificallydistinctnatureofitssphere，butinitsmethodofconsideringallthecontentspresentedtousinexperienceintheirimmediatereality，unmodifiedbyanyhypotheticalsupplementaryconcepts-thisreformdidnotoriginatewithpsychologyitself，butwiththesinglementalsciences。Theviewofmentalprocessesbasedupontheconceptofactuality，wasfamiliarinthesescienceslongbeforeitwasacceptedinpsychology。Thisinadmissibledifferencebetweenthefundamentalpositionofpsychologyandthementalsciencesiswhathaskeptpsychologyuntilthepresenttimefromfulfillingitsmissionofservingasafoundationforallthementalsciences。
8。Whentheconceptofactualityisadopted，aquestionuponwhichmetaphysicalsystemsofpsychologyhavebeenlongdividedisimmediatelydisposedof。
Thisisthequestionoftherelationofbodyandmind。Solongasbodyandmindarebothregardedassubstances，thisrelationmustremainanenigma，howeverthetwoconceptsofsubstancemaybedefined。Iftheyarelikesubstances，thenthedifferentcontentsofexperienceasdealtwithinthenaturalsciencesandinpsychologycannolongerbeunderstood，andthereisnoalternativebuttodenytheindependenceofoneoftheseformsofknowledge。Iftheyareunlikesubstances，theirconnectionisacontinualmiracle。Ifwestartwiththetheoryoftheactualityofmind，werecognizetheimmediaterealityofthephenomenainpsychologicalexperience。
Ourphysiological[p。317]conceptofthebodilyorganism，ontheotherhand，isnothingbutapartofthisexperience，whichwegain，justaswedoalltheotherempiricalcontentsofthenaturalsciences，byassumingtheexistenceofanobjectindependentoftheknowingsubject。Certaincomponentsofmediateexperiencemaycorrespondtocertaincomponentsofimmediateexperience，withoutitsbeingnecessary，forthisreason，toreducetheonetotheotherortoderiveonefromtheother。Infact，suchaderivationisabsolutelyimpossiblebecauseofthetotallydifferentpointsofviewadoptedinthetwocases。Still，thefactthatwehaveherenotdifferentobjectsofexperience，butdifferentpointsofviewinlookingataunitaryexperience，rendersnecessarytheexistenceateverypointofrelationsbetweenthetwo。Atthesametimeitmustberememberedthatthereisaninfinitenumberofobjectsthatcanbeapproachedonlyimmediately，throughthemethodofthenaturalsciences:herebelongallthosephenomenathatwearenotobligedtoregardasphysiologicalsubstrataofpsychicalprocesses。Ontheotherhand，thereisjustaslargeanumberofimportantfactsthatarepresentedonlyimmediately，orinpsychologicalexperience:
theseareallthosecontentsofoursubjectiveconsciousnesswhichdonothavethecharacterofideationalobjects，thatis，thecharacterofcontentswhicharedirectlyreferredtoexternalobjects。
9。Asaresultofthisrelation，itfollowsthattheremustbeanecessaryrelationbetweenallthefactsthatbelongatthesametimetobothkindsofexperience，tothemediateexperienceofthenaturalsciencesandtotheimmediateexperienceofpsychology，fortheyarenothingbutcomponentsofasingleexperiencewhichismerelyregardedinthetwocasesfromdifferentpointsofview。Sincethesefactsbelongtobothspheres，theremustbeanelementaryprocessonthephysicalside，correspondingtoeverysuchprocessonthepsychical[p。318]side。Thisgeneralprincipleisknownastheprincipleofpsycho-physicalparallelism。Ithasanempirico-psychologicalsignificanceandisthustotallydifferentfromcertainmetaphysicalprinciplesthathavesometimesbeendesignatedbythesamename，butinrealityhaveanentirelydifferentmeaning。Thesemetaphysicalprinciplesareallbasedonthehypothesisofapsychicalsubstance。Theyallseektosolvetheproblemoftheinterrelationofbodyandmind，eitherbyassumingtworealsubstanceswithattributeswhicharedifferent，butparallelintheirchanges，orbyassumingonesubstancewithtwodistinctattributesthatcorrespondintheirmodifications。
