Preface
THEimmediateoccasionforpublishingtheseoutlinesistheneedofplacinginthebandsofmyhearersaguidetomyprofessionallecturesuponthePhilosophyofRight。HithertoIhaveusedaslecturesthatportionoftheEncyclopaediaofthePhilosophicSciences(1817)whichdealswiththissubject。Thepresentworkcoversthesamegroundinamoredetailedandsystematicway。
Butnowthattheseoutlinesaretobeprintedandgiventothegeneralpublic，thereisanopportunityofexplainingpointswhichinlecturingwouldbecommentedonorally。Thusthenotesareenlargedinordertoincludecognateorconflictingideas，furtherconsequencesofthetheoryadvocated，andthelike。Theseexpandednoteswill，itishoped，throwlightuponthemoreabstractsubstanceofthetext，andpresentamorecompleteviewofsomeoftheideascurrantinourowntime。
Moreover，thereisalsosubjoined，asfaraswascompatiblewiththepurposeofacompendium，anumberofnotes，rangingoverastillgreaterlatitude。A
compendiumproper，likeascience，hasitssubject-matteraccuratelylaidout。
Withtheexception，possibly，ofoneortwoslightadditions，itschieftaskistoarrangetheessentialphasesofitsmaterial。Thismaterialisregardedasfixedandknown，justastheformisassumedtobegovernedbywell-ascertainedrules。A
treatiseinphilosophyisusuallynotexpectedtobeconstructedonsuchapattern，perhapsbecausepeoplesupposethataphilosophicalproductisaPenelope\'swebwhichmustbestartedaneweveryday。
Thistreatisediffersfromtheordinarycompendiummainlyinitsmethodofprocedure。Itmustbeunderstoodattheoutsetthatthephilosophicwayofadvancingfromonemattertoanother，thegeneralspeculativemethod，whichistheonlykindofscientificproofavailableinphilosophy，isessentiallydifferentfromeveryother。Onlyaclearinsightintothenecessityforthisdifferencecansnatchphilosophyoutoftheignominiousconditionintowhichithasfalleninourday。True，thelogicalrules，suchasthoseofdefinition，classification，andinferencearenowgenerallyrecognisedtobeinadequateforspeculativescience。
Perhapsitisnearerthemarktosaythattheinadequacyoftheruleshasbeenfeltratherthanrecognised，becausetheyhavebeencountedasmerefetters，andthrownasidetomakeroomforfreespeechfromtheheart，fancyandrandomintuition。Butwhenreflectionandrelationsofthoughtwererequired，peopleunconsciouslyfellbackupontheold-fashionedmethodofinferenceandformalreasoning。InmyScienceofLogicIhavedevelopedthenatureofspeculativescienceindetail。Henceinthistreatiseanexplanationofmethodwillbeaddedonlyhereandthere。Inaworkwhichisconcrete，andpresentssuchadiversityofphases，wemaysafelyneglecttodisplayateveryturnthelogicalprocess，andmaytakeforgrantedanacquaintancewiththescientificprocedure。Besides，itmayreadilybeobservedthattheworkasawhole，andalsotheconstructionoftheparts，restuponthelogicalspirit。Fromthisstandpoint，especially，isitthatI
wouldlikethistreatisetobeunderstoodandjudged。Insuchaworkasthiswearedealingwithascience，andinasciencethemattermustnotbeseparatedfromtheform。
Some，whoarethoughttobetakingaprofoundview，areheardtosaythateverythingturnsuponthesubject-matter，andthattheformmaybeignored。Thebusinessofanywriter，andespeciallyofthephilosopher，is，astheysay，todiscover，utter，anddiffusetruthandadequateconceptions。Inactualpracticethisbusinessusuallyconsistsinwarmingupanddistributingonallsidesthesameoldcabbage。Perhapstheresultofthisoperationmaybetofashionandarousethefeelings；thougheventhissmallmeritmayberegardedassuperfluous，for“theyhaveMosesandtheprophets:letthemhearthem。”Indeed，wehavegreatcausetobeamazedatthepretentioustoneofthosewhotakethisview。Theyseemtosupposethatuptillnowthedisseminationoftruththroughouttheworldhasbeenfeeble。Theythinkthatthewarmed-upcabbagecontainsnewtruths，especiallytobelaidtoheartatthepresenttime。Andyetweseethatwhatisononesideannouncedastrue，isdrivenoutandsweptawaybythesamekindofworn-outtruth。Outofthishurly-burlyofopinions，thatwhichisneithernewnorold，butpermanent，cannotberescuedandpreservedexceptbyscience。
Further，astorights，ethicallife，andthestate，thetruthisasoldasthatinwhichitisopenlydisplayedandrecognised，namely，thelaw，morality，andreligion。Butasthethinkingspiritisnotsatisfiedwithpossessingthetruthinthissimpleway，itmustconceiveit，andthusacquirearationalformforacontentwhichisalreadyrationalimplicitly。Inthiswaythesubstanceisjustifiedbeforethebaroffreethought。Freethoughtcannotbesatisfiedwithwhatisgiventoit，whetherbytheexternalpositiveauthorityofthestateorhumanagreement，orbytheauthorityofinternalfeelings，theheart，andthewitnessofthespirit，whichcoincidesunquestioninglywiththeheart。Itisthenatureoffreethoughtrathertoproceedoutofitsownself，andhencetodemandthatitshouldknowitselfasthoroughlyonewithtruth。
Theingenuousmindadhereswithsimpleconvictiontothetruthwhichispubliclyacknowledged。Onthisfoundationitbuildsitsconductandwayoflife。Inoppositiontothisnaiveviewofthingsrisesthesupposeddifficultyofdetectingamidsttheendlessdifferencesofopinionanythingofuniversalapplication。Thistroublemayeasilybesupposedtospringfromaspiritofearnestinquiry。Butinpointoffactthosewhopridethemselvesupontheexistenceofthisobstacleareintheplightofhimwhocannotseethewoodsforthetrees。Theconfusionisalloftheirownmaking。Nay，more:thisconfusionisanindication。thattheyareinfactnotseekingforwhatisuniversallyvalidinrightandtheethicalorder。Iftheywereatpainstofindthatout，andrefusedtobusythemselveswithemptyopinionandminutedetail，theywouldadheretoandactinaccordancewithsubstantiveright，namelythecommandsofthestateandtheclaimsofsociety。Butafurtherdifficultyliesinthefactthatmanthinks，andseeksfreedomandabasisforconductinthought。Divineashisrighttoactinthiswayis，itbecomesawrong，whenittakestheplaceofthinking。Thoughtthenregardsitselfasfreeonlywhenitisconsciousofbeingatvariancewithwhatisgenerallyrecognised，andofsettingitselfupassomethingoriginal。
Theideathatfreedomofthoughtandmindisindicatedonlybydeviationfrom，orevenhostilitytowhatiseverywhererecognised，ismostpersistentwithregardtothestate。Theessentialtaskofaphilosophyofthestatewouldthusseemtobethediscoveryandpublicationofanewandoriginaltheory。
Whenweexaminethisideaandthewayitisapplied，wearealmostledtothinkthatnostateorconstitutionhaseverexisted，ornowexists。Wearetemptedtosupposethatwemustnowbeginandkeeponbeginningafreshforever。Wearetofancythatthefoundingofthesocialorderhasdependeduponpresentdevicesanddiscoveries。Astonature，philosophy，itisadmitted，hastounderstanditasitis。Thephilosophers\'stonemustbeconcealedsomewhere，wesay，innatureitself，asnatureisinitselfrational。Knowledgemust，therefore，examine，apprehendandconceivethereasonactuallypresentinnature。Notwiththesuperficialshapesandaccidentsofnature，butwithitseternalharmony，thatistosay，itsinherentlawandessence，knowledgehastocope。Buttheethicalworldorthestate，whichisinfactreasonpotentlyandpermanentlyactualisedinself-consciousness，isnotpermittedtoenjoythehappinessofbeingreasonatall。
