第6章

Theyoungmenappearedquitenakedinthepalaestra，andeventhegirlsofSpartaranracespubliclyinthesamecondition；[1]andsomedaywhenourbodies(andmindstoo)havebecomecleanweshallreturntosimilarinstitutions。Butthatwillnotbejustyet。Aslongasthedefilementofthiscommercialcivilizationisonusweshallpreferourdirtandconcealment。Thepowersthatbewillprotestagainstchange。HeinrichScham，inhischarminglittlepamphletNackendeMenschen，[2]describestheconsternationofthecommercialpeopleatsuchideas: “\'Whatwillbecomeofus，\'criedthetailors，\'ifyougonaked?\' “Andallthelotofthem，hat，cravat，shirt，andshoemakersjoinedinthechorus。 “\'ANDWHERESHALLICARRYMYMONEY?\'criedonewhohadjustbeenmadeadirector。” [1]SeeTheocritus，Idyllxviii。 [2]PublishedatLeipzigabout1893。 XIII。THEGENESISOFCHRISTIANITY ReferringbacktotheexistenceofsomethingresemblingagreatWorld-religionwhichhascomedownthecenturies，continuallyexpandingandbranchingintheprocess，wehavenowtoconsiderthegenesisofthatspecialbrandorbranchofitwhichwecallChristianity。Eachreligionorcult，paganorChristian，hashad，aswehaveseen，avastamountincommonwiththegeneralWorld-religion；yeteachhashaditsownspecialcharacteristics。WhathavebeenthemaincharacteristicsoftheChristianbranch，asdifferentiatingitfromtheotherbranches? WesawinthelastchapterthatacertainasceticattitudetowardsSexwasoneofthemostsalientmarksoftheChristianChurch；andthatwhereasmostofthepagancults(thoughoccasionallyfavoringfrightfulausteritiesandcruelsacrifices)didonthewholerejoiceinpleasureandtheworldofthesenses，Christianity——followinglargelyonJudaism——displayedatendencytowardsrenunciationoftheworldandtheflesh，andawithdrawalintotheinnerandmorespiritualregionsofthemind。ThesametendencymaybetracedintheEgyptianandPhrygiancultsofthatperiod。ItwillberememberedhowJuvenal(Sat。VI，510-40)chaffsthepriestsofCybeleatRomeformakingthemselves“eunuchsforthekingdomofheaven\'ssake，“ ortherichRomanladyforplunginginthewintryTiberforapropitiationtoIsis。Nodoubtamongthelaterpagans“thelongintolerabletyrannyofthesensesoverthesoul“ hadbecomeaveryseriousmatter。ButChristianityrepresentedperhapsthemostpowerfulreactionagainstthis； andthisreactionhad，asindicatedinthelastchapter，theenormouslyvaluableresultthat(forthetime)itdisentangledlovefromsexandestablishedLove，pureandundefiled，asruleroftheworld。“GodisLove。”But，asalsoindicated，thedivorcebetweenthetwoelementsofhumannature，carriedtoanextreme，ledintimetoacripplingofbothelementsandthedevelopmentofacertainmorbidityandself-consciousnesswhich，itcannotbedenied，ispainfullymarkedamongsomesectionsofChristians——especiallythoseofthealtruisticand\'philanthropic\'type。 AnothercharacteristicofChristianitywhichisalsoveryfineinitswaybuthasitslimitsofutility，hasbeenitsinsistenceon“morality。”Somemodernwritersindeedhavegonesofar——forgetting，Isuppose，theStoics——astoclaimthatChristianity\'schiefmarkisitshighmorality，andthatthepagansgenerallywerequitewantinginthemoralsense！This，ofcourse，isaprofoundmistake。Ishouldsaythat，inthetruesenseoftheword，theearlyandtribalpeopleshavebeenmuchmore\'moral\'asarule——thatis，readyasindividualstopayrespecttotheneedsofthecommunity——thanthelaterandmorecivilizedsocieties。Butthemistakearisesfromthedifferentinterpretationsoftheword；forwhereasallthepaganreligionsinsistedverystronglyonthejust- mentionedkindofmorality，whichweshouldcallcIVICDUTY TOONE\'SNEIGHBOR，theChristianmademoralitytoconsistmoreespeciallyinamansDUTYTOGOD。Itbecamewiththemaprivateaffairbetweenamansselfand-God，ratherthanapublicaffair；andthusledintheendtoaveryobnoxiousandquitepharisaickindofmorality，whosechiefinspirationwasnotthehelpingofone\'sfellow-manbutthesavingofone\'sownsoul。 TheremayperhapsbeothersalientpointsofdifferentiationbetweenChristianityandtheprecedingpaganreligions；butforthepresentwemayrecognizethesetwo——(a)thetendencytowardsarenunciationoftheworld，andtheconsequentcultivationofapurelyspiritualloveand(b)theinsistenceonamoralitywhoseinspirationwasaprivatesenseofdutytoGodratherthanapublicsenseofdutytoone\'sneighborandtosocietygenerally。Itmaybeinterestingtotracethecauseswhichledtothisdifferentiation。 ThreecenturiesbeforeoureratheconquestsofAlexanderhadhadtheeffectofspreadingtheGreekthoughtandcultureovermostoftheknownworld。Avastnumberofsmallbodiesofworshipersoflocaldeities，withtheirvariousritualsandreligiouscustoms，hadthusbeenbrokenup，oratleastbroughtintocontactwitheachotherandpartiallymodifiedandhellenized。Theorbitofamoregeneralconceptionoflifeandreligionwasalreadybeingtraced。 BythetimeofthefoundingofthefirstChristianChurchtheimmenseconquestsofRomehadgreatlyextendedandestablishedtheprocess。TheMediterraneanhadbecomeagreatRomanlake。Merchantshipsandroutesoftrafficcrosseditinalldirections；touristsvisiteditsshores。Theknownworldhadbecomeone。Thenumberlesspeoples，tribes，nations，societieswithinthegirdleoftheEmpire，withtheirvariouslanguages，creeds，customs，religions，philosophies，wereprofoundlyinfluencingeachother。[1]Agreatfusionwastakingplace；anditwasbecominginevitablethatthenextgreatreligiousmovementwouldhaveaworld-widecharacter。 [1]ForanenlargementonthisthemeseeGlover\'sConflictofReligionsintheearlyRomanEmpire；alsoS。J。Case，EvolutionofEarlyChristianity(UniversityofChicago，1914)。TheAdonisworship，forinstance(aresurrection-cult)，“wasstillthrivinginSyriaandCypruswhenPaulpreachedthere，“andtheworshipofIsisandSerapishadalreadyreachedthen，RomeandNaples。 Itwasprobablethatthisnewreligionwouldcombinemanyelementsfromtheprecedingritualsinonecult。InconnectionwiththefinetemplesandelaborateservicesofIsisandCybeleandMithratherewasgrowingupapowerfulpriesthood；FranzCumont[1]speaksof“thelearnedpriestsoftheAsiaticcults“asbuildingup，onthefoundationsofoldfetichismandsuperstition，acompletereligiousphilosophy——justastheBrahminshadbuiltthemonismoftheVedantaonthe“monstrousidolatriesofHinduism。” Anditwaslikelythatasimilarprocesswouldevolvethenewreligionexpected。ToutainagaincallsattentiontothepatronageaccordedtoallthesecultsbytheRomanEmperors，asfavoringanewcombinationandsynthesis:—— “Hadrien，Commode，SeptimeSevere，JuliaDomna，Elagabal，AlexandreSevere，enparticulierontcontribubepersonnellementalapopulariteetausuccesdescultesquisecelebraientenl\'honneurdeSerapisetd\'Isis，desdivinitessyriennesetdeMithra。”[2] [1]SeeCumont，ReligionsOrientalesdanslePaganismeRomain(Paris，1906)，p。253。 [2]Cultespaiensdansl\'EmpireRomain(2vols。，1911)，vol。ii，p。263。 ItwasalsoprobablethatthisnewReligionwouldshow(asindicatedinthelastchapter)areactionagainstmeresex-indulgence；and，asregardsitsstandardofMoralitygenerally，that，amongsomanyconflictingpeopleswiththeirvariouscivicandlocalcustoms，itcouldnotwellidentifyitselfwithanyONEofthesebutwouldevolveaninnerinspirationofitsownwhichinitsbestformwouldbeloveoftheneighbor，regardlessoftherace，creedorcustomsoftheneighbor，andwhosesanctionwouldnotresideinanyoftheexternalauthoritiesthusconflictingwitheachother，butinthesenseofthesoul\'sdirectresponsibilitytoGod。 SomuchforwhatwemightexpectaprioriastotheinfluenceofthesurroundingsonthegeneralformofthenewReligion。Andwhataboutthekindofcreedorcreedswhichthatreligionwouldfavor?Hereagainwemustseethattheinfluenceofthesurroundingscompelledacertainresult。Thosedoctrineswhichwehavedescribedintheprecedingchapters——doctrinesofSinandSacrifice，aSavior，theEucharist，theTrinity，theVirgin-birth，andsoforth——wereintheirvariousformsseething，sotospeak，allaround。Itwasimpossibleforanynewreligioussynthesistoescapethem；allitcoulddowouldbetoappropriatethem，andtogivethemperhapsacolorofitsown。