§175。
Childrenarepotentiallyfreeandtheirlifedirectlyembodiesnothingsavepotentialfreedom。Consequentlytheyarenotthingsandcannotbethepropertyeitheroftheirparentsorothers。Inrespectofhisrelationtothefamily，thechild\'seducationhasthepositiveaimofinstillingethicalprinciplesintohimintheformofanimmediatefeelingforwhichdifferencesarenotyetexplicit，sothatthusequippedwiththefoundationofanethicallife，hisheartmayliveitsearlyyearsinlove，trust，andobedience。Inrespectofthesamerelation，thiseducationhasthenegativeaimofraisingchildrenoutoftheinstinctive，physical，levelonwhichtheyareoriginally，toself-subsistenceandfreedomofpersonalityandsotothelevelonwhichtheyhavepowertoleavethenaturalunityofthefamily。
Remark:OneoftheblackestmarksagainstRomanlegislationisthelawwherebychildrenweretreatedbytheirfathersasslaves。ThisgangreneoftheethicalorderatthetenderestpointofitsinnermostlifeisoneofthemostimportantcluesforunderstandingtheplaceoftheRomansinthehistoryoftheworldandtheirtendencytowardslegalformalism。
Thenecessityforeducationispresentinchildrenastheirownfeelingofdissatisfactionwiththemselvesastheyare，asthedesiretobelongtotheadultworldwhosesuperioritytheydivine，asthelongingtogrowup。Theplaytheoryofeducationassumesthatwhatischildishisitselfalreadysomethingofinherentworthandpresentsitassuchtothechildren；intheireyesitlowersseriouspursuits，andeducationitself，toaformofchildishnessforwhichthechildrenthemselveshavescantrespect。Theadvocatesofthismethodrepresentthechild，intheimmaturityinwhichhefeelshimselftobe，asreallymatureandtheystruggletomakehimsatisfiedwithhimselfasheis。Buttheycorruptanddistorthisgenuineandproperneedforsomethingbetter，andcreateinhimablindindifferencetothesubstantialtiesoftheintellectualworld，acontemptofhiseldersbecausetheyhavethusposedbeforehim，achild，inacontemptibleandchildishfashion，andfinallyavanityandconceitwhichfeedsonthenotionofitsownsuperiority。
Addition:Asachild，manmusthavelivedwithhisparentsencircledbytheirloveandtrust，andrationalitymustappearinhimashisveryownsubjectivity。Intheearlyyearsitiseducationbythemotherespeciallywhichisimportant，sinceethicalprinciplesmustbeimplantedinthechildintheformoffeeling。Itisnoteworthythatonthewholechildrenlovetheirparentslessthantheirparentslovethem。Thereasonforthisisthattheyaregraduallyincreasinginstrength，andarelearningtostandontheirownfeet，andsoareleavingtheirparentsbehindthem。Theparents，ontheotherhand，possessintheirchildrentheobjectiveembodimentoftheirunion。
§176。
MarriageisbuttheethicalIdeainitsimmediacyandsohasitsobjectiveactualityonlyintheinwardnessofsubjectivefeelinganddisposition。Inthisfactisrootedthefundamentalcontingencyofmarriageintheworldofexistence。Therecanbenocompulsiononpeopletomarry；and，ontheotherhand，thereisnomerelylegalorpositivebondwhichcanholdthepartiestogetheroncetheirdispositionsandactionshavebecomehostileandcontrary。Athirdethicalauthority，however，iscalledfortomaintaintherightofmarriage-anethicalsubstantiality-againstthemerewhimsofhostiledispositionortheaccidentofapurelypassingmood，andsoforth。Suchanauthoritydistinguishesthesefromthetotalestrangementofthetwopartiesandmaynotgrantdivorceuntilitissatisfiedthattheestrangementistotal。
Addition:Itisbecausemarriagedependsentirelyonfeeling，somethingsubjectiveandcontingent，thatitmaybedissolved。Thestate，ontheotherhand，isnotsubjecttopartition，becauseitrestsonlaw。Tobesure，marriageoughttobeindissoluble，buthereagainwehavetostopatthis\'ought\'；yet，sincemarriageisanethicalinstitution，itcannotbedissolvedatwillbutonlybyanethicalauthority，whetherthechurchorthelaw-court。Ifthepartiesarecompletelyestranged，e。g。owingtoadultery，theneventheecclesiasticalauthoritymustpermitdivorce。