Inboththesecasesthemetaphysicalprincipleofparallelismisbasedontheassumptionthateveryphysicalprocesshasacorrespondingpsychicalprocessandviceversa；orontheassumptionthatthementalworldisamirroringofthebodilyworld，orthatthebodilyworldisanobjectiverealizationofthemental。Thisassumptionis，however，entirelyindemonstrableandarbitrary，andleadsinitspsychologicalapplicationtoinintellectualismcontradictorytoallexperience。Thepsychologicalprinciple，ontheotherhand，asaboveformulated，startswiththeassumptionthatthereisonlyoneexperience，which，however，assoonasitbecomesthesubjectofscientificanalysis，is，insomeofitscomponents，opentotwodifferentkindsofscientifictreatment:toamediateformoftreatment，whichinvestigatesideatedobjectsintheirobjectiverelationstooneanother，andtoanimmediateform，whichinvestigatesthesameobjectsintheirdirectlyknowncharacter，andintheirrelationstoalltheothercontentsoftheexperienceoftheknowingsubject。Sofarasthereareobjectstowhichboththeseformsoftreatmentareapplicable，thepsychologicalprincipleofparallelismrequires，betweentheprocessesonthetwosides，arelationateverypoint。Thisrequirementisjustifiedbythefactthatboth[p。
319]formsofanalysisareinthesetwocasesreallyanalysesofoneandthesamecontentofexperience，Ontheotherhand，fromtheverynatureofthecase，thepsychologicalprincipleofparallelismcannotapplytothosecontentsofexperiencewhichareobjectsofnatural-scientificanalysisalone，ortothosewhichgotomakeupthespecificcharacterofpsychologicalexperience。Amongthelatterwemustreckonthecharacteristiccombinationsandrelationsofpsychicalelementsandcompounds。Tobesure，therearecombinationsofphysicalprocessesrunningparalleltothese，insofaratleastasadirectorindirectcausalrelationmustexistbetweenthephysicalprocesseswhoseregularcoexistenceorsuccessionisindicatedbyapsychicalinterconnection，butthecharacteristiccontentofthepsychicalcombinationcan，ofcourse，innowaybeapartofthecausalrelationbetweenthephysicalprocesses。Thus，forexample，theelementsthatenterintoaspacialortemporalidea，standinaregularrelationofcoexistenceandsuccessionintheirphysiologicalsubstrataalso；ortheideationalelementsthatmakeuptheprocessofrelatingorcomparingpsychicalcontents，havecorrespondingcombinationsofphysiologicalexcitationofsomekindorother，whicharerepeatedwheneverthesepsychicalprocessestakeplace。
Butthephysiologicalprocessescannotcontainanythingofthatwhichgoesmostofalltoformthespecificnatureofspacial[sic]andtemporalideas，orofrelatingandcomparingprocesses，becausenaturalsciencepurposelyabstractsfromallthatishereconcerned。Then，too，therearetwoconceptsthatresultfromthepsychicalcombinations，which，togetherwiththeirrelatedaffectiveelements，lieentirelyoutsidethesphereofexperiencetowhichtheprincipleofparallelismapplies。Therearetheconceptsofvalueandend。Theformsofcombinationthatweseeinprocessesoffusionorinassociativeandapperceptiveprocesses，aswell[p。320]asthevaluesthattheypossessisthewholeinterconnectioninofpsychicaldevelopment，canonlybeunderstoodthroughpsychologicalanalysis，inthesamewaythatobjectivephenomena，suchasthoseofweight，sound，light，heat，etc。，ortheprocessesofthenervoussystem，canbeapproachedonlybyphysicalandphysiologicalanalysis，thatis，analysisthatmakesuseofthesupplementarysubstance-conceptsofnaturalscience。