Thusitisintothemidstofthisgerminatingmassthatwemustimaginethevariouspagancults，likefertilizingstreams，descending。Totraceallthesestreamswouldofcoursebeanimpossibletask；butitmaybeofuse，asanexampleoftheprocess，totakethecaseofsomeparticularbelief。LetustakethebeliefinthecomingofaSavior-god；andthiswillbethemoresuitableasitisabeliefwhichhasinthepastbeencommonlyheldtobedistinctiveofChristianity。Ofcourseweknownowthatitisnotinanysensedistinctive，butthatthelongtraditionoftheSaviorcomesdownfromtheremotesttimes，andperhapsfromeverycountryoftheworld。[1]TheMessianicpropheciesoftheJewsandthefifty-thirdchapterofIsaiahemptiedthemselvesintotheChristianteachings，andinfectedthemtosomedegreewithaJudaictinge。The“Messiah“meansofcoursetheAnointedOne。TheHebrewwordoccurssome40timesintheOldTestament； andeachtimeintheSeptuagintorGreektranslation(mademainlyinthethirdcenturyBEFOREourera)thewordistranslated，orChristos，whichagainmeansAnointed。Thusweseethattheideaortheword“TheChrist“wasinvogueinAlexandriaasfarbackcertainlyas280B。C。，ornearlythreecenturiesbeforeJesus。Andwhattheword“TheAnointed“strictlyspeakingmeans，andfromwhattheexpressionisprobablyderived，willappearlater。 InTheBookofEnoch，writtennotlaterthanB。C。170，[2] theChristisspokenofasalreadyexistinginheaven，andabouttocomeasjudgeofallmen，andisdefinitelycalled“theSonofMan。”TheBookofRevelationsisFULLofpassagesfromEnoch；soaretheEpistlesofPaul； sotootheGospels。TheBookofEnochbelievesinaGoldenAgethatistocome；ithasDantesquevisionsofHeavenandHell，andofAngelsgoodandevil，anditspeaksofa“gardenofRighteousness“withthe“TreeofWisdom“initsmidst。Everywhere，saysProf。Drews，inthefirstcenturyB。C。，therewasthelongingforacomingSavior。 [1]Evento-day，theArabianlandsarealwaysvibratingwithpropheciesofacomingMahdi。 [2]SeeEditionbyR。H。Charles(1893)。 ButtheSavior-god，aswealsoknow，wasafamiliarfigureinEgypt。ThegreatOsiriswastheSavioroftheworld，bothinhislifeanddeath:inhislifethroughthenobleworkshewroughtforthebenefitofmankind，andinhisdeaththroughhisbetrayalbythepowersofdarknessandhisresurrectionfromthetombandascentintoheaven。[1] TheEgyptiandoctrinesdescendedthroughAlexandriaintoChristianity——andthoughtheydidnotinfluencethelatterdeeplyuntilabout300A。D。，yettheythensucceededinreachingtheChristianChurches，givingacolortotheirteachingswithregardtotheSavior，andpersuadingthemtoacceptandhonortheEgyptianworshipofIsisintheChristianformoftheVirginMary。 [1]Seech。ii。 Again，anothergreatstreamofinfluencedescendedfromPersiaintheformofthecultofMithra。Mithra，aswehaveseen，[1]stoodasagreatMediatorbetweenGodandman。 Withhisbaptismsandeucharists，andhistwelvedisciples，andhisbirthinacave，andsoforth，heseemedtotheearlyFathersaninventionofthedevilandamostdangerousmockeryonChristianity——andallthemoresobecausehisworshipwasbecomingsoexceedinglypopular。ThecultseemstohavereachedRomeaboutB。C。70。ItspreadfarandwidethroughtheEmpire。ItextendedtoGreatBritain，andnumerousremainsofMithraicmonumentsandsculpturesinthiscountry——atYork，Chesterandotherplaces——testifytoitswideacceptanceevenhere。AtRomethevogueofMithraismbecamesogreatthatinthethirdcenturyA。D。，itwasquitedoubtful[2]whetheritORChristianitywouldtriumph；theEmperorAurelianin273 foundedacultoftheInvincibleSuninconnectionwithMithraism；[3]andasSt。Jerometellsusinhisletters，[4] thelatterculthadatalatertimetobesuppressedinRomeandAlexandriabyPHYSICALFORCE，sopowerfulwasit。 [1]Ch。ii。 [2]SeeCumont，op。cit。，whosays，p。171:——“Jamais，pasmemea1\'epoquedesinvasionsmussulmanes，l\'Europenesemblapluspresdedevenirasiatiquequ\'aumomentouDiocletienreconnaissaitofficiellementenMithra，leprotecteurdel\'empirereconstitue。” SeealsoCumont\'sMysteresdeMithra，preface。TheRomanArmy，infact，stucktoMithrathroughout，asagainstChristianity；andsodidtheRomannobility。(SeeS。Augustine\'sConfessions，BookVIII，ch。2。) [3]CumontindeedsaysthattheidentificationofMithrawiththeSun(theemblemofimperialpower)formedonereasonwhyMithraismwasNOTpersecutedatthattime。 [4]Epist。cvii，adLaetam。SeeRobertson\'sPaganChrists，p。 350。 Norwasforcetheonlymethodemployed。IMITATIONisnotonlythesincerestflattery，butitisoftenthemostsubtleandeffectivewayofdefeatingarival。ThepriestsoftherisingChristianChurchwere，likethepriestsofALL religions，notwantingincraft；andatthismomentwhenthequestionofaWorld-religionwasinthebalance，itwasanobviouspolicyforthemtothrowintotheirownscaleasmanyelementsaspossibleofthepopularPagancults。 Mithraismhadbeenflourishingfor600years；anditis，tosaytheleast，CURIOUSthattheMithraicdoctrinesandlegendswhichIhavejustmentionedshouldallhavebeenadopted(quiteunintentionallyofcourse！)intoChristianity； andstillmoresothatsomeothersfromthesamesource，likethelegendoftheShepherdsattheNativityandthedoctrineoftheResurrectionandAscension，whichareNOTmentionedatallintheoriginaldraftoftheearliestGospel(St。Mark)，shouldhavemadetheirappearance，intheChristianwritingsatalatertime，whenMithraismwasmakinggreatforwardstrides。HistoryshowsthatasaChurchprogressesandexpandsitgenerallyfeelscompelledtoenlargeandfortifyitsownfoundationsbyinsertingmaterialwhichwasnotthereatfirst。Ishallshortlygiveanotherillustrationofthis；atpresentIwillmerelypointoutthattheChristianwriters，astimewenton，notonlyintroducednewdoctrines，legends，miraclesandsoforth——mostofwhichwecantracetoantecedentpagansources——butthattheytookespecialpainstodestroythepaganrecordsandsoobliteratetheevidenceoftheirowndishonesty。WelearnfromPorphyry[1]thattherewereseveralelaboratetreatisessettingforththereligionofMithra；andJ。M。Robertsonadds(PaganChrists，p。325):“everyoneofthesehasbeendestroyedbythecareoftheChurch，anditisremarkablethateventhetreatiseofFirmicusismutilatedatapassage(v。)whereheseemstobeaccusingChristiansoffollowingMithraicusages。”WhileagainProfessorMurraysays，“ThepolemicliteratureofChristianityisloudandtriumphant；thebooksofthePaganshavebeenDESTROYED。”[2] [1]DeAbstinentia，ii。56；iv。16。 [2]FourStages，p。180。WehaveprobablyaninstanceofthisdestructioninthetotaldisappearanceofCelsus\'livelyattackonChristianity(180A。D。)，ofwhich，however，portionshavebeenfortunatelypreservedinOrigen\'sratherprolixrefutationofthesame。 ReturningtothedoctrineoftheSavior，Ihavealreadyinprecedingchaptersgivensomanyinstancesofbeliefinsuchadeityamongthepagans——whetherhebecalledKrishnaorMithraorOsirisorHorusorApolloorHercules——thatitisnotnecessarytodwellonthesubjectanyfurtherinordertopersuadethereaderthatthedoctrinewas\'intheair\'atthetimeoftheadventofChristianity。EvenDionysus，thenaprominentfigureinthe\'Mysteries，\' wascalledEleutherios，TheDeliverer。ButitmaybeofinteresttotracethesamedoctrineamongthePRE-CHRISTIAN sectsofGnostics。TheGnostics，saysProfessorMurray，[1] “arestillcommonlythoughtofasabodyofCHRISTIAN heretics。InrealitytherewereGnosticsectsscatteredovertheHellenisticworldBEFOREChristianityaswellasafter。 TheymusthavebeenestablishedinAntiochandprobablyinTarsuswellbeforethedaysofPaulorApollos。TheirSavior，liketheJewishMessiah，wasestablishedinmen\'smindsbeforetheSavioroftheChristians。\'Ifwelookclose，\'saysProfessorBousset，\'theresultemergeswithgreatclearnessthatthefigureoftheRedeemerassuchdidnotwaitforChristianitytoforceitswayintothereligionofGnosis，butwasalreadypresentthereundervariousforms。\'“ [1]FourStages，p。143。 ThisGnosticRedeemer，continuesProfessorMurray，“isdescendedbyafairlycleargenealogyfromthe\'TritosSoter\'(\'thirdSavior\')[1]ofearlyGreece，contaminatedwithsimilarfigures，likeAttisandAdonisfromAsiaMinor，OsirisfromEgypt，andthespecialJewishconceptionoftheMessiahoftheChosenpeople。