§177。
Theethicaldissolutionofthefamilyconsistsinthis，thatoncethechildrenhavebeeneducatedtofreedomofpersonality，andhavecomeofage，theybecomerecognisedaspersonsintheeyesofthelawandascapableofholdingfreepropertyoftheirownandfoundingfamiliesoftheirown，thesonsasheadsofnewfamilies，thedaughtersaswives。Theynowhavetheirsubstantivedestinyinthenewfamily；theoldfamilyontheotherhandfallsintothebackgroundasmerelytheirultimatebasisandorigin，whileafortioritheclanisanabstraction，devoidofrights。
§178。
Thenaturaldissolutionofthefamilybythedeathoftheparents，particularlythefather，hasinheritanceasitsconsequencesofarasthefamilycapitalisconcerned。Theessenceofinheritanceisthetransfertoprivateownershipofpropertywhichisinprinciplecommon。Whencomparativelyremotedegreesofkinshipareinquestion，andwhenpersonsandfamiliesaresodispersedincivilsocietythattheyhavebeguntogainself-subsistence，thistransferbecomesthelesshardandfastasthesenseoffamilyunityfadesawayandaseverymarriagebecomesthesurrenderofpreviousfamilyrelationshipsandthefoundingofanewself-subsistentfamily。
Remark:IthasbeensuggestedIthatthebasisofinheritancetiesinthefactthat，byaman\'sdeath，hispropertybecomeswealthwithoutanowner，andassuchfallstothefirstpersonwhotakespossessionofit，because，ofcourseitistherelativeswhoarenormallynearestaman\'sdeath-bedandsotheyaregenerallythefirsttotakepossession。Henceitissupposedthatthiscustomaryoccurrenceismadearulebypositivelegislationintheinterestsoforderliness。Thisingeniousideadisregardsthe，natureoffamilyrelationship。
§179。
Theresultofthisdisintegrationofthefamilyisthatamanmayatwilleithersquanderhiscapitalaltogether，mainlyinaccordancewithhisprivatecaprices，opinions，andends，orelselookuponacircleoffriendsandacquaintances，&c。，asiftheywerehisfamilyandmakeawillembodyingadeclarationtothateffect，withtheresultthattheybecomehislegalheirs。
Remark:Theethicaljustificationoffreedomtodisposeofone\'spropertyby\'willtoacircleoffriendswoulddependontheformationofsuchacircle；theregoestoitsformationsomuchaccident，arbitrariness，andself-seeking，&c-especiallysincetestamentaryhopeshaveabearingonreadinesstoenterit-thattheethicalmomentinitisonlysomethingveryvague。Further，therecognitionofaman\'scompetencetobequeathhispropertyarbitrarilyismuchmorelikelytobeanoccasionforbreachofethicalobligationsandformeanexertionsandequallymeansubservience；anditalsoprovidesopportunityandjustificationforthefolly，caprice，andmaliceofattachingtoprofessedbenefactionsandgiftsvain，tyrannical，andvexatiousconditionsoperativeafterthetestator\'sdeathandsoinanycaseafterhispropertyceasestobehis。
§180。
Theprinciplethatthemembersofthefamilygrowuptobeself-subsistentpersonsintheeyesofthelaw(see§177)letsintothecircleofthefamilysomethingofthesamearbitrarinessanddiscriminationamongthenaturalheirs，thoughitsexercisetheremustberestrictedtoaminimuminordertopreventinjurytothebasicfamilyrelationship。
Remark:Themeredownrightarbitrarinessofthedeceasedcannotbemadetheprincipleunderlyingtherighttomakeawill，especiallyifitrunscountertothesubstantiverightofthefamily。
Forafterallnorespectwouldbeforthcomingforhiswishesafterhisdeath，ifnotfromthefamily\'sloveandvenerationforitsdeceasedfellow-member。Sucharbitrarinessbyitselfcontainsnothingworthyofhigherrespectthantherightofthefamilyassuch-onthecontrary。