10。Thus，theprincipleofpsycho-physicalparallelismintheincontrovertibleempirico-psychologicalsignificanceaboveattributedtoit，leadsnecessarilytotherecognitionofanindependentpsychicalcausality，whichisrelatedatallpointswithphysicalcausalityandcantheycomeintocontradictionwithit，butisjustasdifferentfromit\'sphysicalcausalityasthepointofviewadoptedinpsychology，orthatofimmediate，subjectiveexperience，isdifferentfromthepointofviewtakeninthenaturalsciences，orthatofmediate，objectiveexperienceduetoabstraction。
Andjustasthenatureofphysicalcausalitycanberevealedtousonlyinthefundamentallawsofnature，sotheonlywaythatwehaveofaccountingforthecharacteristicsofpsychicalcausalityistoabstractcertainfundamentallawsofpsychicalphenomenafromthetotalityofpsychicalprocesses。Wemaydistinguishtwoclassesofsuchlaws。
Thelawsofoneclassshowthemselvesprimarilyintheprocesseswhichconditiontheriseandimmediateinteractionofthepsychicalcompounds；
wecallthesethepsychologicallawsofrelation。Thoseofthesecondclassarederivedlaws。Theyconsistinthecomplexeffectsthatareproducedbycombinationsofthelawsofrelationwithinmoreextensiveseriesofpsychicalfacts；thesewecallthepsychologicallawsofdevelopment。
ClassicsintheHistoryofPsychology——Wundt(1897)Section23OutlinesofPsychologyWilhelmMaxWundt(1897)TranslatedbyCharlesHubbardJudd(1897)
V。PSYCHICALCAUSALITYANDITSLAWS。§；23。PSYCHOLOGICALLAWSOFRELATION。
1。Therearethreegeneralpsychologicallawsofrelation。Wedesignatethemasthelawsofpsychicalresultants，ofpsychicalrelations，andofpsychicalcontrasts。
2。Thelawofpsychicalresultantsfindsitsexpressioninthefactthateverypsychicalcompoundshowsattributeswhichmayindeedbeunderstoodfromtheattributesofitselementsaftertheseelementshaveoncebeenpresented，butwhicharebynomeanstobelookeduponasthemeresumoftheattributesoftheseelements。Acompoundclangismoreinitsideationalandaffectiveattributesthanmerelyasumofsingletones。Inspacial[sic]andtemporalideasthespacial[sic]andtemporalarrangementisconditioned，tobesure，inaperfectlyregularwaybythecooperationoftheelementsthatmakeuptheidea，butstillthearrangementitselfcanbynomeansberegardedasapropertybelongingtothesensationalelementsthemselves。Thenativistictheoriesthatassumethisimplicatethemselvesincontradictionsthatcannotbesolved；andbesides，insofarastheyadmitsubsequentchangesintheoriginalspace-perceptionsandtime-perceptions，theyareultimatelydriventotheassumptionoftherise，tosomeextentatleast，ofnewattributes。Finally，intheapperceptivefunctionsandintheactivitiesofimaginationandunderstanding，thislawfindsexpressioninaclearlyrecognizedform。Notonlydotheelementsunitedbyapperceptivesynthesisgain，intheaggregateideathatresultsfromtheircombination，anewsignificancewhichtheydidnothaveintheirisolatedstate，butwhatisofstillgreaterimportance，theaggregateideaitselfisanewpsychicalcontentthatwasmadepossible，tobesure，bytheseelements，butwasbynomeanscontainedinthem。Thisappearsmoststrikinglyinthemorecomplex[p。322]productionsofapperceptivesynthesis，as，forexample，inaworkofartoratrainoflogicalthought。
3。Thelawofpsychicalresultantswhichexpressesaprinciplewhichwemaydesignate，inviewofitsresults，asaprincipleofcreativesynthesis。Thishaslongbeenrecognizedinthecaseofhighermentalcreations，butgenerallynotappliedtotheotherpsychicalprocesses。