FootnoteTherearetwokindsoflaws，lawsofnatureandlawsofright。Thelawsofnaturearesimplythere，andarevalidastheyare。Theycannotbegainsaid，althoughincertaincasestheymaybetransgressed。Inordertoknowlawsofnature，wemustgettoworktoascertainthem。fortheyaretrue，andonlyourideasofthemcanbefalse。Oftheselawsthemeasureisoutsideofus。Ourknowledgeaddsnothingtothem，anddoesnotfurthertheiroperation。Onlyourknowledgeofthemexpands。Theknowledgeofrightispartlyofthesamenatureandpartlydifferent。Thelawsofrightalsoaresimplythere，andwehavetobecomeacquaintedwiththem。Inthiswaythecitizenhasamoreorlessfirmholdofthemastheyaregiventohim，andthejuristalsoabidesbythesamestandpoint。Butthereisalsoadistinction。Inconnectionwiththelawsofrightthespiritofinvestigationisstirredup，andourattentionisturnedtothefactthatthelaws，becausetheyaredifferent，arenotabsolute。Lawsofrightareestablishedandhandeddownbymen。Theinnervoicemustnecessarilycollideoragreewiththem。Mancannotbelimitedtowhatispresentedtohim，butmaintainsthathehasthestandardofrightwithinhimself。Hemaybesubjecttothenecessityandforceofexternalauthority，butnotinthesamewayasheistothenecessityofnature；foralwayshisinnerbeingsaystohimhowathingoughttobe，andwithinhimselfhefindstheconfirmationorlackofconfirmationofwhatisgenerallyaccepted。Innaturethehighesttruthisthatalawis。Inrightathingisnotvalidbecauseitis，sinceeveryonedemandsthatitshallconformtohisstandard。Hencearisesapossibleconflictbetweenwhatisandwhatoughttobe，betweenabsoluteunchangingrightandthearbitrarydecisionofwhatoughttoberight。Suchdivisionandstrifeoccuronlyonthesoilofthespirit。Thustheuniqueprivilegeofthespiritwouldappeartoleadtodiscontentandunhappiness，andfrequentlywearedirectedtonatureincontrastwiththefluctuationsoflife。Butitisexactlyintheoppositionarisingbetweenabsoluteright，andthatwhichthearbitrarywillseekstomakeright，thattheneedliesofknowingthoroughlywhatrightis。Menmustopenlymeetandfacetheirreason，andconsidertherationalityofright。Thisisthesubject-matterofourscienceincontrastwithjurisprudence，whichoftenhastodomerelywithcontradictions。MoreovertheworldoftodayhasanimperativeneedtomakethisinvestigationInancienttimes，respectandreverenceforthelawwereuniversal。Butnowthefashionofthetimehastakenanotherturn，andthoughtconfrontseverythingwhichhasbeenapproved。Theoriesnowsetthemselvesinoppositiontoreality，andmakeasthoughtheywereabsolutelytrueandnecessary。Andthereisnowmorepressingneedtoknowandconceivethethoughtsuponright。
Sincethoughthasexalteditself-istheessentialform，wemustnowbecarefultoapprehendrightalsoasthought。Itwouldlookasthoughthedoorwerethrownopenforeverycasualopinion，whenthoughtisthusmadetosuperveneuponright。Buttruethoughtofathingisnotanopinion，buttheconceptionofthethingitself。Theconceptionofthethingdoesnotcometousbynature。
Everymanhasfingers，andmayhavebrushandcolours，butheisnotbyreasonofthatapainter。
Soisitwiththought。Thethoughtofrightisnotathingwhicheverymanhasatfirsthand。Truethinkingisthoroughacquaintancewiththeobject。Henceourknowledgemustbescientific。
Onthecontrary，thespiritualuniverseislookeduponasabandonedbyGod，andgivenoverasapreytoaccidentandchance。Asinthiswaythedivineiseliminatedfromtheethicalworld，truthmustbesoughtoutsideofit。Andsinceatthesametimereasonshouldanddoesbelongtotheethicalworld，truth，beingdivorcedfromreason，isreducedtoamerespeculation。Thusseemstoarisethenecessityanddutyofeverythinkertopursueacareerofhisown。Notthatheneedstoseekforthephilosophers\'stone，sincethephilosophisingofourdayhassavedhimthetrouble，andeverywould-bethinkerisconvincedthathepossessesthestonealreadywithoutsearch。Buttheseerraticpretensionsare，asitindeedhappens，ridiculedbyallwho，whethertheyareawareofitornot，areconditionedintheirlivesbythestate，and-findtheirmindsandwillssatisfiedinit。These，whoincludethemajorityifnotall，regardtheoccupationofphilosophersasagame，sometimesplayful，sometimesearnest，sometimesentertaining，sometimesdangerous，butalwaysasameregame。Boththisrestlessandfrivolousreflectionandalsothistreatmentaccordedtoitmightsafelybelefttotaketheirowncourse，wereitnotthatbetwixtthemphilosophyisbroughtintodiscreditandcontempt。Themostcrueldespiteisdonewheneveryoneisconvincedofhisabilitytopassjudgmentupon，anddiscardphilosophywithout。anyspecialstudy。Nosuchscornisheapeduponanyotherartorscience。
Inpointoffactthepretentiousutterancesofrecentphilosophyregardingthestatehavebeenenoughtojustifyanyonewhocaredtomeddlewiththequestion，intheconvictionthathecouldprovehimselfaphilosopherbyweavingaphilosophyoutofhisownbrain。Notwithstandingthisconviction，thatwhichpassesforphilosophyhasopenlyannouncedthattruthcannotbeknown。
Thetruthwithregardtoethicalideals，thestate，thegovernmentandtheconstitutionascends，soitdeclares，outofeachman\'sheart，feelingandenthusiasm。Suchdeclarationshavebeenpouredespeciallyintotheeagerearsoftheyoung。Thewords“Godgivethtruthtohischoseninsleep“
havebeenappliedtoscience；henceeverysleeperhasnumberedhimselfamongstthechosen。Butwhathedealswithinsleepisonlythewaresofsleep。Mr。Fries，oneoftheleadersofthisshallow-mindedhostofphilosophers，onapublicfestiveoccasion，nowbecomecelebrated，hasnothesitatedtogiveutterancetothefollowing，notionofthestateandconstitution:“Whenanationisruledbyacommonspirit，thenfrombelow，outofthepeople，willcomelifesufficientforthedischargeofallpublicbusiness。Livingassociations，unitedindissolublybytheholybondoffriendship，willdevotethemselvestoeverysideofnationalservice，andeverymeansforeducatingthepeople。”Thisisthelastdegreeofshallowness，becauseinitscienceislookeduponasdeveloping，notoutofthou-htorconception，butoutofdirectperceptionandrandomfancy。Nowtheorganicconnectionofthemanifoldbranchesofthesocialsystemisthearchitectonicofthestate\'srationality，andinthissupremescienceofstatearchitecturethestrengthofthewhole，ismadetodependupontheharmonyofalltheclearlymarkedphasesofpubliclife，andthestabilityofeverypillar，arch，andbuttressofthesocialedifice。Andyettheshallowdoctrine，ofwhichwehavespokenpermitsthiselaboratestructuretomeltandloseitselfinthebrewandstewofthe“heart，friendship，andinspiration。”Epicurus，itissaid，believedthattheworldgenerallyshouldbegivenovertoeachindividual\'sopinionsandwhimsandaccordingtotheviewwearecriticising，theethicalfabricshouldbetreatedinthesameway。Bythisoldwives\'decoction，whichconsistsinfoundinguponthefeelingswhathasbeenformanycenturiesthelabourofreasonandunderstanding，wenolongerneedtheguidanceofanyrulingconceptionofthought。OnthispointGoethe\'sMephistopheles，andthepoetisagoodauthority，hasaremark，whichIhavealreadyusedelsewhere:
“VerachtenurVerstandundWissenschaft，desMenschenallerh?chsteGaben-
SohastdemTeufeldichergbenundmusstzuGrundegehn。”
Itisnosurprisethattheviewjustcriticisedshouldappearintheformofpiety。Where，indeed，hasthiswhirlwindofimpulsenotsoughttojustifyitself?IngodlinessandtheBibleithasimagineditselfabletofindauthorityfordespisingorderandlaw。And，infact，itispietyofthesortwhichhasreducedthewholeorganisedsystemoftruthtoelementaryintuitionandfeeling。Butpietyoftherightkindleavesthisobscureregion，andcomesoutintothedaylight，wheretheideaunfoldsandrevealsitself。Outofitssanctuaryitbringsareverenceforthelawandtruthwhichareabsoluteandexaltedaboveallsubjectivefeeling。
Theparticularkindofevilconsciousnessdevelopedbythewishy-washyeloquencealreadyalludedto，maybedetectedinthefollowingway。Itismostunspiritual，whenitspeaksmostofthespirit。Itisthemostdeadandleathern，whenittalksofthescopeoflife。Whenitisexhibitingthegreatestself-seekingandvanityithasmostonitstonguethewords“people“and“nation。”Butitspeculiarmark，foundonitsveryforehead，isitshatredoflaw。Rightandethicalprinciple，theactualworldofrightandethicallifeareapprehendedinthought，andbythoughtaregivendefinite，general，andrationalform，andthisreasonedrightfindsexpressioninlaw。Butfeeling，whichseeksitsownpleasure，andconscience，whichfindsrightinprivateconviction，regardthelawastheirmostbitterfoe。Theright，whichtakestheshapeoflawandduty，isbyfeelinglookeduponasashackleordeadcoldletter。Inthislawitdoesnotrecogniseitselfanddoesnotfinditselffree。Yetthelawisthereasonoftheobject，andrefusestofeelingtheprivilegeofwarmingitselfatitsprivatehearth。Hencethelaw，asweshalloccasionallyobserveristheShibboleth，bymeusofwhicharedetectedthefalsebrethrenandfriendsoftheso-calledpeople。