Hehasvariousnames，whichthenameofJesusor\'Christos，\'\'theAnointed，\'tendsgraduallytosupersede。Aboveall，heisinsomesenseMan，or\'thesecondMan\'or\'theSonofMan\'…… Heisthereal，theultimate，theperfectandeternalMan，ofwhomallbodilymenarefeeblecopies。”[2] [1]Thereseemstobesomedoubtabouttheexactmeaningofthisexpression。EvenZeushimselfwassometimescalled\'Soter，\'andatfeasts，itissaid，theTHIRDgobletwasalwaysdrunkinhishonor。 [2]SeealsoTheGnosticStoryofJesusChrist，byGilbertT。 Sadler(C。W。Daniel，1919)。 ThispassagebringsvividlybeforethemindtheprocessofwhichIhavespoken，namely，thefusionandmutualinterchangeofideasonthesubjectoftheSaviorduringtheperiodanteriortoourera。AlsoitexemplifiestousthroughwhatanabstractsphereofGnosticreligiousspeculationthedoctrinehadtotravelbeforereachingitsexpressioninChristianity。[1]ThisexaltedandhighphilosophicalconceptionpassedonandcameoutagaintosomedegreeintheFourthGospelandthePaulineEpistles(especiallyICor。xv)；butIneedhardlysayitwasnotmaintained。 TheenthusiasmofthelittlescatteredChristianbodies—— withtheircommunismofpracticewithregardtoTHIS worldandtheirintensityoffaithwithregardtothenext——begantowaneinthesecondandthirdcenturiesA。D。AstheChurch(withcapitalinitial)grew，sowasitlessandlessoccupiedwithrealreligiousfeeling，andmoreandmorewithitsbattlesagainstpersecutionfromoutside，anditsquarrelsanddissensionsconcerningheresieswithinitsownborders。AndwhenattheCouncilofNicaea(325 A。D)itendeavoredtoestablishanofficialcreed，thestrifeandbitternessonlyincreased。“Thereisnowildbeast，“saidtheEmperorJulian，“likeanangrytheologian。” WherethefourthEvangelisthadpreachedthegospelofLove，andPaulhadannouncedredemptionbyaninnerandspiritualidentificationwithChrist，“AsinAdamalldie，soinChristshallallbemadealive“；andwhereassomeatanyrateofthePagancultshadtaughtaglorioussalvationbythenewbirthofadivinebeingwithineachman: “Beofgoodcheer，Oinitiatesinthemysteryoftheliberatedgod；FortoyoutoooutofallyourlaborsandsorrowsshallcomeLiberation“——theNicenecreedhadnothingtopropoundexceptsomeextremelyfutilespeculationsabouttherelationtoeachotheroftheFatherandtheSon，andtherelationofBOTHtotheHolyGhost，andofallTHREEtotheVirginMary——speculationswhichonlyservedfortherenewalofshamefulstrifeandanimosities——riotsandbloodshedandmurder——withintheChurch，andthemockeryoftheheathenwithout。Andasfarasitdealtwiththecrucifixion，deathandresurrectionoftheLorditdidnotdifferfromthescoreofprecedingpagancreeds，exceptinthethoroughmaterialismandlackofpoetryinstatementwhichitexhibits。AftertheCouncilofNicaea，infact，theJudaictingeinthedoctrinesoftheChurchbecomesmoreapparent，andmoreandmoreitsSchemeofSalvationthroughChristtakesthecharacterofarathersordidandhucksteringbargainbywhichMangetsthebetterofGodbypersuadingthelattertosacrificehisownSonfortheredemptionoftheworld！WiththeexceptionofafewepisodesliketheformationduringtheMiddleAgesofthenoblebrotherhoodsandsisterhoodsofFrairsandNuns，dedicatedtothehelpandhealingofsufferinghumanity，andtheappearanceofafewrealloversofmankind(andtheanimals)likeSt。Francis——(andthesemanifestationscanhardlybeclaimedbytheChurch，whichprettyconsistentlyopposedthem)——itmaybesaidthatafteraboutthefourthcenturytherealspiritandlightofearlyChristianenthusiasmdiedaway。TheincursionsofbarbariantribesfromtheNorthandEast，andlaterofMoorsandArabsfromtheSouth，familiarizedtheEuropeanpeopleswiththeideasofbloodshedandviolence；grossandmaterialconceptionsoflifewereintheascendant；andaromanticandaspiringChristianitygaveplacetoaworldlyandvulgarChurchianity。 [1]WhentravellinginIndiaIfoundthattheGnanisorWiseMentherequitecommonlymaintainedthatJesus(judgingfromhisteaching)musthavebeeninitiatedatsometimeintheesotericdoctrinesoftheVedanta。 Ihaveinthesetwoorthreepagesdealtonly——andthatverybriefly——withtheentryofthepagandoctrineoftheSaviorintotheChristianfield，showingitstransformationthereandhowChristianitycouldnotwellescapehavingadoctrineofaSavior，oravoidgivingacolorofitsowntothatdoctrine。Tofollowoutthesamecoursewithotherdoctrines，likethosewhichIhavementionedabove，wouldobviouslybeanendlesstask——whichmustbelefttoeachstudentorreadertopursueaccordingtohisopportunityandcapacity。Itisclearanyhow，thatalltheseelementsofthepaganreligions——pouringdownintothevastreservoir，orratherwhirlpool，oftheRomanEmpire，andmixingamongallthesenumerousbrotherhoods，societies，collegia，mystery-clubs，andgroupswhichwereatthattimelookingoutintentlyforsomenewrevelationorinspiration—— didmoreorlessautomaticallyactandreactuponeachother，andbythegeneralconditionsprevailingweremodified，tilltheyultimatelycombinedandtookunitedshapeinthemovementwhichwecallChristianity，butwhichonly——asIhavesaid——narrowlyescapedbeingcalledMithraism——sonearlyrelatedandcloselyalliedwerethesecultswitheachother。 Atthispointitwillnaturallybeasked:“AndwhereinthisschemeoftheGenesisofChristianityisthechieffigureandaccreditedleaderofthemovement——namelyJesusChristhimself——fortoallappearanceintheaccountheregivenofthematterheispracticallynon-existentoranegligiblequantity?“Andthequestionisaverypertinentone，andverydifficulttoanswer。“WhereisthefounderoftheReligion?“——ortoputitinanotherform: “IsitnecessarytosupposeahumanandvisibleFounderatall?“Afewyearsagosuchamerequestionwouldhavebeenaccountedrankblasphemy，andwouldonly—— ifpassedover——havebeenignoredonaccountofitssupposedabsurdity。To-day，however，owingtotheenormousamountofworkwhichhasbeendoneoflateonthesubjectofChristianorigins，thequestiontakesonquiteadifferentcomplexion。AndfromStraussonwardsagrowinglyinfluentialandlearnedbodyofcriticsisinclinedtoregardthewholestoryoftheGospelsasLEGENDARY。ArthurDrews，forinstance，aprofessoratKarlsruhe，inhiscelebratedbookTheChrist-Myth，[1]placesDavidF。Straussasfirstinthemythfield——thoughheallowsthatDupuisinL\'originedetouslescultes(1795)hadgiventhecluetothewholeidea。HethenmentionsBrunoBauer(1877)ascontendingthatJesuswasapureinventionofMark\'s，andJohnM。RobertsonashavinginhisChristianityandMythology(1900)giventhefirstthoroughlyreasonedexpositionofthelegendarytheory；alsoEmilioBossiinItaly，whowroteJesuChristononemaiesistito，andsimilarauthorsinHolland，Poland，andothercountries，includingW。BenjaminSmith，theAmericanauthorofThePre-christianJesus(1906)，andP。JenseninDasGilgameschEposindenWelt-literatur(1906)，whomakestheJesus-storyavariantoftheBabylonianepic，2000B。C。Aprettystronglist！[2]“But，“ continuesDrews，“ordinaryhistoriansstillignoreallthis。” Finally，hedismissesJesusas“afigureswimmingobscurelyinthemistsoftradition。”NeverthelessIneedhardlyremarkthat，largeandlearnedasthebodyofopinionhererepresentedis，astilllarger(butlesslearned)bodyfightsdesperatelyfortheactualHISTORICITYofJesus，andsomeevenstillfortheoldviewofhimasaquiteuniqueandmiraculousrevelationofGodhoodonearth。 [1]DieChristus-mythe:verbesserteunderweitezteAusgabe，Jena，1910。 [2]TowhichwemayalsoaddSchweitzer\'sQuestofthehistoricalJesus(1910)。 Atfirst，nodoubt，theLEGENDARYtheoryseemsalittleTOO far-fetched。Thereisafashioninallthesethings，anditMAYbethatthereisafashionevenhere。