Infact，throughanunjustifiableconfusionwiththelawsofphysicalcausality，ithasevenbeencompletelyreversed。Asimilarconfusionisresponsibleforthenotionthatthereisacontradictionbetweentheprincipleofcreativesynthesisinthementalworldandthegenerallawsofthenaturalworld，especiallythatoftheconservationofenergy。Suchacontradictionisimpossiblefromtheoutsetbecausethepointsofviewforjudgment，andthereforeformeasurementswhereversucharemade，aredifferentinthetwocases，andmustbedifferent，sincenaturalscienceandpsychologydeal，notwithdifferentcontentsofexperience，butwithoneandthesamecontentviewedfromdifferentsides(&；sect；1，p。3)。Physicalmeasurementshavetodowithobjectivemasses，forces，andenergies。Thesearesupplementaryconceptswhichweareobligedtouseinjudgingobjectiveexperience；andtheirgenerallaws，derivedastheyarefromexperience，mustnotbecontradictedbyanysinglecaseofexperience。Psychicalmeasurements，whichareconcernedwiththecomparisonofpsychicalcomponentsandtheirresultants，havetodowithsubjectivevaluesandends。Thesubjectivevalueofthewholemayincreaseincomparisonwiththatofitscomponents；
itspurposemaybedifferentandhigherthantheirswithoutanychangeinthemasses，forces，andenergiesconcerned。Themuscularmovementsofanexternalvolitionalact，thephysicalprocessesthataccompanysense-perception，association，andapperception，willfollowinvariablytheprincipleoftheconservationofenergy。[p。323]Butthementalvaluesandendsthattheseenergiesrepresentmaybeverydifferentinquantityevenwhilethequantityoftheseenergiesremainsthesame。
4。Thedifferencespointedoutshowthatphysicalmeasurementdealswithquantitativevalues，thatis，withquantitiesthatadmitofavariationinvalueonlyintheonerelationofthequantityofthephenomenameasured。Psychicalmeasurementontheotherhand，dealsinthelastinstanceineverycasewithqualitativevalues，thatis，valuesthatvaryindegreeonlyinrespecttotheirqualitativecharacter。
Theabilitytoproducepurelyquantitativeeffects，whichwedesignateasphysicalenergyis，accordingly，tobeclearlydistinguishedfromtheabilitytoproducequalitativeeffects，ortheabilitytoproducevalues，whichwedesignateaspsychicalenergy。
Onthisbasiswecannotonlyreconciletheincreaseofpsychicalenergywiththeconstancyofphysicalenergyasacceptedinthenaturalsciences，butwefindinthetworeciprocallysupplementarystandardsforthejudgmentofourtotalexperience……Theincreaseofpsychicalenergyisnotseeninitsrightlightuntilitisrecognizedasthereverse，subjectivesideofphysicalconstancy。Theformer，beingasitisindefinite，sincethemeasuremaybeverydifferentunderdifferentconditions，holdsonlyundertheconditionthatthepsychicalprocessesarecontinuous。Asthepsychologicalcorrelateofthisincreasewehavethefactwhichforcesitselfuponusinexperience，thatpsychicalvaluesdisappear。
5。Thelaws，ofpsychicalrelationssupplementsthatofresultants；
itrefersnottotherelationofthecomponentsofapsychicalinterconnectiontothevalueofthewhole，butrathertotheirreciprocalrelation。Thelawofresultantsthusholdsforthesyntheticprocessesofconsciousness，thelawofrelationsfortheanalytic。Everyresolutionofaconsciouscontentintoitssinglemembersisanactofrelatinganalysis。[p。324]
Sucharesolutiontakesplaceinthesuccessiveapperceptionofthepartsofawholewhichisideatedatfirstonlyinageneralway，aprocesswhichistobeseeninsense-perceptionsandassociations，andtheninclearlyrecognizedforminthedivisionofaggregateideas。Inthesameway，everyapperceptionisananalyticprocesswhosetwofactorsaretheemphasizingofonesinglecontentandthemarkingoffofthisonecontentfromallothers。Thefirstofthesetwopartialprocessesiswhatproducesclearness，thesecondiswhatproducesdistinctnessofapperception(p。208，4)。Themostcompleteexpressionofthislawistobefoundintheprocessesofapperceptiveanalysisandthesimplerelatingandcomparingfunctionsuponwhichitisbased(p。250and260)。
Inthelattermoreespecially，weseethattheessentialcontentofthelawofrelationsistheprinciplethateverysinglepsychicalcontentreceivesitssignificancefromtherelationsinwhichitstandstootherpsychicalcontents。Whentheserelationsarequantitative，thisprincipletakestheformofaprincipleofrelativequantitativecomparisonsuchasisexpressedinWeber\'slaw(p。254)。