Inasmuchasthepurestcharlatanismhaswonthenameofphilosophy，andhassucceededinconvincingthepublicthatitspracticesarephilosophy，ithasnowbecomealmostadisgracetospeakinaphilosophicwayaboutthestate。Norcanitbetakenill，ifhonestmenbecomeimpatient，whenthesubjectisbroached。Stilllessisitasurprisethatthegovernmenthasatlastturneditsattentiontothisfalsephilosophising。Withusphilosophyisnotpractisedasaprivateart，asitwasbytheGreeks，buthasapublicplace，andshouldthereforebeemployedonlyintheserviceofthestate。Thegovernmenthas，uptillnow，shownsuchconfidenceinthescholarsinthisdepartmentastoleavethesubjectmatterofphilosophywhollyintheirhands。Hereandthere，perhaps，hasbeenshowntothissciencenotconfidence-somuchasindifference，andprofessorshipshavebeenretainedasamatteroftradition。InFrance，asfarasIamaware，theprofessionalteachingofmetaphysicsatleasthasfallenintodesuetude。Inanycasetheconfidenceofthestatehasbeenillrequitedbytheteachersofthissubject。Or，ifweprefertoseeinthestatenotconfidence，butindifference，thedecayoffundamentalknowledgemustbelookeduponasaseverepenance。Indeed，shallownessistoallappearancemostendurableandmostinharmonywiththemaintenanceoforderandpeace，whenitdoesnottouchorhintatanyrealissue。
Henceitwouldnotbenecessarytobringitunderpubliccontrol，ifthestatedidnotrequiredeeperteachingandinsight，andexpectsciencetosatisfytheneed。Yetthisshallowness，notwithstandingitsseeminginnocence，doesbearuponsociallife，rightanddutygenerally，advancingprincipleswhicharetheveryessenceofsuperficiality。These，aswehavelearnedsodecidedlyfromPlato，aretheprinciplesoftheSophists，accordingtowhichthebasisofrightissubjectiveaimsandopinions，subjectivefeelingandprivateconviction。Theresultofsuchprinciplesisquiteasmuchthedestructionoftheethicalsystem，oftheuprightconscience，ofloveandright，inprivatepersons，asofpublicorderandtheinstitutionsofthestate。Thesignificanceofthesefactsfortheauthoritieswillnotbeobscuredbytheclaimthatthebolderoftheseperilousdoctrinesshouldbetrusted，orbytheimmunityofoffice。
Theauthoritieswillnotbedeterredbythedemandthattheyshouldprotectandgivefreeplaytoatheorywhichstrikesatthesubstantialbasisofconduct，namely，universalprinciples，andthattheyshoulddisregardinsolenceonthegroundofitsbeingtheexerciseoftheteacher\'sfunction。Tohim，towhomGodgivesoffice，Hegivesalsounderstandingisawell-wornjest，whichnooneinourtime-wouldliketotakeseriously。
Inthemethodsofteachingphilosophy，whichhaveunderthecircumstancesbeenreanimatedbythegovernment，theimportantelementofprotectionandsupportcannotbeignored。Thestudyofphilosophyisinmanywaysinneedofsuchassistance。Frequentlyinscientific，religious，andotherworksmaybereadacontemptforphilosophy。Some，whohavenoconspicuouseducationandaretotalstrangerstophilosophy，treatitasacast-offgarment。Theyevenrailagainstit，andregardasfoolishnessandsinfulpresumptionitseffortstoconceiveofGodandphysicalandspiritualnature。Theyscoutitsendeavourtoknowthetruth。Reason，andagainreason，andreasoninendlessiterationisbythemaccused，despised，condemned。Freeexpression，also，isgivenbyalargenumberofthose，whoaresupposedtobecultivatingscientificresearch，totheirannoyanceattheunassailableclaimsoftheconception。Whenwe，Isay，areconfrontedwithsuchphenomenaasthese，wearetemptedtoharbourthethoughtthatoldtraditionsoftolerancehavefallenoutofuse，andnolongerassuretophilosophya，placeandpublicrecognition。\'
Footnote:ThesamefindsexpressioninaletterofJoh。v。Müller(Works，PartVIII。，p。56)，who，speakingoftheconditionofRomeintheyear1803，whenthecitywasunderFrenchrule，writes，“Aprofessor，askedhowthepublicacademiesweredoing，answered，\'Onlestolèrecommelesbordels！\'Similarlytheso-calledtheoryofreasonorlogicwemaystillhearcommended，perhapsunderthebeliefthatitistoodryandunfruitfulasciencetoclaimanyone\'sattention，or，ifitbepursuedhereandthere，thatitsformulaearewithoutcontent，and，thoughnotofmuchgood，canbeofnogreatharm。Hencetherecommendation，soitisthought，ifuseless，candonoinjury。
Thesepresumptuousutterances，whichareinvogueinourtime，are，strangetosay，inameasurejustifiedbytheshallownessofthecurrentphilosophy。Yet，ontheotherhand，theyhavesprungfromthesamerootasthatagainstwhichtheysothanklesslydirecttheirattacks。Sincethatself-namedphilosophisinghasdeclaredthattoknowthetruthisvain，ithasreducedallmatterofthoughttothesamelevel，resemblinginthiswaythedespotismoftheRomanEmpire，whichequalisednobleandslave，virtueandvice，honouranddishonour，knowledgeandignorance。Insuchaviewtheconceptionsoftruthandthelawsofethicallifearesimplyopinionsandsubjectiveconvictions，andthemostcriminalprinciples，providedonlythattheyareconvictions，areputonalevelwiththeselaws。Thus，too，anypaltryspecialobject，beitneversoflimsy，isgiventhesamevalueasauinterestcommontoallthinkingmenandthebondsoftheestablishedsocialworld。
Henceitisforscienceapieceofgoodfortunethatthatkindofphilosophising，whichmight，likescholasticism，havecontinuedtospinitsnotionswithinitself，hasbeenbroughtintocontactwithreality。Indeed，suchcontactwas，aswehavesaid，inevitable。Therealworldisinearnestwiththeprinciplesofrightandduty，andinthefulllightofaconsciousnessoftheseprinciplesitlives。Withthisworldofrealityphilosophiccob-webspinninghascomeintoopenrupture。Now，astogenuinephilosophyitispreciselyitsattitudetorealitywhichhasbeenmisapprehended。Philosophyis，asIhavealreadyobserved，aninquisitionintotherational，andthereforetheapprehensionoftherealandpresent。Henceitcannotbetheexpositionofaworldbeyond，whichismerelyacastleintheair，havingnoexistenceexceptintheterrorofaone-sidedandemptyformalismofthought。InthefollowingtreatiseIhaveremarkedthatevenPlato\'sRepublic，nowregardedasthebye-wordforanemptyideal，hasgraspedtheessentialnatureoftheethicallifeoftheGreeks。HeknewthattherewasbreakinginuponGreeklifeadeeperprinciple，whichcoulddirectlymanifestitselfonlyasanunsatisfiedlongingandthereforeasruin。MovedbythesamelongingPlatohadtoseekhelpagainstit，buthadtoconceiveofthehelpascomingdownfromabove，andhopedatlasttohavefounditinanexternalspecialformofGreekethicallife。Heexhaustedhimselfincontriving，howbymeansofthisnewsocietytostemthetideofruin，butsucceededonlyininjuringmorefatallyitsdeepermotive，thefreeinfinitepersonality。Yethehasprovedhimselftobeagreatmindbecausetheveryprincipleandcentraldistinguishingfeatureofhisideaisthepivotuponwhichtheworld-widerevolutiontheninprocessturned:
Whatisrationalisreal；
Andwhatisrealisrational。
Uponthisconvictionstandnotphilosophyonlybuteveneveryunsophisticatedconsciousness。Fromitalsoproceedstheviewnowundercontemplationthatthespiritualuniverseisthenatural。Whenreflection，feelingorwhateverotherformthesubjectiveconsciousnessmayassume，regardsthepresentasvanity，andthinksitselftobebeyonditandwiser，itfindsitselfinemptiness，and，asithasactualityonlyinthepresent，itisvanitythroughout。Againstthedoctrinethattheideaisamereidea，figmentoropinion，philosophypreservesthemoreprofoundviewthatnothingisrealexcepttheidea。Hencearisestheefforttorecogniseinthetemporalandtransientthesubstance，whichisimmanent，andtheeternal，whichispresent。Therationalissynonymouswiththeidea，becauseinrealisingitselfitpassesintoexternalexistence。Itthusappearsinanendlesswealthofforms，figuresandphenomena。Itwrapsitskernelroundwitharobeofmanycolours，inwhichconsciousnessfindsitselfathome。
Throughthisvariedhusktheconceptionfirstofallpenetrates，inordertotouchthepulse，andthenfeelitthrobbinginitsexternalmanifestations。Tobringtoordertheendlesslyvariedrelations，whichconstitutetheouterappearanceoftherationalessenceisnotthetaskofphilosophy。Suchmaterialisnotsuitableforit，anditcanwellabstainfromgivinggoodadviceaboutthesethings。Platocouldrefrainfromrecommendingtothenursesnottostandstillwithchildren，butalwaystodandlethemintheirarms。SocouldFichteforbeartoconstrue，astheysay，thesupervisionofpassportstosuchapointastodemandofallsuspectsthatnotonlyadescriptionofthembutalsotheirphotograph，shouldbeinsertedinthepass。Philosophynowexhibitsnotraceofsuchdetails。Thesesuperfineconcernsitmayneglectallthemoresafely，sinceitshowsitselfofthemostliberalspiritinitsattitudetowardstheendlessmassofobjectsandcircumstances。Bysuchacoursesciencewillescapethehatewhichisvisiteduponamultitudeofcircumstancesandinstitutionsbythevanityofabetterknowledge。Inthishatebitternessofmindfindsthegreatestpleasure，asitcaninnootherwayattaintoafeelingofself-esteem。