ButwhenyoureflecthowrapidlylegendsgrowupeveninthesedaysofexactScienceandanomniscientPress；howthefigureofShakespeare，deadonly300years，isalmostcompletelylostinthemistofTime，andeventheauthenticityofhisworkshasbecomeasubjectofcontroversy；whenyoufindthatWilliamTell，supposedtohavelivedsome300 yearsagainbeforeShakespeare，andwhosedeedsinminutestdetailhavebeenrecitedandhonoredalloverEurope，isalmostcertainlyapureinvention，andneverexisted；whenyouremember——asmentionedearlierinthisbook[1]——thatitwasmorethanfivehundredyearsafterthesupposedbirthofJesusbeforeanyseriouseffortwasmadetoestablishthedateofthatbirth——andthatthenapurelymythicaldatewaschosen:the25thDecember，thedayoftheSUN\'Snewbirthafterthewintersolstice，andthetimeofthesupposedbirthofApollo，Bacchus，andtheotherSungods； when，moreover，youthinkforamomentwhatthestateofhistoricalcriticismmusthavebeen，andthegeneralstandardofcredibility，1，900yearsago，inacountrylikeSyria，andamonganignorantpopulation，whereanystorycirculatingfromliptolipwasassuredofcredenceifsufficientlymarvelousorimaginative；——why，thenthelegendarytheorydoesnotseemsoimprobable。ThereisnodoubtthatafterthedestructionofJerusalem(inA。D。 70)，littlegroupsofbelieversinaredeeming\'Christ\'wereformedthereandinotherplaces，justastherehadcertainlyexisted，inthefirstcenturyB。C。，groupsofGnostics，Therapeutae，EssenesandotherswhoseteachingswereverySIMILARtotheChristian，andtherewasnowademandfrommanyofthesegroupsfor\'writings\'and\'histories\'whichshouldheartenandconfirmtheyoungandgrowingChurches。 TheGospelsandEpistles，ofwhichtherearestillextantagreatabundance，bothapocryphalandcanonical，metthisdemand；buthowfartheirrecordsofthepersonofJesusofNazaretharereliablehistory，orhowfartheyaremerelyimaginativepicturesofthekindofmantheSaviourmightbeexpectedtobe，[2]isaquestionwhich，asIhavealreadysaid，isadifficultoneforskilledcriticstoanswer，andoneonwhichIcertainlyhavenointentionofgivingapositiveverdict。PersonallyImustsayIthinkthe\'legendary\' solutionquitelikely，andinsomewaysmoresatisfactorythantheoppositeone——forthesimplereasonthatitseemsmuchmoreencouragingtosupposethatthestoryofJesus，(graciousandbeautifulasitis)isamythwhichgraduallyformeditselfintheconscienceofmankind，andthuspointsthewayofhumanity\'sfutureevolution，thantosupposeittobethemererecordofanuniqueandmiraculousinterpositionofProvidence，whichdependedentirelyonthepowersabove，andcouldhardlybeexpectedtooccuragain。 [1]Ch。II。 [2]OneofCelsus\'accusationsagainsttheChristianswasthattheirGospelshadbeenwritten“severaltimesover“(seeOrigen，ContraCelsum，ii。26，27)。 However，thequestionisnotwhatwedesire，butwhatwecanprovetobetheactualfact。AndcertainlythedifficultiesinthewayofregardingtheGospelstory(orstories，forthereisnotoneconsistentstory)asTRUEareenormous。Ifanyonewillread，forinstance，inthefourGospels，theeventsofthenightprecedingthecrucifixionandreckonthetimewhichtheywouldnecessarilyhavetakentoenact—— theLastSupper，theagonyintheGarden，thebetrayalbyJudas，thehalingbeforeCaiaphasandtheSanhedrin，andthenbeforePilateintheHallofjudgment(thoughcourtsforthetrialofmalefactorsdonotGENERALLYsitinthemiddleofthenight)；then——inLuke——theinterposedvisittoHerod，andtheRETURNtoPilate；Pilate\'sspeechesandwashingofhandsbeforethecrowd；thenthescourgingandthemockingandthearrayingofJesusinpurplerobeasaking；thenthepreparationofaCrossandthelongandpainfuljourneytoGolgotha；andfinallytheCrucifixionatsunrise；——hewillsee——ashasoftenbeenpointedout—— thatthewholestoryisphysicallyimpossible。Asarecordofactualeventsthestoryisimpossible；butasarecordorseriesofnotesderivedfromthewitnessingofa“mystery- play“——andsuchplayswithVERYSIMILARincidentswerecommonenoughinantiquityinconnectionwithcultsofadyingSavior，itverylikelyIStrue(onecanseetheverydramaticcharacteroftheincidents:thewashingofhands，thethreefolddenialbyPeter，thepurplerobeandcrownofthorns，andsoforth)；andassuchitisnowacceptedbymanywell-qualifiedauthorities。[1] [1]Dr。FrazerinTheGoldenBough(vol。ix，“TheScapegoat，“p。 400)speaksofthefrequencyinantiquityofaMystery-playrelatingtoaGod-manwhogiveshislifeandbloodforthepeople；andheputsforwardtentativelyandbynomeansdogmaticallythefollowingnote:——“Suchadrama，ifweareright，wastheoriginalstoryofEstherandMordecai，or(togivetheiroldernames)IshtarandMarduk。ItwasplayedinBabylonia，andfromBabyloniathereturningCaptivesbroughtittoJudaea，whereitwasacted，ratherasanhistoricalthanamythicalpiece，byplayerswho，havingtodieingrimearnestonacrossorgallows，werenaturallydrawnfromthegaolratherthanthegreen-room。A chainofcauses，whichbecausewecannotfollowthemmight——inthelooselanguageofcommonlife——becalledanaccident，determinedthatthepartofthedyinggodinthisannualplayshouldbethrustuponJesusofNazareth，whomtheenemieshehadmadeinhighplacesbyhisoutspokenstrictureswereresolvedtoputoutoftheway。”Seealsovol。iv，“TheDyingGod，“inthesamebook。 Therearemanyotherdifficulties。TheraisingofLazarus，alreadydeadthreedays，theturningofwaterintowine(amiracleattributedtoBacchus，ofold)，thefeedingofthefivethousand，andothersofthemarvelsare，tosaytheleast，noteasyofdigestion。The“SermonontheMount“which，withthe“Lord\'sPrayer“embeddedinit，formsthegreatandacceptedrepositoryof\'Christian\' teachingandpiety，iswellknowntobeacollectionofsayingsfrompre-christianwritings，includingthePsalms，Isaiah，Ecclesiasticus，theSecretsofEnoch，theShemonehesreh(abookofHebrewprayers)，andothers；andthefactthatthiscollectionwasreallymadeAFTERthetimeofJesus，andcouldnothaveoriginatedfromhim，isclearfromthestresswhichitlayson“persecutions“and“falseprophets“——thingswhichwerecertainlynotasourceoftroubleatthetimeJesusissupposedtobespeaking，thoughtheywereatalatertime——aswellasfromtheoccurrenceoftheword“Gentiles，“whichbeinghereusedapparentlyincontra- distinctionto“Christians“couldnotwellbeappropriateatatimewhennorecognizedChristianbodiesasyetexisted。 ButthemostremarkablepointinthisconnectionistheabsolutesilenceoftheGospelofMarkonthesubjectoftheResurrectionandAscension——thatis，oftheORIGINAL Gospel，foritisnowallowedonallhandsthatthetwelveversesMarkxvi。9totheend，arealaterinsertion。Consideringthenatureofthisevent，astoundingindeed，ifphysicallytrue，anduniqueinthehistoryoftheworld，itisstrangethatthisGospel——theearliestwrittenofthefourGospels，andnearestintimetotheactualevidence—— makesnomentionofit。ThenextGospelinpointoftime——thatofMatthew——mentionsthematterratherbrieflyandtimidly，andreportsthestorythatthebodyhadbeenSTOLENfromthesepulchre。Lukeenlargesconsiderablyandgivesawholelongchaptertotheresurrectionandascension； whiletheFourthGospel，writtenfullytwentyyearslaterstill——sayaboutA。D。120——givestwochaptersandaGREAT VARIETYOFDETAILS！ Thisincreaseofdetail，however，asonegetsfartherandfartherfromtheactualeventisjustwhatonealwaysfinds，asIhavesaidbefore，inlegendarytraditions。A veryinterestingexampleofthishaslatelycometolightinthecaseofthetraditionsconcerningthelifeanddeathofthePersianBab。TheBab，asmostofmyreaderswillknow，wastheFounderofagreatreligiousmovementwhichnownumbers(ornumberedbeforetheGreatWar) somemillionsofadherents，chieflyMahommedans，Christians，JewsandParsees。Theperiodofhismissionaryactivitywasfrom1845to1850。HisGospelwassingularlylikethatofJesus——agospeloflovetomankind——only(asmightbeexpectedfromthedifferenceofdate)withanevenwiderandmoredeliberateinclusionofallclasses，creedsandraces，sinnersandsaints；andtheincidentsandentourageofhisministrywerealsosingularlysimilar。 HewasbornatShirazin1820，andgrowingupapromisingboyandyouth，fellattheageOf21undertheinfluenceofacertainSeyyidKazim，leaderofaheterodoxsect，andakindoffore-runnerorJohntheBaptisttotheBab。Theresultwasaperiodofmentaltrouble(likethe“temptationinthewilderness“)，afterwhichtheyouthreturnedtoShirazandattheageoftwenty-fivebeganhisownmission。 