6。Thelawofpsychicalcontrastsis，inturn，supplementarytothelawofrelations。Itrefers，likethelatter，totherelationsofpsychicalcontentstooneanother。，Itisitselfbasedonthefundamentaldivisionoftheimmediatecontentsofexperienceintoobjectiveandsubjectivecomponents，adivisionwhichisduetotheveryconditionsofpsychicaldevelopment。Undersubjectivecomponentsareincludedalltheelementsandcombinationsofelementswhich，likethefeelingsandemotionsareessentialconstituentsofvolitionalprocesses。Theseareallarrangedingroupsmadeupofoppositequalitiescorrespondingtothechiefaffectivedirectionsofpleasurableandunpleasurable，excitinganddepressing，strainingandrelaxingfeelings(p。83)。Theseoppositesobeyintheirsuccessionthe[p。325]generallawofintensificationthroughcontrastInitsconcreteapplication，thislawisalwaysdeterminedinpartbyspecialtemporalconditions，foreverysubjectivestaterequiresacertainperiodforitsdevelopment；andif，whenithasoncereacheditsmaximum，itcontinuesforalongtime，itlosesitsabilitytoarousethecontrast-effect。Thisfactisconnectedwiththeother，thatthereisacertainmedium，thoughgreatlyvarying，rateofpsychicalprocessesmostfavorablefortheintensityofallfeelingsandemotions。
Thislawofcontrasthasitsoriginintheattributesofthesubjectivecontentsofexperience，butissecondarilyappliedtotheideasandtheirelementsalso，fortheseideasarealwaysaccompaniedbymoreorlessemphaticfeelingsdueeithertotheirowncontentontothecharacteroftheirspacial[sic]andtemporalcombination。Thustheprincipleofintensificationthroughcontrastfindsitsbroaderapplicationespeciallyinthecaseofcertainsensations，suchasthoseofsight，andinthecaseofspacial[sic]andtemporalideas。
7。Thelawofcontraststandsincloserelationtothetwoprecedinglaws。Ontheonehand，itmayberegardedastheapplicationofthegenerallawofrelationstothespecialcasewheretherelatedpsychicalcontentsrangebetweenopposites。Ontheotherhand，thefactthatundersuitablecircumstancesantitheticalpsychicalprocessesmayintensifyeachother，whilefallingunderthelaw-ofcontrast，isatthesametimeaspecialapplicationoftheprincipleofcreativesynthesis。
ClassicsintheHistoryofPsychology——Wundt(1897)Section24OutlinesofPsychologyWilhelmMaxWundt(1897)TranslatedbyCharlesHubbardJudd(1897)
V。PSYCHICALCAUSALITYANDITSLAWS。§；24。PSYCHOLOGICALLAWSOFDEVELOPMENT。
1。Wehaveasmanypsychologicallawsofdevelopmentaswehadlawsofrelation，andtheformermayberegardedastheapplicationofthelattertomorecomprehensivepsychical[p。326]interconnections。Wedesignatethelawsinquestionasthoseofmentalgrowthofheterogonyofends，andofdevelopment，towardsopposites。
2。Thelawofmentalgrowthisaslittleapplicabletoallcontentsofpsychicalexperienceasanyotherpsychologicallawofdevelopment。
Itholdsonlyunderthelimitingconditionunderwhichthelawofresultants，whoseapplicationit-is，holds，namelyundertheconditionofthecontinuityoftheprocesses(p。323)。Butsincethecircumstancesthattendtopreventtherealizationofthiscondition，are，ofcourse，muchmorefrequentwhenthementaldevelopmentsconcernedincludeagreaternumberofpsychicalsyntheses，thantheyaxeinthesinglesynthesesthemselves，itfollowsthatthelawofmentalgrowthcanbedemonstratedonlyforcertaindevelopmentstakingplaceundernormalconditions，andevenhereonlywithincertainlimits。Withintheselimits，however，themorecomprehensivedevelopments，as，forexample，thementaldevelopmentofthenormalindividualandthedevelopmentofmentalcommunities，areobviouslythebestexemplificationsofthefundamentallawofresultantswhichliesatthebasisofthisdevelopment。