Thistreatise，insofarasitcontainsapoliticalscience，isnothingmorethananattempttoconceiveofandpresentthestateasinitselfrational。Asaphilosophicwriting，itmustbeonitsguardagainstconstructingastateasitoughttobe。
Philosophycannotteachthestatewhatitshouldbe，butonlyhowit，theethicaluniverse，istobeknown。
IdouPodos，idoukaitopidimaHicRhodus，hicsaltus。
Toapprehendwhatisisthetaskofphilosophy，becausewhatisisreason。Asfortheindividual，everyoneisasonofhistime；sophilosophyalsoisitstimeapprehendedinthoughts。Itisjustasfoolishtofancythatanyphilosophycantranscenditspresentworld，asthatanindividualcouldleapoutofhistimeorjumpoverRhodes。Ifatheorytransgressesitstime，andbuildsupaworldasitoughttobe，ithasanexistencemerelyintheunstableelementofopinion，whichgivesroomtoeverywanderingfancy。
Withlittlechangetheabove，sayingwouldread:
Hereistherose，heredanceThe，barrierwhichstandsbetweenreason，asself-consciousSpirit，andreasonaspresentreality，anddoesnotpermitspirittofindsatisfactioninreality，issomeabstraction，whichisnotfreetobeconceived。Torecognisereasonastheroseinthecrossofthepresent，andtofinddelightinit，isarationalinsightwhichimpliesreconciliationwithreality。Thisreconciliationphilosophygrantstothosewhohavefelttheinwarddemandtoconceiveclearly，topreservesubjectivefreedomwhilepresentinsubstantivereality，andyetthoughtpossessingthisfreedomtostandnotupontheparticularandcontingent，butuponwhatisandself-completedThisalsoisthemoreconcretemeaningofwhatwasamomentagomoreabstractlycalledtheunityofformandcontent。Forminitsmostconcretesignificanceisreason，asanintellectualapprehensionwhichconceivesitsobject。
Content，again，isreasonasthesubstantiveessenceofsocialorderandnature。
Theconsciousidentityofformandcontentisthephilosophicalidea。
Itisaself-assertion，whichdoeshonourtoman，torecognisenothinginsentimentwhichisnotjustifiedbythought。Thisself-willisafeatureofmoderntimes，beingindeedthepeculiarprincipleofProtestantism。WhatwasinitiatedbyLutherasfaithinfeelingandthewitnessofthespirit，themorematuremindstrivestoapprehendinconception。Inthatwayitseekstofreeitselfinthepresent，andsofindthereitself。ItisacelebratedsayingthatahalfphilosophyleadsawayfromGod，whileatruephilosophyleadstoGod。(Itisthesamehalfness，Imaysayinpassingwhichregardsknowledgeasanapproximationtotruth。)Thissayingisapplicabletothescienceofthestate。Reasoncannotcontentitselfwithamereapproximation，somethingwhichisneithercoldnothot，andmustbespewedoutofthemouth。Aslittlecanitbecontentedwiththecoldscepticismthatinthisworldoftimethingsgobadly，oratbestonlymoderatelywell，andthatwemustkeepthepeacewithreality，merelybecausethereisnothingbettertobehad。
Knowledgecreatesamuchmorevitalpeace。
Onlyonewordmoreconcerningthedesiretoteachtheworldwhatitoughttobe。
Forsuchapurposephilosophyatleastalwayscomestoolate。Philosophy，asthethoughtoftheworld，doesnotappearuntilrealityhascompleteditsformativeprocess，andmadeitselfready。Historythuscorroboratestheteachingoftheconceptionthatonlyinthematurityofrealitydoestheidealappearascounterparttothereal，apprehendstherealworldinitssubstance，andshapesitintoanintellectualkingdom。Whenphilosophypaintsitsgreyingrey，oneformoflifehasbecomeold，andbymeansofgreyitcannotberejuvenated，butonlyknown。TheowlofMinerva，takesitsflightonlywhentheshadesofnightaregathering。
Butitistimetoclosethispreface。Asaprefaceitisitsplacetospeakonlyexternallyandsubjectivelyofthestandpointoftheworkwhichitintroduces。A
philosophicalaccountoftheessentialcontentneedsascientificandobjectivetreatment。So，too，criticisms，otherthanthosewhichproceedfromsuchatreatment，mustbeviewedbytheauthorasunreflectiveconvictions。Suchsubjectivecriticismsmustbeforhimamatterofindifference。
BERLIN，June25th，1820。
TranslatedbySWDyde，1896
Introduction§1。
THEphilosophicscienceofrighthasasitsobjecttheideaofright，i。e。，theconceptionofrightandtherealisationoftheconception。
Remark:Philosophyhastodowithideasorrealisedthoughts，andhencenotwithwhatwehavebeenaccustomedtocallmereconceptions。Ithasindeedtoexhibittheone-sidednessanduntruthofthesemereconceptions，andtoshowthat，whilethatwhichcommonlybearsthename“conception，“isonlyanabstractproductoftheunderstanding，thetrueconceptionalonehasrealityandgivesthisrealitytoitself。Everything，otherthantherealitywhichisestablishedbytheconception，istransientsurfaceexistence，externalattribute，opinion，appearancevoidofessence，untruth，delusion，andsoforth。Throughtheactualshape，whichittakesuponitselfinactuality，istheconceptionitselfunderstood。Thisshapeistheotheressentialelementoftheidea，andistobedistinguishedfromtheform，whichexistsonlyasconception。
Addition。Theconceptionanditsexistencearetwosides，distinctyetunited，likesoulandbody。Thebodyisthesamelifeasthesoul，andyetthetwocanbenamedindependently。Asoulwithoutabodywouldnotbealivingthing，andviceversa。Thusthevisibleexistenceoftheconceptionisitsbody，justasthebodyobeysthesoulwhichproducedit。Seedscontainthetreeanditswholepower，thoughtheyarenotthetreeitself；thetreecorrespondsaccuratelytothesimplestructureoftheseed。Ifthebodydoesnotcorrespondtothesoul，itisdefective。Theunityofvisibleexistenceandconception，ofbodyandsoul，istheidea。Itisnotamereharmonyofthetwo，buttheircompleteinterpenetration。Therelivesnothing，whichisnotinsomewayidea。Theideaofrightisfreedom，which，ifitistobeapprehendedtruly，mustbeknownbothinitsconceptionandintheembodimentoftheconception。
§2。
Thescienceofrightisapartofphilosophy。Henceitmustdeveloptheidea，whichisthereasonofanobject，outoftheconception。Itisthesamethingtosaythatitmustregardthepeculiarinternaldevelopmentofthethingitself。Sinceitisapart，ithasadefinitebeginning，whichistheresultandtruthofwhatgoesbefore，andthis，thatgoesbefore，constitutesitsso-calledproof。Hencetheoriginoftheconceptionofrightfallsoutsideofthescienceofright。Thedeductionoftheconceptionispresupposedinthistreatise，andistobeconsideredasalreadygiven。
Addition。Philosophyformsacircle。Ithas，sinceitmustsomehowmakeabeginning，aprimary，directlygivenmatter，whichisnotprovedandisnotaresult。Butthisstarting-pointissimplyrelative，since，fromanotherpointofviewitappearsasaresult。Philosophyisaconsequence，whichdoesnothangintheairorformadirectlynewbeginning，butisself-enclosed。
Accordingtotheformalunphilosophicmethodofthesciences，definitionisthefirstdesideratum，asregards，atleast，theexternalscientificform。Thepositivescienceofright，however，islittleconcernedwithdefinition，sinceitsspecialaimistogivewhatitisthatisright，andalsotheparticularphasesofthelaws。Forthisreasonithasbeensaidasawarning，Omnisdefinitioinjurecivilipericulosa；andinfactthemoredisconnectedandcontradictorythephasesofarightare，thelesspossibleisadefinitionofit。
Adefinitionshouldcontainonlyuniversalfeatures；buttheseforthwithbringtolightcontradictions，whichinthecaseoflawareinjustice，inalltheirnakedness。ThusinRomanlaw，forinstance，nodefinitionofmanwaspossible，becauseitexcludedtheslave。Theconceptionofmanwasdestroyedbythefactofslavery。Inthesamewaytohavedefinedpropertyandownerwouldhaveappearedtobeperiloustomanyrelations。Butdefinitionsmayperhapsbederivedfrometymology，forthereason，principally，thatinthiswayspecialcasesareavoided，anda，basisisfoundinthefeelingandimaginativethoughtofmen。