Theothergroundforthevalidityoftestamentarydispositionwouldconsistsimplyinitsarbitraryrecognitionbyothers。Butsuchanargumentmayprimafaciebeadmittedonlywhenfamilyties，towhichtestamentarydispositionisintrinsic，becomeremoterandmoreineffective。Iftheyareactuallypresent，however，withoutbeingeffective，thesituationisunethical；andtogiveextendedvaliditytoarbitrarydispositionsattheexpenseoffamilytieseoipsoweakenstheethicalcharacterofthelatter。
Tomakethefather\'sarbitrarywillwithinthefamilythemainprincipleofinheritancewaspartoftheharshandunethicallegalsystemofRometowhichreferencehasbeenmadealready。Thatsystemevengaveafatherpowertosellhisson，andifthesonwasmanumittedbyathirdparty，hecameunderhisfather\'spotestasoncemore。Notuntilhewasmanumittedathirdtimewasheactuallyandfinallyfree。Thesonneverattainedhismajoritydejurenordidhebecomeapersoninlaw；
theonlypropertyhecouldholdwasbootywoninwar(peculiumcastrense)。Ifhepassedoutofhisfather\'spotestasafterbeingthricesoldandmanumitted，hedidnotinheritalongwiththosewhohadcontinuedinbondagetotheheadofthefamily，unlessthewillspecificallysoprovided。
Similarly，awiferemainedattachedtoherfamilyoforiginratherthantothenewfamilywhichbyhermarriageshehadhelpedtofound，andwhichwasnowproperlyherown，andshewasthereforeprecludedfrominheritinganyshareofthegoodsofwhatwasproperlyherownfamily，forneitherwifenormothersharedinthedistributionofanestate。
Later，withthegrowingfeelingforrationality，theunethicalprovisionsoflawssuchastheseandotherswereevadedinthecourseoftheiradministration，forexamplewiththehelpoftheexpressionbonorumpossessioinsteadofhereditas，andthroughthefictionofnicknamingafiliaafilius。Thiswasreferredtoabove(seeRemarkto§3)asthesadnecessitytowhichthejudgewasreducedinthefaceofbadlaws-thenecessityofsmugglingreasonintothemonthesly，oratleastintosomeoftheirconsequences。Connectedwiththisweretheterribleinstabilityofthechiefpoliticalinstitutionsandariotoflegislationtostemtheoutbreakofresultingevils。
FromRomanhistoryandthewritingsofLucianandothers，wearesufficientlyfamiliarwiththeunethicalconsequencesofgivingtheheadofaRomanfamilytherighttonamewhomhepleasedashisheir。
Marriageisethicallifeatthelevelofimmediacy；intheverynatureofthecase，therefore，itmustbeamixtureofasubstantialtiewithnaturalcontingencyandinnerarbitrariness。Nowwhenbytheslave-statusofchildren，bylegalprovisionssuchasthosementionedaboveaswellasothersconsequentialuponthem，andinadditionbytheeaseofRomandivorce，prideofplaceisgiventoarbitrarinessinsteadoftotherightofthesubstantial(sothatevenCicero-andwhatfinewritingabouttheHonestumandDecorumthereisinhisDeOfficiisandinallsortsofotherplaces！-
evenCicerodivorcedhiswifeasabusinessspeculationinordertopayhisdebtswithhisnewwife\'sdowry)，thenalegalroadispavedtothecorruptionofmanners，orratherthelawsthemselvesnecessitatesuchcorruption。
Theinstitutionofheirs-at-lawwithaviewtopreservingthefamilyanditssplendourbymeansoffideicommissaandsubstitutiones(inordertofavoursonsbyexcludingdaughtersfrominheriting，ortofavourtheeldestsonbyexcludingtheotherchildren)isaninfringementoftheprincipleofthefreedomofproperty(see§62)，liketheadmissionofanyotherinequalityinthetreatmentofheirs。
Andbesides，suchaninstitutiondependsonanarbitrarinesswhichinandbyitselfhasnorighttorecognition，ormorepreciselyonthethoughtofwishingtopreserveintactnotsomuchthisfamilybutratherthisclanor\'house\'。Yetitisnotthisclanor\'house\'，butthefamilyproperwhichistheIdeaandwhichthereforepossessestherighttorecognition，andboththeethicaldispositionandfamilytreesaremuchmorelikelytobepreservedbyfreedomofpropertyandequalityofinheritancethanbythereverseofthese。