3。Thelawofheterogonyofendsismostcloselyconnectedwiththelawofrelations，butitisalsobasedonthelawofresultants，whichisalwaystobetakenintoconsiderationwhendealingwiththelargerinterconnectionsofpsychicaldevelopment。Infact，wemayregardthislawasaprincipleofdevelopmentwhichcontrolsthechangesarising，asresultsofsuccessivecreativesyntheses，intherelationsbetweenthesinglepartialcontentsofpsychicalcompounds。Theresultantsarisingfromunitedpsychicalprocessesincludecontentsthatwerenotpresentinthecomponents，andthesenewcontentsmayinturnenterintorelationwiththeoldcomponentsthuschangingagaintherelationsbetweentheseoldcomponents[p。327]andconsequentlythenewresultantsthatarisefromthem。Thisprincipleofcontinuallychangingrelationsismoststrikingwhenanideaofendsisformedonthebasisofthegivenrelations。HeretherelationofthesinglefactorstooneanotherisregardedasaninterconnectionOfmeanswhichhasfortheendaimedat，theproductarisingfromtheinterconnection。Therelationbetweentheactualeffectsinsuchacaseandtheideatedendsissuchthatsecondaryeffectsalwaysarisethatwerenotthoughtofinthefirstideasofend。Theseneweffectsenterintonewseriesofmotives，andthusmodifytheoldendsoraddnewonestothem。
Theprincipleofheterogonyofendsinitsbroadestsensedominatesallpsychicalprocesses。Inthespecialteleologicalcoloringwhichhasgivenititsname，however，itistobefoundprimarilyinthesphereofvolitionalprocesses，forheretheideasofendattendedbytheiraffective，motivesareofthechiefimportance。Inthevariousspheresofappliedpsychologyitisthereforeespeciallyethicsforwhichthislawisofgreatimportance。
4。Thelawofdevelopmenttowardsoppositesisanapplicationofthelawofintensificationthroughcontrast，tomorecomprehensiveinterconnectionswhichforminthemselvesseriesofdevelopments。Theseseries，inaccordancewiththefundamentallawofcontrasts，areofsuchacharacterthatfeelingsandimpulseswhichwereofsmallintensityatfirst，increasegraduallyinintensitythroughcontrastwithfeelingsofoppositequalitythatwereforatimepredominant，until，finally，theygaintheascendencyovertheformerlypredominantfeelingsandarethemselvesforalongerorshortertimeincontrol。Fromthispointthesamealternationmaybeonceorevenseveraltimesrepeated。Butgenerallytheprinciplesofmentalgrowthandheterogonyofendsoperateinthecaseofsuchanoscillation，sothatsucceedingphasesarelike[p。328]correspondingantecedentphasesintheirgeneralaffectivedirection，butstillessentiallydifferentintheirspecialcomponents。
Thelawofdevelopmenttowardsoppositesshowsitselfinthementaldevelopmentoftheindividual，partlyinapurelyindividualwaywithinshorterperiodsoftime，andpartlyincertainuniversalregularitiesintherelationofvariousperiodsoflife。Ithaslongbeenrecognizedthatthepredominatingtemperamentsofdifferentperiodsoflifepresentcertaincontrasts。Thus，thelight，sanguineexcitabilityofchildhood，whichisseldommorethansuperficial，isfollowedbytheslowerbutmoreretentivetemperamentofyouthwithitsfrequenttouchofmelancholy。Thencomesmanhoodwithitsmaturecharacter，generallyquickandactiveindecisionandexecution，andlastofall，oldagewithitsleaningtowardcontemplativequiet。Evenmorethanintheindividualdoesthisprincipleofantithesisfindexpressioninthealternationofmentaltendenciesthatappearinthesocialandhistoricallifeofcommunities，andinthereactionsofthesetendenciesoncivilizationandcustomsandonsocialandpoliticaldevelopment。Inthesamewaythattheprincipleofheterogonyofendsappliedchieflytothedomainofmorallife，thisprincipleofdevelopmenttowardsoppositesfindsitschiefsignificanceinthemoregeneralsphereofhistoricallife。