Thecorrectnessofadefinitionwouldthusconsistinitsagreementwithexistingideas。Bysuchamethodeverythingessentiallyscientificiscastaside。Asregardsthecontentthereiscastasidethenecessityoftheself-containedandself-developedobject，andasregardstheformthereisdiscardedthenatureoftheconception。Inphilosophicknowledgethenecessityofa，conceptionisthemainthing，andtheprocess，bywhichit，asaresult，hascomeintobeingistheproofanddeduction。Afterthecontentisseentobenecessaryindependently，thesecondpointistolookaboutforthatwhichcorrespondstoitinexistingideasandmodesofspeech。Butthewayinwhichaconceptionexistsinitstruth，andthewayitpresentsitselfinrandomideasnotonlyarebutmustbedifferentbothinformandstructure。Ifanotionisnotinitscontentfalse，theconceptioncanbeshowntobecontainedinitandtobealreadythereinitsessentialtraits。
Anotionmaythusberaisedtotheformofaconception。Butsolittleisanynotionthemeasureandcriterionofanindependentlynecessaryandtrueconception，thatitmustaccepttruthfromtheconception，bejustifiedbyit，andknowitselfthroughit。Ifthemethodofknowing，whichproceedsbyformaldefinition，inferenceandproof，hasmoreorlessdisappeared，aworseonehascometotakeitsplace。Thisnewmethodmaintainsthatideas，as，e。g。，theideaofrightinallitsaspects，aretobedirectlyapprehendedasmerefactsofconsciousness，andthatnaturalfeelingorthatheightenedformofitwhichisknownastheinspirationofone\'sownbreast，isthesourceofright。
Thismethodmaybethemostconvenientofall，butitisalsothemostunphilosophic。Otherfeaturesofthisview，referringnotmerelytoknowledgebutdirectlytoaction，neednotdetainushere。Whilethefirstorformalmethodwentsofarastorequireindefinitiontheformoftheconception，andinprooftheformofanecessityofknowledge，themethodoftheintuitiveconsciousnessandfeelingtakesforitsprinciplethearbitrarycontingentconsciousnessofthesubject。Inthistreatisewetakeforgrantedthescientificprocedureofphilosophy，whichhasbeensetforthinthephilosophiclogic。
§3。
Rightispositiveingeneral(a)initsform，sinceithasvalidityinastate；andthisestablishedauthorityistheprinciplefortheknowledgeofright。Hencewehavethepositivescienceofright。(b)Onthesideofcontentthisrightreceivesapositiveelement[a]throughtheparticularcharacterofanation，thestageofitshistoricaldevelopment，andtheinterconnectionofalltherelationswhicharenecessitatedbynature:[b]throughthenecessitythatasystemoflegalisedrightmustcontaintheapplicationoftheuniversalconceptiontoobjectsandcaseswhosequalitiesaregivenexternally。Suchanapplicationisnotthespeculativethoughtorthedevelopmentoftheconception，butasubsumptionmadebytheunderstanding:[c]throughtheultimatenatureofadecisionwhichhasbecomeareality。
Remark:Philosophyatleastcannotrecognisetheauthorityoffeeling，inclinationandcaprice，whentheyaresetinoppositiontopositiverightandthelaws。Itisanaccident，externaltothenatureofpositiveright，whenforceortyrannybecomesanelementofit。Itwillbeshownlater(§§
211-214)，atwhatpointrightmustbecomepositive。Thegeneralphaseswhicharetherededuced，arehereonlymentioned，inordertoindicatethelimitofphilosophicright，andalsotoforestalltheideaorindeedthedemandthatbyasystematicdevelopmentofrightshouldbeproducedalaw-book，suchaswouldbeneededbyinactualstate。Toconvertthedifferencesbetweenrightofnatureandpositiveright，orthosebetweenphilosophicrightandpositiveright，intoopenantagonismwouldbeacompletemisunderstanding。
Naturalrightorphilosophicrightstandstopositiverightasinstitutionstopandects。Withregardtothehistoricalelementinpositiveright，referredtointheparagraph，itmaybesaidthatthetruehistoricalviewandgenuinephilosophicstandpointhavebeenpresentedbyMontesquieu。Heregardslegislationanditsspecifictraitsnotinanisolatedandabstractway，butratherasadependentelementofonetotality，connectingitwithalltheotherelementswhichformthecharacterofanationandanepoch。Inthisinterrelationthevariouselementsreceivetheirmeaningandjustification。Thepurelyhistoricaltreatmentofthephasesofright，astheydevelopintime，andacomparisonoftheirresultswithexistingrelationsofrighthavetheirownvalue；buttheyareoutofplaceinaphilosophictreatise，exceptinsofarasthedevelopmentoutofhistoricgroundscoincideswiththedevelopmentoutoftheconception，andthehistoricalexpositionandjustificationcanbemadetocoverajustificationwhichisvalidinitselfandindependently。
Thisdistinctionisasmanifestasitisweighty。Aphaseofrightmaybeshowntorestuponandfollowfromthecircumstancesandexistinginstitutionsofright，andyetmaybeabsolutelyunreasonableandvoidofright。ThisisthecaseinRomanlawwithmanyaspectsofprivateright，whichwerethelogicalresultsofitsinterpretationofpaternalpowerandofmarriage。Further，iftheaspectsofrightarereallyrightandreasonable，itisonethingtopointoutwhatwithregardtothemcantrulytakeplacethroughtheconception，andquiteanotherthingtoportraythemanneroftheirappearanceinhistory，alongwiththecircumstances，cases，wantsandevents，whichtheyhavecalledforth。Suchademonstrationanddeductionfromnearerormoreremotehistoriccauses，whichistheoccupationofpragmatichistory，isfrequentlycalledexposition，orpreferablyconception，undertheopinionthatinsuchanindicationofthehistoricelementsisfoundallthatisessentialtoaconceptionoflawandinstitutionsofright。Inpointoffactthatwhichistrulyessential，theconceptionofthematter，hasnotbeensomuchasmentioned。SoalsoweareaccustomedtohearofRomanorGermanconceptionsofright，andofconceptionsofrightastheyarelaiddowninthisorthatstatute-book，whenindeednothingaboutconceptionscanbefoundinthem，butonlygeneralphasesofright，propositionsderivedfromtheunderstanding，generalmaxims，andlaws。
Byneglectofthedistinction，justalludedto，thetruestandpointisobscuredandthequestionofavalidjustificationisshiftedintoajustificationbaseduponcircumstances；resultsarefoundedonpresuppositions，whichinthemselvesareoflittlevalue；andingeneraltherelativeisputinplaceoftheabsolute，andexternalappearanceinplaceofthenatureofthething。Whenthehistoricalvindicationsubstitutestheexternaloriginfortheoriginfromtheconception，itunconsciouslydoestheoppositeofwhatitintends。Supposethataninstitution，originatingunderdefinitecircumstances，isshowntobenecessaryandtoansweritspurpose，andthatitaccomplishesallthatisrequiredofitbythehistoricalstandpoint。Whensuchaproofismadetostandforajustificationofthethingitself，itfollowsthat，whenthecircumstancesareremoved，theinstitutionhaslostitsmeaninganditsright。When，e。g。，itissoughttosupportanddefendcloistersonthegroundsthattheyhaveservedtoclearandpeoplethewildernessandbyteachingandtranscribingtopreservescholarship，itfollowsthatjustinsofarasthecircumstancesarechanged，cloistershavebecomeaimlessandsuperfluous。
Insofarasthehistoricsignificance，orthehistoricalexpositionandinterpretationoftheoriginofanythingisindifferentspheresathomewiththephilosophicviewoftheoriginandconceptionofthethingonemighttoleratetheother。But，inillustrationofthefactthattheyneitherherenorinscience，preservethispeacefulattitude，IquotefromMr。Hugo\'sTextbookoftheHistoryofRomanLaw。InthisworkMr。Hugosays(5thedition§53)that“Ciceropraisesthetwelvetableswithasideglanceatphilosophy，……butthephilosopherPhavorinustreatsthemexactlyasmanyagreatphilosophersincehastreatedpositiveright。”Mr。HugomakestheultimatereplytosuchamethodasthatofPhavorinus，whenhesaysofhimthathe“understoodthetwelvetablesjustaslittleasthephilosophersunderstoodpositiveright。”ThecorrectionofthephilosopherPhavorinusbythejuristSextusCaecilius(Gellius。“Noct。Attic。”xx。1)expressesthelastingandtrueprincipleofthejustificationofthatwhichisinitscontentmerelypositive。“Nonignoras，“asCaeciliusfelicitouslyremarkstoPhavorinus，“legumopportunitatesetmedelasprotemporummoribus，etprorerumpublicarumgeneribus，acproutilitatumpraesentiumrationibus，proquevitiorum，quibusmedendumest，fervoribusmutariaeflecti，nequeunostatuconsistere，quin，utfaciescoelietmaris，itarerumatquefortunaetempestatibusvarientur。QuidsalubriusvisuinestrogationeillaStolonis，etc。，quidutiliusplebisciteVoconio，etc。，quidtamnecessariumexistimatumest，quamlexLicinia，etc。?Omniatamenhaecobliterateetopertasuntcivitatisopulentia，“etc。TheselawsarePositivesofarastheyhavemeaningandappropriatenessunderthecircumstances，andthushaveonlyanhistoricvalue。Forthisreasontheyareintheirnaturetransient。Whetherthelegislatororgovernmentwaswiseornotinwhatitdidforitsownimmediatetimeandcircumstancesisamatterquitebyitselfandisforhistorytosay。