Institutionsofthiskind，liketheRoman，whollyignoretherightduetomarriage，becausebyamarriagethefoundationofauniqueactualfamilyiseoipsocompleted(see§172)，andbecausewhatiscalled，incontrastwiththenewfamily，thefamilyinthewidesense，i。e。thestirpsorgens，becomesonlyanabstraction(see§177)growinglessandlessactualthefurtheritrecedesintothebackgroundasonegenerationsucceedsanother。Love，theethicalmomentinmarriage，isbyitsverynatureafeelingforactuallivingindividuals，notforanabstraction。ThisabstractionoftheUnderstanding[thegens]appearsinhistoryastheprincipleunderlyingthecontributionoftheRomanEmpiretoworldhistory(see§357)。Inthehighersphereofthestate，arightofprimogeniturearisestogetherwithestatesrigidlyentailed；itarises，however，notarbitrarilybutastheinevitableoutcomeoftheIdeaofthestate。Onthispointseebelow，§306。
Addition:Inearliertimes，aRomanfatherhadtherighttodisinherithischildrenandevenkillthem。Laterhelostboththeserights。Attemptsweremadetoforgeintoalegalsystemthisincoherencebetweenunethicalinstitutionsanddevicestorobthemofthatcharacter，anditistheretentionofthisincoherencewhichconstitutesthedeficiencyanddifficultyoftheGermanlawofinheritance。Tobesure，therighttomakeawillmustbeconceded；butinconcedingitourpointofviewmustbethatthisrightoffreechoicearisesorismagnifiedwiththedispersionandestrangementofthemembersofthefamily。Further，theso-called\'familyoffriends\'whichtestamentarydispositionbringswithitmaybeadmittedonlyindefectofmembersofthefamilyproper，i。e。ofspouseandchildren。Tomakeawillatallentailssomethingobnoxiousanddisagreeable，becauseinmakingitIrevealthenamesofmyfavourites。Favour，however，isarbitrary；itmaybegainedsurreptitiouslybyavarietyofexpedients，itmaydependonallsortsoffoolishreasons，andasaconditionofhavinghisnameincludedinawill，abeneficiarymayberequiredtosubjecthimselftothemostabjectservilities。InEngland，thehomeofallsortsofeccentricity，thereisnoendtothefollyandwhimsicalityofbequests。
TransitionoftheFamilyintoCivilSociety§181。
Thefamilydisintegrates(bothessentially，throughtheworkingoftheprincipleofpersonality，andalsointhecourseofnature)intoapluralityoffamilies，eachofwhichconductsitselfasinprincipleaself-subsistentconcretepersonandthereforeasexternallyrelatedtoitsneighbours。Inotherwords，themomentsboundtogetherintheunityofthefamily，sincethefamilyistheethicalIdeastillinitsconcept，mustbereleasedfromtheconcepttoself-subsistentobjectivereality。Thisisthestageofdifference。Thisgivesus，touseabstractlanguageinthefirstplace，thedeterminationofparticularitywhichisrelatedtouniversalitybutinsuchawaythatuniversalityisitsbasicprinciple，thoughstillonlyaninwardprinciple；forthatreason，theuniversalmerelyshowsintheparticularasitsform。
Hencethisrelationofreflectionprimafacieportraysthedisappearanceofethicallifeor，sincethislifeastheessencenecessarilyshowsitself，thisrelationconstitutestheworldofethicalappearance-civilsociety。
Remark:Theexpansionofthefamily，asitstransitionintoanewprinciple，isintheexternalworldsometimesitspeacefulexpansionuntilitbecomesapeople，i。e。anation，whichthushasacommonnaturalorigin，orsometimesthefederationofscatteredgroupsoffamiliesundertheinfluenceofanoverlord\'spowerorasaresultofavoluntaryassociationproducedbythetieofneedsandthereciprocityoftheirsatisfaction。