HisrealnamewasMirzaAliMuhammad，buthecalledhimselfthenceforthTheBab，i。e。theGate(“IamtheWay“)； andgraduallytheregatheredroundhimdisciples，drawnbythefascinationofhispersonalityandthedevotionofhischaracter。ButwiththerapidincreaseofhisfollowinggreatjealousyandhatredwereexcitedamongtheMullahs，theupholdersofafanaticalandnarrow- mindedMahommedanismandquitecorrespondingtotheScribesandPhariseesoftheNewTestament。BythemhewasdenouncedtotheTurkishGovernment。Hewasarrestedonachargeofcausingpoliticaldisturbance，andwascondemnedtodeath。Amonghisdiscipleswasonefavorite，[1]whowasabsolutelydevotedtohisMasterandrefusedtoleavehimatthelast。Sotogethertheyweresuspendedoverthecitywall(atTabriz)andsimultaneouslyshot。Thiswasonthe8thJuly，1850。 [1]MirzaMuhammadAli；andoneshouldnotethesimilarityofthetwonames。 InNovember1850——orbetweenthatdateandOctober1851，abookappeared，writtenbyoneoftheBb\'searliestandmostenthusiasticdisciples——amerchantofKashan—— andgivinginquitesimpleandunpretendingformarecordoftheaboveevents。Thereisinitnoaccountofmiraclesorofgreatpretensionstogodhoodandthelike。Itisjustaplainhistoryofthelifeanddeathofabelovedteacher。Itwascordiallyreceivedandcirculatedfarandwide；andwehavenoreasonfordoubtingitsessentialveracity。Andevenifprovednowtobeinaccurateinoneortwodetails，thiswouldnotinvalidatethemoraloftherestofthestory——whichisasfollows: AfterthedeathoftheBabagreatpersecutiontookplace(in1852)；thereweremanyBabimartyrs，andforsomeyearsthegeneralfollowerswerescattered。Butintimetheygatheredthemselvestogetheragain；successorstotheoriginalprophetwereappointed——thoughnotwithoutdissensions——andaBabichurch，chieflyatAccaorAcreinSyria，begantobeformed。Itwasduringthisperiodthatagreatnumberoflegendsgrewup——legendsofmiraculousbabyhoodandboyhood，legendsofmiraclesperformedbythematureBab，andsoforth；andwhenthenewly- formingChurchcametolookintothematteritconcluded(quitenaturally！)thatsuchasimplehistoryasIhaveoutlinedabovewouldneverdoforthefoundationofitsplans，nowgrownsomewhatambitious。SoanewGospelwasframed，calledtheTarikh-i-Jadid(“ThenewHistory“ or“ThenewWay“)，embodyingandincludingalotoflegendarymatter，andissuedwiththeauthorityof“theChurch。”Thiswasin1881-2；andcomparingthiswiththeoriginalrecord(calledThepointofKaf)wegetaluminousviewofthegrowthoffableinthosethirtybriefyearswhichhadelapsedsincetheBab\'sdeath。Meanwhileitbecameverynecessaryofcoursetowithdrawfromcirculationasfaraspossibleallcopiesoftheoriginalrecord，lesttheyshouldgivethelietothelater\'Gospel\'；andthisapparentlywasdoneveryeffectively——soeffectivelyindeedthatProfessorEdwardBrowne(towhomtheworldowessomuchonaccountofhislaborsinconnectionwithBabism)，afterarduoussearch，cameatonetimetotheconclusionthattheoriginalwasnolongerextant。Mostfortunately，however，thewell-knownComtedeGobineauhadinthecourseofhisstudiesonEasternReligionsacquiredacopyofThepointofKaf；andthis，afterhisdeath，wasfoundamonghisliterarytreasuresandidentified(aswasmostfitting)byProfessorBrownehimself。 SuchinbriefisthehistoryoftheearlyBabiChurch[1]—— aChurchwhichhasgrownupandexpandedgreatlywithinthememoryofmanyyetliving。Muchmightbewrittenaboutit，butthechiefpointatpresentisforustonotethewell-verifiedandinterestingexampleitgivesoftherapidgrowthinSyriaofareligiouslegendandthereasonswhichcontributedtothisgrowth——andtobewarnedhowmuchmorerapidlysimilarlegendsprobablygrewupinthesamelandinthemiddleoftheFirstCentury，A。D。 ThestoryoftheBabisalsointerestingtousbecause，whilethismassoflegendwasformedaroundit，thereisnopossibledoubtabouttheactualexistenceofahistoricalnucleusinthepersonofMirzaAliMuhammad。 [1]Forliterature，seeEdwardG。Browne\'sTraveller\'sNarrativeontheEpisodeoftheBab(1891)，andhisNewHistoryoftheBabtranslatedfromthePersianoftheTarikh-i-Jadid(Cambridge，1893)。AlsoSermonsandEssaysbyHerbertRix(WilliamsandNorgate，1907)，pp。295-325，“ThePersianBab。” Onthewhole，oneissometimesinclinedtodoubtwhetheranygreatmovementevermakesitselffeltintheworld，withoutdatingfirstfromsomepowerfulpersonalityorgroupofpersonalities，ROUNDwhichtheidealizingandmyth- makinggeniusofmankindtendstocrystallize。Butonemustnotevenherebetoocertain。SomethingoftheApostlePaulweknow，andsomethingof\'John\'theEvangelistandwriteroftheEpistleIJohn；andthatthe\'Christian\'doctrinesdatedlargelyfromthepreachingandteachingofthesetwowecannotdoubt；butPaulneversawJesus(except“intheSpirit“)，nordoesheevermentionthemanpersonally，oranyincidentofhisactuallife(the“crucifiedChrist“beingalwaysanidealfigure)； and\'John\'whowrotetheGospelwascertainlynotthesameasthedisciplewho“layinJesus\'bosom“——thoughanintercalatedverse，thelastbutoneintheGospel，assertstheidentity。[1] [1]Itisobvious，infact，thattheWHOLEofthelastchapterofSt。Johnisalaterinsertion，andagainthatthetwolastversesofthatchapterarelaterthanthechapteritself！ TheremayhavebeenahistoricJesus——andifso，togetareliableoutlineofhislifewouldindeedbeatreasure； butatpresentitwouldseemthereisnosignofthat。IfthehistoricityofJesus，inanydegree，couldbeproved，itwouldgiveusreasonforsupposing——whatIhavepersonallyalwaysbeeninclinedtobelieve——thattherewasalsoahistoricalnucleusforsuchpersonagesasOsiris，Mithra，Krishna，Hercules，Apolloandtherest。Thequestion，infact，narrowsitselfdowntothis，Havetherebeeninthecourseofhumanevolutioncertain，sotospeak，NODAL pointsorperiodsatwhichthepsychologiccurrentsrantogetherandcondensedthemselvesforanewstart；andhaseachsuchnodeorpointofcondensationbeenmarkedbytheappearanceofanactualandheroicman(orwoman) whosuppliedanecessaryimpetusforthenewdeparture，andgavehisnametotheresultingmovement?ORisitsufficienttosupposetheautomaticformationofsuchnodesorstarting-pointswithouttheinterventionofanyspecialheroorgenius，andtoimaginethatineachcasethemyth- makingtendencyofmankindCREATEDalegendaryandinspiringfigureandworshipedthesameforalongperiodafterwardsasagod? AsIhavesaidbefore，thisisaquestionwhich，interestingasitis，isnotreallyveryimportant。ThemainthingbeingthatthepropheticandcreativespiritofmankindHASfromtimetotimeevolvedthosefiguresasidealizationsofits“heart\'sdesire“andplacedahaloroundtheirheads。 ThelongprocessionofthembecomesaREALpieceofHistory——thehistoryoftheevolutionofthehumanheart，andofhumanconsciousness。ButwiththepsychologyofthewholesubjectIshalldealinthenextchapter。 Imayhere，however，dwellforamomentontwootherpointswhichbelongproperlytothischapter。Ihavealreadymentionedthegreatrelianceplacedbytheadvocatesofaunique\'revelation\'onthehighmoralitytaughtintheGospelsandtheNewTestamentgenerally。Thereisnoneedofcoursetochallengethatmoralityortodepreciateitunduly；buttheargumentassumesthatitissogreatlysuperiortoanythingofthekindthathadbeentaughtbeforethatwearecompelledtosupposesomethinglikearevelationtoexplainitsappearance——whereasofcourseanyonefamiliarwiththewritingsofantiquity，amongtheGreeksorRomansorEgyptiansorHindusorlaterJews，knowsperfectlywellthatthereportedsayingsofJesusandtheApostlesmaybeparalleledabundantlyfromthesesources。 IhaveillustratedthisalreadyfromtheSermonontheMount。IfanyonewillglanceattheTestamentoftheTwelvePatriarchs——aJewishbookcomposedabout120B。C——hewillseethatitisfullofmoralprecepts，andespeciallypreceptsofloveandforgiveness，soardentandsonoblethatithardlysuffersinanywaywhencomparedwiththeNewTestamentteaching，andthatconsequentlynospecialmiracleisrequiredtoexplaintheappearanceofthelatter。 ThetwelvePatriarchsinquestionarethetwelvesonsofJacob，andthebookconsistsoftheirsupposeddeathbedscenes，inwhicheachpatriarchinturnreciteshisown(moreorlessimaginary)lifeanddeedsandgivespiouscounseltohischildrenandsuccessors。