Historywillthemoreprofoundlyrecognisetheactionofthelegislatorinproportionasitsestimatereceivessupportfromthephilosophicstandpoint。FromthevindicationsofthetwelvetablesagainstthejudgmentofPhavorinusIshallgivefurtherexamples，becauseinthemCaeciliusfurnishesanillustrationofthefraudwhichisindissolublyboundupwiththemethodsoftheunderstandinganditsreasoning。Headducesagoodreasonforabadthing，andsupposesthatliehasinthatwayjustifiedthething。Takethehorriblelawwhichpermittedacreditor，afterthelapseofafixedtermofrespite，tokilladebtororsellhimintoslavery。Nay，further，iftherewereseveralcreditors，theywerepermittedtocutpiecesoffthedebtor，andthusdividehimamongstthem，withtheprovisothatifanyoneofthemshouldcutofftooortoolittle，noactionshouldbetakenagainsthim。
Itwasthismalaise，itmaybenoticed，whichstoodShakespeare\'sShylockinTheMerchantofVeniceinsuchgoodstead，andwasbyhimmostthankfullyaccepted。Well，forthislawCaeciliusadducesthegoodargumentthatbyittrustandcreditweremorefirmlysecured，andalsothat，byreasonoftheveryhorrorofthelaw，itneverhadtobeenforced。Notonlydoesheinhiswantofthoughtfailtoobservethatbytheseverityofthelawthatveryintentionofsecuringtrustandcreditwasdefeated，butlieforthwithhimselfgivesanillustrationofthewayinwhichthe，disproportionatepunishmentcausedthelawtobeinoperative，namelythroughthehabitofgivingfalsewitness。ButtheremarkofMr。Hugothat，Phavorinusbadnotunderstoodthelawisnottobepassedover。Nowanyschoolboycanunderstandthelawjustquoted，andbetterthananyoneelsewouldShylockhaveunderstoodwhatwastohimofsuchadvantage。Hence，by“understand“
Mr。Hugomustmeanthatformofunderstandingwhichconsistsinbriningtothesupportofalawagoodreason。Anotherfailuretounderstand，assertedbyCaeciliusofPhavorinus，aphilosopheratanyratemaywithoutblushingacknowledge:jumentum，whichwithoutanyarcerawastheonlylegalwaytobringasickmanintocourtasawitness，washeldtomeannotonlythorsebutalsoacarriageorwagon。FurtheroninthisrawCaeciliusfoundmoreevidenceoftheexcellenceandaccuracyoftheoldstatutes，whichforthepurposeofnon-suitingasickmanatcourtdistinguishednotonlybetweenahorseandawagon，butalso，asCaeciliusexplains，betweenawagoncoveredandcushionedandonenotsocomfortablyequipped。Thusonewouldhavethechoicebetweenutterseverityononeside，andontheothersenselessdetails。Buttoexhibitfullytheabsurdityoftheselawsandthepedanticdefenceofferedintheirbehalfwouldgiverisetoaninvinciblerepugnancetoallscholarshipofthatkind。
ButinhismanualMr。Hugospeaksalsoofrationalityin(connectionwithRomanlaw，andIhavebeenstruckwiththefollowingremarks。HefirstofalltreatsoftheepochextendingfromtheoriginoftheRepublictothetwelvetables(§§38，39)，noticingthatinRomepeoplehadmanywants，andwerecompelledintheirlabourtousedraughtanimalsandbeastsofburden，asweourselvesdo，andthatthegroundwasanalternationofhillandvalleythatthecitywassetuponahill，etc。
Thesestatementsmight，perhaps，haveansweredtothesenseofMontesquieu\'sthought，thoughinthemitwouldbewell-nighimpossibletofindhisgenius。Butafterthesepreliminaryparagraphs，hegoesontosayin§40，thattheconditionofthelawwasstillveryfarfromsatisfyingthehighestdemandsofreason。Thisremarkiswhollyinplace，astheRomanfamily-right，slavery，etc。，givenosatisfactiontothesmallestdemandsofreason。Yetwhendiscussingthesucceedingepochs，Mr。Hugoforgetstotellusinwhatparticulars，ifany，theRomanlawhassatisfactorilymetthehighestdemandsofreason。Stilloftheclassicjurists。whoflourishedintheeraofthegreatestexpansionofRomanlawasa，science，itissaid(§289)that“ithasbeenlongsincebeenobservedthattheRomanjuristswereeducatedinphilosophy，“but“fewknow“(morewillknownowthroughthenumerouseditionsofMr。Hugo\'smanual)“thatthereisnoclassofwriters，who，asregardsdeductionfromprinciples，deservedtobeplacedbesidethemathematicians，andalso，asregardsthequiteremarkablewayinwhichtheydeveloptheirconceptions，besidethemodernfounderofmetaphysic；asvoucherforthisassertionisthenotablefactthatnowheredosomanytrichotomiesoccurasintheclassicjuristsandinKant。”
Thisformoflogicalreasoning，extolledbyLeibnitz，iscertainlyanessentialfeatureofthescienceofright，asitisofmathematicsandeveryotherintelligiblescience；butthelogicalprocedureofthemereunderstanding，spokenofbyMr。Hugo，hasnothingtodowiththesatisfactionoftheclaimsofreasonandwithphilosophicscience。Moreover，theverylackoflogicalprocedure，whichischaracteristicoftheRomanjuristsandproctors，istobeesteemedasoneoftheirchiefvirtues，sincebymeansofittheyobviatedtheconsequencesofunrighteousandhorribleinstitutions。
Throughtheirwantoflogictheywerecompelledcallidetoputsenseintomereverbaldistinctions，astheydidwhentheyidentifiedBonorumpossessiowithinheritance，andalsointosillyevasions，forsillinessisadefectoflogic，inordertosavetheletterofthetables，aswasdoneinthefictioorhypokrisisthatafiliapatroniwasafilius(Heineec。Antiq。Rom。，lib。i。tit。ii。§24)。Butitisabsurdtoplacetheclassicjurists，withtheiruseoftrichotomy，alongwithKant，andinthatwaytodiscerninthemthepromiseofthedevelopmentofconceptions。
§4。
Theterritoryofrightisingeneralthespiritual，anditsmoredefiniteplaceandoriginisthewill，whichisfree。Thusfreedomconstitutesthesubstanceandessentialcharacterofthewill，andthesystemofrightisthekingdomofactualisedfreedom。Itistheworldofspirit，whichisproducedoutofitself，andisasecondnature。
Addition。Freedomofwillisbestexplainedbyreferencetophysicalnature。Freedomisa，fundamentalphaseofwill，asweightisofbodies。Whenitissaidthatmatterisheavy，itmightbemeantthatthepredicateisanattribute；butsuchisnotthecase，forinmatterthereisnothingwhichhasnotweight；infact，matterisweight。Thatwhichisheavyconstitutesthebody，andisthebody。
Justsoisitwithfreedomandthewill；thatwhichisfreeisthewill。Willwithoutfreedomisanemptyword，andfreedombecomesactualonlyaswill，assubject。Aremarkmayalsobemadeastotheconnectionofwillingandthinking。Spirit，ingeneral，isthought，andbythoughtmanisdistinguishedfromtheanimal。Butwemustnotimaginethatmanisononesidethinkingandonanothersidewilling，asthoughhehadwillinonepocketandthoughtinanother。Suchanideaisvain。Thedistinctionbetweenthoughtandwillisonlythatbetweenatheoreticalandapracticalrelation。Theyarenottwoseparatefaculties。Thewillisaspecialwayofthinking；itisthoughttranslatingitselfintoreality；itistheimpulseofthoughttogiveitselfreality。Thedistinctionbetweenthoughtandwillmaybeexpressedinthisway。WhenIthinkanobject，Imakeofitathought，andtakefromitthesensible。ThusImakeofitsomethingwhichisessentiallyanddirectlymine。OnlyinthoughtamIself-contained。Conceptionisthepenetrationoftheobject，whichisthennolongeropposedtome。FromitIhavetakenitsownpeculiarnature，whichithadasanindependentobjectinoppositiontome。AsAdamsaidtoEve，“thouartfleshofmyfleshandboneofmybone，“sosaysthespirit，“Thisobjectisspiritofmyspirit，andallalienationhasdisappeared。”Anyideaisauniversalising，andthisprocessbelongstothinking。Tomakesomethinguniversalistothink。The“I“isthoughtandtheuniversal。WhenIsay“I，“Iletfallallparticularityofcharacter，naturalendowment，knowledge，age。TheIisempty，apointandsimple，butinitssimplicityactive。