Addition:The，starting-pointfortheuniversalhereistheself-subsistenceoftheparticular，andtheethicalorderseemsthereforetobelostatthispoint，sinceitispreciselytheidentityofthefamilywhichconsciousnesstakestobetheprimarything，thedivine，andthesourceofobligation。
Now，however，asituationarisesinwhichtheparticularistobemyprimarydeterminingprinciple，andthusmydeterminacybyethicalfactorshasbeenannulled。Butthisisnothingbutapuremistake，since，whileIsupposethatIamadheringtotheparticular，theuniversalandthenecessityofthelinkbetweenparticularsremainstheprimaryandessentialthing。Iamthusaltogetheronthelevelofshow，andwhilemyparticularityremainsmydeterminingprinciple，i。e。myend，Iamforthatveryreasontheservantoftheuniversalwhichproperlyretainspowerovermeinthelastresort。
ThirdPart:EthicalLifeiiCivilSocietyA:SystemofneedsB:JusticeC:Corporations§182。
Theconcreteperson，whoishimselftheobjectofhisparticularaims，is，asatotalityandamixtureofcapriceandphysicalnecessity，oneprincipleofcivilsociety。Buttheparticularpersonisessentiallysorelatedtootherparticularpersonsthateachestablisheshimselfandfindssatisfactionbymeansoftheothers，andatthesametimepurelyandsimplybymeansoftheformofuniversality，thesecondprinciplehere。
Addition:Civilsocietyisthe[stageof]differencewhichintervenesbetweenthefamilyandthestate，evenifitsformationfollowslaterintimethanthatofthestate，because，as[thestageof]
difference，itpresupposesthestate；tosubsistitself，itmusthavethestatebeforeitseyesassomethingself-subsistent。Moreover，thecreationofcivilsocietyistheachievementofthemodernworldwhichhasforthefirsttimegivenalldeterminationsoftheIdeatheirdue。Ifthestateisrepresentedasaunityofdifferentpersons，asaunitywhichisonlyapartnership，thenwhatisreallymeantisonlycivilsociety。Manymodemconstitutionallawyershavebeenabletobringwithintheirpurviewnotheoryofthestatebutthis。Incivilsocietyeachmemberishisownend，everythingelseisnothingtohim。Butexceptincontactwithothershecannotattainthewholecompassofhisends，andthereforetheseothersaremeanstotheendoftheparticularmember。A
particularend，however，assumestheformofuniversalitythroughthisrelationtootherpeople，anditisattainedinthesimultaneousattainmentofthewelfareofothers。Sinceparticularityisinevitablyconditionedbyuniversality，thewholesphereofcivilSocietyistheterritoryofmediationwherethereisfreeplayforeveryidiosyncrasy，everytalent，everyaccidentofbirthandfortune，andwherewavesofeverypassiongushforth，regulatedonlybyreasonglintingthroughthem。
Particularity，restrictedbyuniversality，istheonlystandardwherebyeachparticularmemberpromoteshiswelfare。
§183。
Inthecourseoftheactualattainmentofselfishends—anattainmentconditionedinthiswaybyuniversality—thereisformedasystemofcompleteinterdependence，whereinthelivelihood，happiness，andlegalstatusofonemanisinterwovenwiththelivelihood，happiness，andrightsofall。Onthissystem，individualHappiness，&c。，depend，andonlyinthisconnectedsystemaretheyactualisedandsecured。Thissystemmaybeprimafacieregardedastheexternalstate，thestatebasedonneed，thestateastheUnderstandingenvisagesit。
§184。
TheIdeainthisitsstageofdivisionimpartstoeachofitsmomentsacharacteristicembodiment；toparticularityitgivestherighttodevelopandlaunchforthinalldirections；andtouniversalitytherighttoproveitselfnotonlythegroundandnecessaryformofparticularity，butalsotheauthoritystandingoveritanditsfinalend。Itisthesystemoftheethicalorder，splitintoitsextremesandlost，whichconstitutestheIdea”sabstractmoment，itsmomentofreality。HeretheIdeaispresentonlyasarelativetotalityandastheinnernecessitybehindthisoutwardappearance。