Itiscomposedinafineandpoeticstyle，andisfullofloftythought，remindfulinscoresofpassagesoftheGospels——wordsandall—— thecoincidencesbeingtoostrikingtobeaccidental。ItevidentlyhadadeepinfluenceontheauthorsoftheGospels，aswellasonSt。Paul。ItaffirmsabeliefinthecomingofaMessiah，andinsalvationfortheGentiles。Thefollowingaresomequotationsfromit:[1]TestamentofZebulun(p。116):“Mychildren，IbidyoukeepthecommandsoftheLord，andshowmercytoyourneighbours，andhavecompassiontowardsall，nottowardsmenonly，butalsotowardsbeasts。”Dan(p。127):“LovetheLordthroughallyourlife，andoneanotherwithatrueheart。”Joseph(p。173):“Iwassick，andtheLordvisitedme；inprison，andmyGodshowedfavoruntome。”Benjamin(p。209): “Forasthesunisnotdefiledbyshiningondungandmire，butratherdriethupbothanddrivethawaytheevilsmell，soalsothepuremind，encompassedbythedefilementsofearth，rathercleanseththemandisnotitselfdefiled。” [1]ThereferencesbeingtotheEditionbyR。H。Charles(1907)。 Ithinkthesequotationsaresufficienttoprovethehighstandardofthisbook，whichwaswrittenintheSecondCenturyB。C。，andFROMwhichtheNewTestamentauthorscopiouslyborrowed。 Theotherpointhastodowithmystatementatthebeginningofthischapterthattwoofthemain\'characteristics\' ofChristianitywereitsinsistenceon(a)atendencytowardsrenunciationoftheworld，andaconsequentcultivationofapurelyspirituallove，and(b)onamoralitywhoseinspirationwasaprivatesenseofdutytoGodratherthanapublicsenseofdutytoone\'sneighborandtosocietygenerally。Ithink，however，thatthelast-mentionedcharacteristicoughttobeviewedinrelationtoathird，namely，(c)theextraordinarilyDEMOCRATICtendencyofthenewReligion。[1]Celsus(A。D。200)jeeredattheearlyChristiansfortheirextremedemocracy:“Itisonlythesimpletons，theignoble，thesenseless——slavesandwomenfolkandchildren——whomtheywishtopersuade[tojointheirchurches]orCANpersuade“——“wool-dressersandcobblersandfullers，themostuneducatedandvulgarpersons，“and“whosoeverisasinner，orunintelligentorafool，inaword，whoeverisgod-forsaken()，himtheKingdomofGodwillreceive。”[2]ThusCelsus，theaccomplished，clever，philosophicandwithalhumorouscritic，laughedatthenewreligionists，andprophesiedtheirspeedyextinction。Neverthelesshewasmistaken。ThereislittledoubtthatjusttheinclusionofwomenandweaklingsandoutcastsdidcontributeLARGELYtothespreadofChristianity(andMithraism)。Itbroughthopeandasenseofhumandignitytothedespisedandrejectedoftheearth。 OftheimmensenumbersoflesserofficialswhocarriedonthevastorganizationoftheRomanEmpire，mostperhaps，weretakenfromtheranksofthefreedmenandquondamslaves，drawnfromagreatvarietyofracesandalreadyfamiliarwithpagancultsofallkinds——Egyptian，Syrian，Chaldean，Iranian，andsoforth。[3]ThisfacthelpedtogivetoChristianity——underthefinetoleranceoftheEmpire—— itsdemocraticcharacterandalsoitswillingnesstoacceptall。Therudeandmenialmasses，whohadhithertobeenalmostbeneaththenoticeofGreekandRomanculture，flockedin；andthoughthiswasdoubtless，astimewenton，asourceofweaknesstotheChurch，andacauseofdissensionandsuperstition，yetitwasintheinevitablelineofhumanevolution，andhadapsychologicalbasiswhichImustnowendeavortoexplain。 [1]Itisimportanttonote，however，thatthissamedemocratictendencywasverymarkedinMithraism。“Ilestcertain，“saysCumont，“qu\'ilafaitsespremieresconquetesdanslesclassesinferieuresdelasocieteetc\'estl\'aunfaitconsiderable；lemithracismeestrestelongtempslareligiondeshumbles。” MysteresdeMithra，p。68。 [2]SeeGlover\'sConflictofReligionsintheearlyRomanEmpire，ch。viii。 [3]SeeToutain，Cultespaiens，vol。ii，conclusion。 XIV。THEMEANINGOFITALL Thegeneraldriftandmeaningofthepresentbookmustnow，I think，frommanyhintsscatteredinthecourseofit，begrowingclear。Butitwillbewellperhapsinthischapter，attheriskofsomerepetition，tobringthewholeargumenttogether。Andtheargumentisthatsincethedawnofhumanityontheearth——manyhundredsofthousandsorperhapsamillionyearsago——therehasbeenaslowpsychologicevolution，agradualdevelopmentorrefinementofConsciousness，whichatacertainstagehasspontaneouslygivenbirthinthehumanracetothephenomenaofreligiousbeliefandreligiousritual——thesephenomena(whetherintheraceatlargeorinanybranchofit)alwaysfollowing，stepbystep，acertainorderdependingonthedegreesofpsychologicevolutionconcerned；andthatitisthisgeneralfactwhichaccountsforthestrangesimilaritiesofbeliefandritualwhichhavebeenobservedallovertheworldandinplacesfarremotefromeachother，andwhichhavebeenbrieflynotedintheprecedingchapters。 Andthemainstagesofthispsychologicevolution——thoseatanyratewithwhichwearehereconcerned——areThree: thestageofSimpleConsciousness，thestageofSelf- consciousness，andathirdStagewhichforwantofabetterwordwemaytermthestageofUniversalConsciousness。 Ofcoursethesethreestagesmayatsomefuturetimebeanalyzedintolesserdegrees，withusefulresult—— butatpresentIonlydesiretodrawattentiontothemintherough，sotospeak，toshowthatitisfromthemandfromtheirpassageoneintoanotherthattherehasflowedbyaperfectlynaturallogicandconcatenationthestrangepanoramaofhumanity\'sreligiousevolution——itssuperstitionsandmagicandsacrificesanddancingsandritualgenerally，andlateritsincantationsandprophecies，andservicesofspeechandverse，andpaintingsandformsofartandfiguresofthegods。AwonderfulPanoramaindeed，orpoemoftheCenturies，or，ifyoulike，World-symphonywiththreegreatleadingmotives！ AndfirstwehavethestageofSimpleConsciousness。Forhundredsofcenturies(wecannotdoubt)ManpossessedadegreeofconsciousnessnotradicallydifferentfromthatofthehigherAnimals，thoughprobablymorequickandvaried。Hesaw，heheard，hefelt，henoted。Heactedorreacted，quicklyorslowly，inresponsetotheseimpressions。 ButtheconsciousnessofhimSELF，asabeingseparatefromhisimpressions，asseparatefromhissurroundings，hadnotyetarisenortakenholdonhim。Hewasaninstinctivepart，ofNature。AndinthisrespecthewasveryneartotheAnimals。Self-consciousnessintheanimals，inagerminalformisthere，nodoubt，butEMBEDDED，sotospeak，inthegeneralworldconsciousness。Itisonthisaccountthattheanimalshavesuchamarvellouslyacuteperceptionandinstinct，beingembeddedinNature。AndprimitiveManhadthesame。Alsowemust，asIhavesaidbefore，allowthatmaninthatstagemusthavehadthesamesortofgraceandperfectionofformandmovementasweadmireinthe(wild)animalsnow。Itwouldbequiteunreasonabletosupposethathe，thecrowninthesamesenseofcreation，wasfromthebeginningalameandill-madeabortion。Foralongperiodthetribesofmen，likethetribesofthehigheranimals，musthavebeen(onthewhole，andallowingforoccasionalprivationsandsufferingsandconflicts)welladaptedtotheirsurroundingsandharmoniouswiththeearthandwitheachother。TheremusthavebeenaperiodresemblingaGoldenAge——someconditionatanyratewhich，comparedwithsubsequentmiseries，meritedtheepithet\'golden。\' ItwasduringthisperiodapparentlythatthesystemofTotemsarose。Thetribesfelttheirrelationshiptotheirwingedandfourfootedmates(includingalsootherobjectsofnature)sodeeplyandintenselythattheyadoptedthelatterastheiremblems。Thepre-civilizationManfairlyworshipped，theanimalsandwasproudtobecalledafterthem。Ofcoursewemodernsfindthisstrange。We，whoseconceptionsofthesebeautifulcreaturesaremostlyderivedfromabroken-downcab-horse，oramelancholymilk-rummagedcowinasootyfield，oradiseasedanddespondentlionoreagleattheZoo，haveneverevenseenorlovedthemandhaveonlywonderedwithourtruecommercialinstinctwhatprofitwecouldextractfromthem。 Butthey，theprimitives，lovedandadmiredtheanimals； theydomesticatedmanyofthembytheforceofanaturalfriendship，[1]andaccordedthemakindofdivinity。