Thegailycolouredworldisbeforeme；Istandopposedtoit，andinthisrelationIcancelandtranscendtheopposition，andmakethecontentmyown。TheIisathomeintheworld，whenitknowsit，andstillmorewhenithasconceivedit。
Somuchforthetheoreticalrelation。Thepractical，ontheotherhand，beginswiththinking，withtheIitself。Itthusappearsfirstofallasplacedinopposition，becauseitexhibits，asitwere，aseparation。AsIampractical，Iam，active；Iactanddeterminemyself；andtodeterminemyselfmeanstosetupadistinction。Butthesedistinctionsareagainmine，myowndeterminationscometome；andtheendsaremine，towhichIamimpelled。EvenwhenIletthesedistinctionsanddeterminationsgo，settingthemintheso-calledexternalworld，theyremainmine。TheyarethatwhichIhavedoneandmade，andbearthetraceofmyspirit。Thatisthedistinctiontobedrawnbetweenthetheoreticalandthepracticalrelations。
Andnowtheconnectionofthetwomustbealsostated。Thetheoreticalisessentiallycontainedinthepractical。Againsttheideathatthetwoareseparaterunsthefactthatmanhasnowillwithoutintelligence。Thewillholdswithinitselfthetheoretical，thewilldeterminesitself，andthisdeterminationisinthefirstinstanceinternal。ThatwhichIwillIplacebeforemymind，anditisanobjectforme。Theanimalactsaccordingtoinstinct，isimpelledbysomethinginternal，andsoisalsopractical。Butithasnowill，becauseitcannotplacebeforeitsmindwhatitdesires。Similarlymancannotusehistheoreticfacultyorthinkwithoutwill，forinthinkingweareactive。Thecontentofwhatisthoughtreceives，indeed，theformofsomethingexisting，butthisexistenceisoccasionedbyouractivityandbyit，established。Thesedistinctionsoftheoreticalandpracticalareinseparable；theyareoneandthesame；andineveryactivity，whetherofthoughtorwill，boththeseelementsarefound。
Itisworthwhiletorecalltheolderwayofproceedingwithregardtothefreedomofthewill。Firstofall，theideaofthewillwasassumed，andthenaneffortwasmadetodeducefromitandestablishadefinitionofthewill。Next，themethodoftheolderempiricalpsychologywasadopted，anddifferentperceptionsandgeneralphenomenaoftheordinaryconsciousnesswerecollected，suchasremorse，guilt，andthelike，onthegroundthatthesecouldbeexplainedonlyasproceedingoutofawillthatisfree。Thenfromthesephenomenawasdeducedtheso-calledproofthatthewillisfree。Butitismoreconvenienttotakeashortcutandholdthatfreedomisgivenasafactofconsciousness，andmustbebelievedin。
Thenatureofthewillandoffreedom，andtheproofthatthewillisfree，canbeshown，ashasalreadybeenobserved(§2)，onlyinconnectionwiththewhole。Thegroundprinciplesofthepremisesthatspiritisinthefirstinstanceintelligence，andthatthephases，throughwhichitpassesinitsdevelopment，namelyfromfeeling，throughimaginativethinkingtothought，arethewaybywhichitproducesitselfaswill，which，inturn，asthepracticalspiritingeneral，isthemostdirecttruthofintelligence-IhavepresentedinmyEncyclopaediaofthePhilosophicalSciences(1817)，andhopesomedaytobeabletogiveofthemamorecompleteexposition。Thereis，tomymind，somuchthemoreneedformetogivemycontributionto，asIhope，themorethoroughknowledgeofthenatureofspirit，Since，asIhavetheresaid，itwouldbedifficulttofindaphilosophicscienceinamoreneglectedandevilplightthanisthattheoryofspirit，whichiscommonlycalledpsychology。Someelementsoftheconceptionofwill，resultingfromthepremisesenumeratedabovearementionedinthisandthefollowingparagraphs。Astothese，appealmaymoreoverbemadetoeveryindividualtoseetheminhisownself-consciousness。Everyonewill，inthefirstplace，findinhimselftheabilitytoabstracthimselffromallthatheis，andinthiswayprovehimselfableofhimselftoseteverycontentwithinhimself，andthushaveinhisownconsciousnessanillustrationofallthesubsequentphases。
§5。
Thewillcontains[a]theelementofpureindeterminateness，i。e。，thepuredoublingoftheIbackinthoughtuponitself。Inthisprocesseverylimitorcontent，presentthoughitbedirectlybywayofnature，asinwant，appetiteorimpulse，orgiveninanyspecificway，isdissolved。Thuswehavethelimitlessinfinitudeofabsoluteabstraction，oruniversality，thepurethoughtofitself。
Remark:Thosewhotreatthinkingandwillingastwospecialpeculiarandseparatefaculties，and，further，lookuponthoughtisdetrimentaltothewill，especiallythegoodwill，showfromtheverystartthattheyknownothingofthenatureofwillingaremarkwhichweshallbecalledupontoanumberoftimesuponthesameattitudeofmind。ThewillononesideisthepossibilityofabstractionfromeveryaspectinwhichtheIfindsitselforhassetitselfup。Itreckonsanycontentasalimit，andfleesfromit。Thisisoneoftheformsoftheself-directionofthewill，andisbyimaginativethinkinginsisteduponasofitselffreedom。Itisthenegativesideofthewill，orfreedomasapprehendedbytheunderstanding。Thisfreedomisthatofthevoid，whichhistakenactualshape，andisstirredtopassion。It，whileremainingpurelytheoretical，appearsinHindureligionasthefanaticismofpurecontemplation；butbecomingactualitassumesbothinpoliticsandreligiontheformofafanaticism，whichwoulddestroytheestablishedsocialorder，removeallindividualssuspectedofdesiringanykindoforder，anddemolishanyorganisationwhichthensoughttoriseoutoftheruinsonlyindevastationdoesthenegativewillfeelthatithasreality。Itintends，indeed，tobringtopasssomepositivesocialcondition，suchasuniversalequalityoruniversalreligiouslife。
Butinfactitdoesnotwillthepositiverealityofanysuchcondition，sincethatwouldcarryinitstrainasystem，andintroduceaseparationbywayofinstitutionsandbetweenindividuals。Butclassificationandobjectivesystemattainselfconsciousnessonlybydestroyingnegativefreedom。
Negativefreedomisactuatedbyameresolitaryidea，whoserealisationisnothingbutthefuryofdesolation。
Addition。ThisphaseofwillimpliesthatIbreakloosefromeverything，giveupallends，andburymyselfinabstraction。Itismanalonewhocanletgoeverything，evenlife。Hecancommitsuicide，anactimpossiblefortheanimal，whichalwaysremainsonlynegative，abidinginastateforeigntoitself，towhichitmustmerelygetaccustomedispurethoughtofhimself，andonlyinthinkinghashethepowertogivehimselfuniversalityanddistinguishinhimselfallthatisparticularanddefinite。
Negativefreedom，orfreedomoftheunderstanding，isone-sided，yetasthisone-sidednesscontainsanessentialfeature，itisnottobediscarded。Butthedefectoftheunderstandingisthatitexaltsitsone-sidednesstothesolehighestplace。Thisformoffreedomfrequentlyoccursinhistory。BytheHindus，e。g。，thehighestfreedomisdeclaredtobepersistenceintheconsciousnessofone\'ssimpleidentitywithhimself，toabideintheemptyspaceofone\'sowninnerbeing，likethecolourlesslightofpureintuition，andtorenounceevery，activityoflife，everypurposeandeveryidea。InthiswaymanbecomesBrahma；thereisnolongeranydistinctionbetweenfinitemanandBrahma，everydifferencehavingbeenswallowedupinthisuniversality。Amoreconcretemanifestationofthisfreedomisfanaticismofpoliticalandreligiouslife。OfthisnaturewastheterribleepochoftheFrenchRevolution，bywhichalldistinctionsintalentandauthorityweretohavebeensuperseded。Inthistimeofupheavalandcommotionanyspecificthingwasintolerable。
Fanaticismwillsanabstractionandnotanarticulateassociation。Itfindsalldistinctionsantagonistictoitsindefiniteness，andsupersedesthem。HenceintheFrenchRevolutionthepeopleabolishedtheinstitutionswhichtheythemselveshadsetup，sinceeveryinstitutionisinimicaltotheabstractself-consciousnessofequality。
§6。
[b]TheIisalsothetransitionfromblankindefinitenesstothedistinctanddefiniteestablishmentofadefinitecontentandobject，whetherthiscontentbegivenbynatureorproducedoutoftheconceptionofspirit。ThroughthisestablishmentofitselfasadefinitethingtheIbecomesareality。ThisistheabsoluteelementofthefinitudeorspecialisationoftheI。