Addition:Hereethicallifeissplitintoitsextremesandlost；theimmediateunityofthefamilyhasfallenapartintoaplurality。Realityhereisexternality，thedecomposingoftheconcept，theself-subsistenceofitsmomentswhichhavenowwontheirfreedomandtheirdeterminateexistence。Thoughincivilsocietyuniversalandparticularhavefallenapart，yetbotharestillreciprocallyboundtogetherandconditioned。Whileeachofthemseemstodojusttheoppositetotheotherandsupposesthatitcanexistonlybykeepingtheotheratarm”slength，nonethelesseachstillconditionstheother。Thus，forexample，mostpeopleregardthepayingoftaxesasinjurioustotheirparticularinterest，assomethinginimicalandobstructiveoftheirownends。Yet，howevertruethisseems，particularendscannotbeattainedwithoutthehelpoftheuniversal，andacountrywherenotaxeswerepaidcouldnotbesingledoutasinvigoratingitscitizens。Similarly，itmightseemthatuniversalendswouldbemorereadilyattainableiftheuniversalabsorbedthestrengthoftheparticularsinthewaydescribed，forinstance，inPlato”sRepublic。Butthis，too，isonlyanillusion，sincebothuniversalandparticularturnintooneanotherandexistonlyforandbymeansofoneanother。IfIfurthermyends，Ifurthertheendsoftheuniversal，andthisinturnfurthersmyend。
§185。
Particularitybyitself，givenfreereinineverydirectiontosatisfyitsneeds，accidentalcaprices，andsubjectivedesires，destroysitselfanditssubstantiveconceptinthisprocessofgratification。Atthesametime，thesatisfactionofneed，necessaryandaccidentalalike，isaccidentalbecauseitbreedsnewdesireswithoutend，isinthoroughgoingdependenceoncapriceandexternalaccident，andisheldincheckbythepowerofuniversality。Inthesecontrastsandtheircomplexity，civilsocietyaffordsaspectacleofextravaganceandwantaswellasofthephysicalandethicaldegenerationcommontothemboth。
Remark:Thedevelopmentofparticularitytoself-subsistence(compareRemarkto§124)isthemomentwhichappearedintheancientworldasaninvasionofethicalcorruptionandastheultimatecauseofthatworld”sdownfall。Someoftheseancientstateswerebuiltonthepatriarchalandreligiousprinciple，othersontheprincipleofanethicalorderwhichwasmoreexplicitlyintellectual，thoughstillcomparativelysimple；ineithercasetheyrestedonprimitiveunsophisticatedintuition。Hencetheycouldnotwithstandthedisruptionofthisstateofmindwhenself-consciousnesswasinfinitelyreflectedintoitself；whenthisreflectionbegantoemerge，theysuccumbedtoit，firstinspiritandtheninsubstance，becausethesimpleprincipleunderlyingthemlackedthetrulyinfinitepowertobefoundonlyinthatunitywhichallowsbothsidesoftheantithesisofreasontodevelopthemselvesseparatelyinalltheirstrengthandwhichhassoovercometheantithesisthatitmaintainsitselfinitandintegratesitinitself。
InhisRepublic，Platodisplaysthesubstanceofethicallifeinitsidealbeautyandtruth；buthecouldonlycopewiththeprincipleofself-subsistentparticularity，whichinhisdayhadforceditswayintoGreekethicallife，bysettingupinoppositiontoithispurelysubstantialstate。Heabsolutelyexcludeditfromhisstate，eveninitsverybeginningsinprivateproperty(seeRemarkto§46)andthefamily，aswellasinitsmorematureformasthesubjectivewill，thechoiceofasocialposition，andsoforth。，ItisthisdefectwhichisresponsiblebothforthemisunderstandingofthedeepandsubstantialtruthofPlato”sstateandalsofortheusualviewofitasadreamofabstractthinking，aswhatisoftencalleda‘mereideal”。Theprincipleoftheself-subsistentinherentlyinfinitepersonalityoftheindividual，theprincipleofsubjectivefreedom，isdenieditsrightinthepurelysubstantialformwhichPlatogavetomindinitsactuality。ThisprincipledawnedinaninwardformintheChristianreligionandinanexternalform(andthereforeinonelinkedwithabstractuniversality)intheRomanworld。ItishistoricallysubsequenttotheGreekworld，andthephilosophicreflectionwhichdescendstoitsdepthislikewisesubsequenttothesubstantialIdeaofGreekphilosophy。