ThiswastheageoftribalsolidarityandofalatentsenseofsolidaritywithNature。Andthepointofitallis(withregardtothesubjectwehaveinhand)thatthiswasalsotheagefromwhichbyanaturalevolutionthesenseofReligioncametomankind。IfReligioninmanisthesenseoftiesbindinghisinnerselftothepowersoftheuniversearoundhim，thenitisevidentIthinkthatprimitivemanasIhavedescribedhimpossessedtheREALITYofthissense——thoughsofarburiedandsubconsciousthathewashardlyawareofit。Itwasonlylater，andwiththecomingoftheSecondStage，thatthissensebegantorisedistinctlyintoconsciousness。 [1]Seech。iv。TylorinhisPrimitiveCulture(vol。i，p。460，edn。1903)says:“Thesenseofanabsolutepsychicaldistinctionbetweenmanandbeast，soprevalentinthecivilizedworld，ishardlytobefoundamongthelowerraces。” LetuspassthentotheSecondStage。Thereisamomentintheevolutionofachild——somewhereperhapsabouttheageofthree[1]——whenthesimplealmostanimal-likeconsciousnessofthebabeistroubledbyanewelement——SELF-consciousness。Thechangeissomarked，sodefinite，that(inthedepthoftheinfant\'seyes)youcanalmostSEEittakeplace。Sointheevolutionofthehumanracetherehasbeenaperiod——alsomarkedanddefinite，thoughextendingintermittentoveravastintervaloftime——whenonmeningeneraltheredawnedtheconsciousnessofTHEMSELVES，oftheirownthoughtsandactions。TheoldsimpleacceptanceofsensationsandexperiencesgaveplacetoREFLECTION。 Thequestionarose:“HowdothesesensationsandexperiencesaffectME?Whatcan_I_dotomodifythem，toencouragethepleasurable，toavoidorinhibitthepainful，andsoon?“Fromthatmomentanewmotivewasaddedtolife。Themindrevolvedroundanewcentre。Itbegantospinlikealittleeddyrounditsownaxis。ItstudiedITSELFfirstandbecamedeeplyconcernedaboutitsownpleasuresandpains，losingtouchthewhilewiththelargerlifewhichoncedominatedit——thelifeofNature，thelifeoftheTribe。Theoldunityofthespirit，theoldsolidarity，werebrokenup。 [1]SeeBucke\'sCosmicConsciousness(Philadelphia，1901)，pp。1 and39；alsoW。McDougall\'sSocialPsychology(1908)，p。146—— wherethesameageistentativelysuggested。 Ihavetouchedonthissubjectbefore，butitissoimportantthatthereadermustexcuserepetition。Therecameaninevitableseverance，aninevitableperiodofstrife。Themagicmirrorofthesoul，reflectingnatureasheretoforeincalmandsimplegrace，wassuddenlycrackedacross。 Thenewself-consciousman(notallatoncebutgradually) becamealienatedfromhistribe。Helapsedintostrifewithhisfellows。Ambition，vanity，greed，theloveofdomination，thedesireforpropertyandpossessions，setin。 Theinfluencesoffellowshipandsolidaritygrewfeebler。 HebecamealienatedfromhisgreatMother。Hisinstinctswerelessandlesssure——andthatinproportionasbrain- activityandself-regardingcalculationtooktheirplace。 Loveandmutualhelpwerelesscompellinginproportionasthedemandsofself-interestgrewlouderandmoreinsistent。 Ultimatelythecrisiscame。Cainmurderedhisbrotherandbecameanoutcast。TheGardenofEdenandtheGoldenAgeclosedtheirgatesbehindhim。Heentereduponaperiodofsuffering——aperiodoflaborandtoilandsorrowsuchashehadneverbeforeknown，andsuchastheanimalscertainlyhaveneverknown。Andinthatdistressfulstate，inthatdolefulvalleyofhislongpilgrimage，hestillremainsto-day。 Thushasthecankerofself-consciousnessdoneitswork。 Itwouldbefoolishanduselesstorailagainsttheprocess，ortoblameanyoneforit。Ithadtobe。Throughthisdismalvaleofself-seekingmankindhadtopass——ifonlyinorderatlasttofindtheTrueSelfwhichwas(andstillremains)itsgoal。Thepilgrimagewillnotlastforever。 IndeedtherearesignsthattherecentGreatWarandthefollowingEventsmarkthelowestpointofdescentandthebeginningofthehumansoul\'sreturntosanityandascenttowardstheheavenlyKingdom。NodoubtManwillarriveagainSOMEdayatthegrace，composureandleisurelybeautyoflifewhichtheanimalsrealizedlongago，thoughheseemsapreciouslongtimeaboutit；andwhenallthisnightmareofGreedandVanityandSelf-conceitandCrueltyandLustofoppressionanddomination，whichmarksthepresentperiod，ispast——anditWILLpass——thenHumanitywillcomeagaintoitsGoldenAgeandtothatParadiseofredemptionandpeacewhichhasforsolongbeenprophesied。 ButwearedealingwiththeoriginsofReligion；andwhatIwantthereadertoseeisthatitwasjustthisbreakingupoftheoldpsychologicunityandcontinuityofmanwithhissurroundingswhichledtothewholepanoramaoftheritualsandcreeds。Man，centeringroundhimself，necessarilybecameanexilefromthegreatWhole。Hecommittedthesin(ifitwasasin)ofSeparation。AnyhowNemesiswasswift。Thesenseoflonelinessandthesenseofguiltcameonhim。TherealizationofhimselfasaseparateconsciousbeingnecessarilyledtohisattributingasimilarconsciousnessofsomekindtothegreatLifearoundhim。Actionandreactionareequalandopposite。Whateverhemayhavefeltbefore，itbecamecleartohimnowthatbeingsmoreorlesslikehimself——thoughdoubtlessvasterandmorepowerful——movedbehindtheveilofthevisibleworld。 FromthatmomentthebeliefinMagicandDemonsandGodsaroseorslowlydevelopeditself；andinthemidstofthisturmoilofperilousandconflictingpowers，heperceivedhimselfanalienandanexile，strickenwithFear，strickenwiththesenseofSin。Ifbefore，hehadexperiencedfear——inthekindofautomaticwayofself-preservationinwhichtheanimalsfeelit——henow，withfeveredself- regardandexcitedimagination，experienceditindoubleortrebledegree。Andif，before，hehadbeenawarethatfortuneandchancewerenotalwaysfriendlyandpropitioustohisdesigns，henowperceivedorthoughtheperceivedineveryadversehappeningthedeliberatepersecutionofthepowers，andanaccusationofguiltdirectedagainsthimforsomeneglectordeficiencyinhisrelationtothem。 Hencebyaperfectlylogicalandnaturalsequencetherearosethebeliefinother-worldorsupernaturalpowers，whetherpurelyfortuitousandmagicalormoredistinctlyrationalandpersonal；therearosethesenseofSin，orofoffenceagainstthesepowers；therearoseacomplexritualofExpiation——whetherbypersonalsacrificeandsufferingorbythesacrificeofvictims。Therearosetooawholecatalogueofceremonies——ceremoniesofInitiation，bywhichthenoviceshouldlearntokeepwithinthegoodgraceofthePowers，andundertheblessingofhisTribeandtheprotectionofitsTotem；ceremoniesofEucharisticmealswhichshouldrestorethelostsanctityofthecommonlifeandremovethesenseofguiltandisolation；ceremoniesofMarriageandrulesandritesofsex-connection，fittedtocurbtheterrificanddemonicviolenceofpassionswhichelseindeedmighteasilyrendthecommunityasunder。 Andsoon。Itiseasytoseethatgrantedanearlystageofsimpleunreflectingnature-consciousness，andgrantingthisbrokenintoand，afteratime，shatteredbythearrivalofSELF-consciousnesstherewouldnecessarilyfollowinspontaneousyetlogicalorderawholeseriesofreligiousinstitutionsandbeliefs，whichphantasmalandunrealastheymayappeartous，werebynomeansunrealtoourancestors。Itiseasyalsotoseethatasthepsychologicalprocesswasnecessarilyofsimilargeneralcharacterineverybranchofthehumanraceandallovertheworld，sothereligiousevolutions——thecreedsandrituals——tookonmuchthesamecomplexioneverywhere；and，thoughtheydifferedindetailsaccordingtoclimateandotherinfluences，ranonsuchremarkablyparallellinesaswehavenoted。 Finally，tomakethewholematterclear，letmerepeatthatthisevent，theinbreakofSelf-consciousness，tookplace，orBEGANtotakeplace，anenormoustimeago，perhapsinthebeginningoftheNeolithicAge。Idwellontheword“began“becauseIthinkitisprobablethatinitsbeginnings，andforalongperiodafter，thisnewbornconsciousnesshadaninfantileandveryinnocentcharacter，quitedifferentfromitslaterandmoreaggressiveforms——justasweseeself-consciousnessinalittlechildhasacharmandagracewhichitloseslaterinaboastfulorgraspingboyhoodandmanhood。