Remark:ThissecondelementinthecharacterisationoftheIisjustasnegativeasthefirst，sinceitannulsandreplacesthefirstabstractnegativity。Astheparticulariscontainedintheuniversal，sothissecondphaseiscontainedalreadyinthefirst，andisonlyanestablishingofwhatthefirstisimplicitly。Thefirstphase，iftakenindependents，isnotthetrueinfinitude，i。e。，theconcreteuniversal，ortheconception，butlimitedandone-sided。Inthatitistheabstractionfromalldefinitecharacter，ithasadefinitecharacter。Itsabstractandone-sidednatureconstitutesitsdefinitecharacter，itsdefectandfinitude。
ThedistinctcharacterisationofthesetwophasesoftheIisfoundinthephilosophyofFichteasalsointhatofKant。Only，intheexpositionofFichtetheI，whentakenasunlimited，asitisinthefirstpropositionofhisWissenschaftslehre，ismerelypositive。Itistheuniversalityandidentitymadebytheunderstanding。HencethisabstractIisinitsindependencetobetakenasthetruth，towhichbywayofmereadditioncomesinthesecondproposition，thelimitation，orthenegativeingeneral，whetheritbeintheformofagivenexternallimitorofanactivityoftheI。Toapprehendthenegativeasimmanentintheuniversalorself-identical，andalsoasintheI，wasthenextstep，whichspeculativephilosophyhadtomake。Ofthiswanttheyhavenopresentiment，wholikeFichteneverapprehendthattheinfiniteandfiniteare，ifseparated，abstract，andmustbeseenasimmanentoneintheother。
Addition。Thissecondelementmakesitsappearanceastheoppositeofthefirst；itistobeunderstoodinitsgeneralform:itbelongstofreedombutdoesnotconstitutethewholeofit。HeretheIpassesoverfromblankindeterminatenesstothedistinctestablishmentofaspecificcharacterasacontentorobject。Idonotwillmerely，butIwillsomething。Suchawill，asisanalysedintheprecedingparagraph，willsonlytheabstractuniversal，andthereforewillsnothing。Henceitisnotawill。Theparticularthing，whichthewillwillsisalimitation，sincethewill，inordertobeawill，mustingenerallimititself。LimitornegationconsistsinthewillwillingsomethingParticularisingisthusasarulenamedfinitude。Ordinaryreflectionholdsthefirstelement，thatoftheindefinite，fortheabsoluteandhigher。andthelimitedforamerenegationofthisindefiniteness。Butthisindefinitenessisitselfonlyanegation，incontrastwiththedefiniteandfinite。TheIissolitudeandabsolutenegation。Theindefinitewillisthusquiteasmuchone-sidedasthewill，whichcontinuesmerelyinthedefinite。
§7。
[c]Thewillistheunityofthesetwoelements。Itisparticularityturnedbackwithinitselfandthusledbacktouniversality；itisindividuality；itistheself-directionoftheI。Thusatoneandthesametimeitestablishesitselfasitsownnegation，thatistosay，asdefiniteandlimited，anditalsoabidesbyitself，initsself-identityanduniversality，andinthispositionremainspurelyself-enclosed。
TheIdeterminesitselfinsofarasitisthereferenceofnegativitytoitself；andyetinthisself-referenceitisindifferenttoitsowndefinitecharacter。Thisitknowsasitsown，thatis，asanidealoramerepossibility，bywhichitisnotbound，butratherexistsinitmerelybecauseitestablishesitselfthere。Thisisthefreedomofthewill，constitutingitsconceptionorsubstantivereality。Itisitsgravity，asitwere，justasgravityisthesubstantiverealityofabody。
Remark:Everyself-consciousnessknowsitselfasatonceuniversal，orthepossibilityofabstractingitselffromeverythingdefinite，andasparticular，withafixedobject，contentoraim。
Thesetwoelements，however，areonlyabstractions。Theconcreteandtrue，andallthatistrueisconcrete，istheuniversality，towhichtheparticularisatfirstopposed，but，whenithasbeenturnedbackintoitself，isintheendmadeequal。Thisunityisindividuality，butitisnotasimpleunitasistheindividualityofimaginativethought，butaunitintermsoftheconception(EncyclopaediaofthePhilosophicalSciences，§§112-114)。Inotherwords，thisindividualityisproperlynothingelsethantheconception。Thefirsttwoelementsofthewill，thatitcanabstractitselffromeverything，andthatitisdefinitethrougheitheritsownactivityorsomethingelse，areeasilyadmittedandcomprehended，becauseintheirseparationtheyareuntrue，andcharacteristicofthemereunderstanding。Butintothethird，thetrueandspeculative-andalltruth，asfarasitisconceived，mustbethoughtspeculatively-theunderstandingdeclinestoventure，alwayscallingtheconceptiontheinconceivable。Theproofandmoredetailedexplanationofthisinmostreserveofspeculation，ofinfinitudeasthenegativitywhichrefersitselftoitself，andofthisultimatesourceofallactivity，lifeandconsciousness，belongtologic，asthepurelyspeculativephilosophy。Hereitcanbenoticedonlyinpassingthat，inthesentences，“Thewillisuniversal……Thewilldirectsitself，“thewillisalreadyregardedaspresupposedsubjectorsubstratum；butitisnotsomethingfinishedanduniversalbeforeitdeterminesitself，noryetbeforethisdeterminationissupersededandidealised。Itiswillonlywhenitsactivityisself-occasioned，andithasreturnedintoitself。
Addition。Whatweproperlycallwillcontainsthetwoabove-mentionedelements。TheIis，firstofall，assuch，pureactivity，theuniversalwhichisbyitself。Nextthisuniversaldeterminesitself，andsofarisnolongerbyitself，butestablishesitselfasanother，andceasestobetheuniversal。
Thethirdstepisthatthewill，whileinthislimitation，i。e。，inthisother，isbyitself。Whileitlimitsitself，ityetremainswithitself，anddoesnotloseitsholdoftheuniversal。Thisis，then，theconcreteconceptionoffreedom，whiletheothertwoelementshavebeenthoroughlyabstractandone-sided。Butthisconcretefreedomwealreadyhaveintheformofperception，asinfriendshipandlove，Hereamanisnotone-sided，butlimitshimselfwillinglyinreferencetoanother，andyetinthislimitationknowshimselfashimself。Inthisdeterminationhedoesnotfeelhimselfdetermined，butinthecontemplationoftheotherasanotherhasthefeelingofhimself。Freedomalsoliesneitherinindeterminatenessnorindeterminateness，butinboth……Thewilfulmanhasawillwhichlimitsitselfwhollytoaparticularobject，andifhehasnotthiswill，besupposeshimselfnottobefree。
Butthewillisnotboundtoaparticularobject，butmustgofurther，forthenatureofthewillisnottobeone-sidedandconfined。Freewillconsistsinwillingadefiniteobject，butinsodoingtobebyitselfandtoreturnagainintotheuniversal。
§8。
Ifwedefinethisparticularising([b]§6)further，wereachadistinctionintheformsofthewill。(a)Insofarasthedefinitecharacterofthewillconsistsintheformaloppositionofthesubjectivetotheobjectiveorexternaldirectexistence，wehavetheformalwillasaselfconsciousnesswhichfindsanouterworldbeforeit。Theprocessbywhichindividualityturnsbackinitsdefinitenessintoitself，isthetranslationofthesubjectiveend，throughtheinterventionofanactivityandameans，intoobjectivity。Intheabsolutespirit，inwhichalldefinitecharacteristhoroughlyitsownandtrue(Encyclopaedia。§363)，consciousnessisonlyoneside，namely，themanifestationorappearanceofthewill，aphasewhichdoesnotrequiredetailedconsiderationhere。
Addition。Theconsiderationofthedefinitenatureofthewillbelongstotheunderstanding，andisnotinthefirstinstancespeculative。Thewillasawhole，notonlyinthesenseofitscontent，butalsointhesenseofitsform，isdetermined。Determinatecharacteronthesideofformistheend，andtheexecutionoftheend。Theendisatfirstmerelysomethinginternaltomeandsubjective，butitistobealsoobjectiveandtocastawaythedefectofmeresubjectivity。Itmaybeasked，whyithasthisdefect。Whenthatwhichisdeficientdoesnotatthesametimetranscenditsdefect，thedefectisforitnotadefectatall。Theanimalistousdefective，butnotforitself。Theend，insofarasitisatfirstmerelyours，isforusadefect，sincefreedomandwillareforustheunityofsubjectiveandobjective。Theendmustalsobeestablishedasobjective；butdoesnotinthatwayattainanewone-sidedcharacter，butratheritsrealisation。
§9
(b)。Insofarasthedefinitephasesofwillareitsownpeculiarpropertyoritsparticularisationturnedbackintoitself，theyarecontent。Thiscontent，ascontentofthewill，isforit，byvirtueoftheformgivenin(a)，anend，whichexistsonitsinnerorsubjectivesideastheimaginativewill，butbytheoperationoftheactivity，whichconvertsthesubjectiveintotheobjective，itisrealised，completedend。