Sowemayunderstandthatthoughself-consciousnessmayhavebeguntoappearinthehumanraceatthisveryearlytime(andmoreorlesscontemporaneouslywiththeinventionofveryrudetoolsandunformedlanguage)，thereprobablydidelapseaverylongperiod—— perhapsthewholeoftheNeolithicAge——beforetheevilsofthissecondstageofhumanevolutioncametoahead。 MaxMullerhaspointedoutthatamongthewordswhicharecommontothevariousbranchesofAryanlanguage，andwhichthereforebelongtotheveryearlyperiodbeforetheseparationofthesebranches，therearenotfoundthewordsdenotingwarandconflictandtheweaponsandinstrumentsofstrife——afactwhichsuggestsalongcontinuanceofpeacefulhabitamongmankindAFTERthefirstformationanduseoflanguage。 Thatthebirthoflanguageandthebirthofself-consciousnesswereAPPROXIMATELYsimultaneousisaprobabletheory，andonefavoredbymanythinkers；[1]buttheslowbeginningsofbothmusthavebeensoveryprotractedthatitisperhapsuselesstoattemptanyveryexactdetermination。LateresearchesseemtoshowthatlanguagebeganinwhatmightbecalledTRIBALexpressionsofmoodandfeeling(holophraseslike“go-hunting-kill-bear“)withoutreferencetoindividualpersonalitiesandrelationships； andthatitwasonlyatalaterstagethatwordslike“I“ and“Thou“cameintouse，andtheholophrasesbrokeupinto“partsofspeech“andtookonadefinitegrammaticalstructure。[2]Iftrue，thesefactspointclearlytoalongforegroundofrudecommunallanguage，somethinglikethoughgreatlysuperiortothatoftheanimals，precedingorpreparingtheevolutionofSelf-consciousnessproper，intheformsof“I“and“Thou“andthegrammarofpersonalactionsandrelations。“Theyshowthatthepluralandallotherformsofnumberingrammararisenotbymultiplicationofanoriginal\'I，\'butbyselectionandgradualEXCLUSIONfromanoriginalcollective\'we。\'“[3]Accordingtothisviewthebirthofself-consciousnessinthehumanfamily，orinanyparticularraceorsectionofthehumanfamily，musthavebeenequallyslowandhesitating；anditwouldbeeasytoimagine，asjustsaid，thattheremayhavebeenaverylongand\'golden\'periodatitsbeginning，beforethenewconsciousnesstookonitsmaturerandharsherforms。 [1]Dr。Bucke(CosmicConsciousness)insistsontheirsimultaneity，butplacesbotheventsexcessivelyfarback，asweshouldthink，i。e。200，000or300，000yearsago。Possiblyhedoesnotdifferentiatesufficientlybetweentherudelanguageoftheholophraseandthemuchlatergrowthofformedandgrammaticalspeech。 [2]SeeA。E。Crawley\'sIdeaoftheSoul，ch。ii；JaneHarrison\'sThemis，pp。473-5；andE。J。Payne\'sHistoryoftheNewWorldcalledAmerica，vol。ii，pp。115sq。，wherethebeginningofself-consciousnessisassociatedwiththebreak-upoftheholophrase。 [3]Themis，p。471。 AllestimatesoftheTimeinvolvedintheseevolutionsofearlymanarenotoriouslymostdivergentandmostdifficulttobesureof；butifwetake500，000yearsagoforthefirstappearanceofveritableMan(homoprimigenius)，[2] and(followingProfessorW。J。Sollas)[3]30，000or40，000yearsagoforthefirsttool-usingmen(homosapiens)oftheChelleanAge(palaeolithic)，15，000fortherock-paintingsandinscriptionsoftheAurignacianandMagdalenianpeoples，and5，000yearsagoforthefirstactualhistoricalrecordsthathavecomedowntous，wemayperhapsgetsomethinglikeaproportionbetweenthedifferentperiods。Thatistosay，halfamillionyearsforthepurelyanimalmaninhisdifferentformsandgradesofevolution。ThensomewheretowardstheendofpalaeolithicorcommencementofneolithictimesSelf-consciousnessdimlybeginningand，aftersome10，000yearsofslowgerminationandpre-historicculture，culminatingintheactualhistoricperiodandthedawnofcivilization40or50centuriesago，andto-day(wehope)，reachingtheclimaxwhichprecedesorforetellsitsabatementandtransformation。 [2]ThoughDr。ArthurKeith，AncientTypesofMan(1911)，pp。93 and102，putsthefigureatmorelikeamillion。 [3]SeeAncientHunters(1915)；alsoHastings\'sEncycl。art。 “Ethnology“；andHavelockEllis，“TheOriginofWar，“inThePhilosophyofConflictandotherEssays。 NodoubtmanygeologistsandanthropologistswouldfavorperiodsgreatlyLONGERthanthoseherementioned；butpossiblytherewouldbesomeagreementastotheRATIO toeachotherofthetimesconcerned:thatis，thesaidauthoritieswouldprobablyallowforaVERYlonganimal-man[1]- periodcorrespondingtothefirststage；foramuchshorteraggressively\'selfconscious\'period，correspondingtotheSecondStage——perhapslastingonlyonethirtiethorfiftiethofthetimeofthefirstperiod；andthen——iftheylookedforwardatalltoathirdstage——wouldbeinclinedforobviousreasonstoattributetothatagainaveryextendedduration。 [1]Iusethephrase\'animal-man\'here，notwithanyflavorofcontemptorreprobation，asthedearVictorianswouldhaveusedit，butwithasenseofgenuinerespectandadmirationsuchasonefeelstowardstheanimalsthemselves。 However，allthisisveryspeculative。ToreturntothedifficultyaboutLanguageandtheconsiderationofthoseearlytimeswhenwordsadequatetotheexpressionofreligiousormagicalideassimplydidnotexist，itisclearthattheonlyavailable，oratanyratetheCHIEFmeansofexpression，inthosetimes，musthaveconsistedingestures，inattitudes，inceremonialACTIONS——inamoreorlesselaborateritual，infact。[1]SuchideasasAdoration，Thanksgiving，confessionofGuilt，placationofWrath，Expiation，Sacrifice，CelebrationofCommunity，sacramentalAtonement，andascoreofotherscouldatthattimebeexpressedbyappropriaterites——andasamatteroffactareoftensoexpressedevennow——MOREreadilyanddirectlythanbylanguage。 \'Dancing\'——whenthatwordcametobeinvented——didnotmeanamereflingingaboutofthelimbsinrecreation，butanyexpressivemovementsofthebodywhichmightbeusedtoconveythefeelingsofthedanceroroftheaudiencewhomherepresented。Andsothe\'religiousdance\'becameamostimportantpartofritual。 [1]Seech。ixandxi。 SomuchforthesecondstageofConsciousness。LetusnowpassontotheThirdStage。Itisevidentthattheprocessofdisruptionanddissolution——disruptionbothofthehumanmind，andofsocietyroundaboutit，duetotheactionoftheSecondStage——couldnotgoonindefinitely。 Therearehundredsofthousandsofpeopleatthepresentmomentwhoaredyingofmentalorbodilydisease——theirnervoussystemsbrokendownbytroublesconnectedwithexcessiveself-consciousness——selfishfearsandworriesandrestlessness。Societyatlargeisperishingbothinindustryandinwarfarethroughthedominationinitsorganismoftheself-motivesofgreedandvanityandambition。Thiscannotgoonforever。Thingsmusteithercontinueinthesamestrain，inwhichcaseitisevidentthatweareapproachingacrisisofutterdissolution，ORanewelementmustenterin，anewinspirationoflife，andwe(asindividuals) andthesocietyofwhichweformapart，mustmakeafreshstart。Whatisthatnewandnecessaryelementofregeneration? Itisevidentthatitmustbeanewbirth——theentryintoafurtherstageofconsciousnesswhichmustsupersedethepresentone。Throughsomesuchcrisisaswehavespokenof，throughtheextremeofsuffering，themindofMan，ASATPRESENTCONSTITUTED，hastodie。[1]Self-consciousnesshastodie，andbeburied，andriseagaininanewform。 Probablynothingbuttheextremeofsufferingcanbringthisabout。[2]Andwhatisthisnewforminwhichconsciousnesshastorearise?Obviously，sincethemiseriesoftheworldduringcountlesscenturieshavedatedfromthatfatalattempttomakethelittlepersonalSELFthecentreofeffortandactivity，andsincethatattempthasinevitablyledtodisunityanddiscordanddeath，bothwithintheminditselfandwithinthebodyofsociety，thereisnothingleftbutthereturntoaConsciousnesswhichshallhaveUnityasitsfoundation-principle，andwhichshallproceedfromthedirectSENSEANDPERCEPTIONofsuchanunitythroughoutcreation。ThesimplemindofEarlyManandtheAnimalswasofthatcharacter——aconsciousness，sotospeak，continuousthroughnature，andthoughrunningtopointsofilluminationandfociofspecialactivityinindividuals，yetatnopointessentiallybrokenorimprisonedinseparatecompartments。(AnditisthisCONTINUITYoftheprimitivemindwhichenablesus，asIhavealreadyexplained，tounderstandthemysteriousworkingsofinstinctandintuition。)