Addition:Particularitybyitselfismeasurelessexcess，andtheformsofthisexcessarethemselvesmeasureless。Bymeansofhisideasandreflectionsmanexpandshisdesires，whicharenotaclosedcirclelikeanimalinstinct，andcarriesthemontothefalseinfinite。Attheotherendofthescale，however，wantanddestitutionaremeasurelesstoo，andthediscordofthissituationcanbebroughtintoaharmonyonlybythestatewhichhaspowersoverit。Platowishedtoexcludeparticularityfromhisstate，butthisisnohelp，sincehelpontheselineswouldcontravenetheinfiniterightoftheIdeatoallowfreedomtotheparticular。
ItwasintheChristianreligioninthefirstplacethattherightofsubjectivityarose，togetherwiththeinfinityofself-awareness，andwhilegrantingthisright，thewholeordermustatthesametimeretainstrengthenoughtoputparticularityinharmonywiththeunityofethicallife。
§186。
Butindevelopingitselfindependentlytototality，theprincipleofparticularitypassesoverintouniversality，andonlytheredoesitattainitstruthandtherighttowhichitspositiveactualityisentitled。Thisunityisnottheidentitywhichtheethicalorderrequires，becauseatthislevel，thatofdivision(see§184)，bothprinciplesareself-subsistent。Itfollowsthatthisunityispresentherenotasfreedombutasnecessity，sinceitisbycompulsionthattheparticularrisestotheformofuniversalityandseeksandgainsitsstabilityinthatform。
§187。
Individualsintheircapacityasburghersinthisstateareprivatepersonswhoseendistheirowninterest。Thisendismediatedthroughtheuniversalwhichthusappearsasameanstoitsrealisation。Consequently，individualscanattaintheirendsonlyinsofarastheythemselvesdeterminetheirknowing，willing，andactinginauniversalwayandmakethemselveslinksinthischainofsocialconnections。Inthesecircumstances，theinterestoftheIdea—aninterestofwhichthesemembersofcivilsocietyareassuchunconscious—liesintheprocesswherebytheirsingularityandtheirnaturalconditionareraised，asaresultofthenecessitiesimposedbynatureaswellasofarbitraryneeds，toformalfreedomandformaluniversalityofknowingandwilling—theprocesswherebytheirparticularityiseducateduptosubjectivity。
Remark:Theideathatthestateofnatureisoneofinnocenceandthatthereisasimplicityofmannersinuncivilised(ungebildeter)peoples，impliestreatingeducation(Bildung)assomethingpurelyexternal，theallyofcorruption。Similarly，thefeelingthatneeds，theirsatisfaction，thepleasuresandcomfortsofprivatelife，andsoforth，areabsoluteends，impliestreatingeducationasameremeanstotheseends。Boththeseviewsdisplaylackofacquaintancewiththenatureofmindandtheendofreason。Mindattainsitsactualityonlybycreatingadualismwithinitself，bysubmittingitselftophysicalneedsandthechainoftheseexternalnecessities，andsoimposingonitselfthisbarrierandthisfinitude，andfinallybymaturing(bildet)itselfinwardlyevenwhenunderthisbarrieruntilitovercomesitandattainsitsobjectiverealityinthefinite。Theendofreason，therefore，isneitherthemannersofanunsophisticatedstateofnature，nor，asparticularitydevelops，thepleasureforpleasure”ssakewhicheducationprocures。Onthecontrary，itsendistobanishnaturalsimplicity，whetherthepassivitywhichistheabsenceoftheself，orthecrudetypeofknowingandwilling，i。e。immediacyandsingularity，inwhichmindisabsorbed。Itaimsinthefirstinstanceatsecuringforthis，itsexternalcondition，therationalityofwhichitiscapable，i。e。theformofuniversalityortheUnderstanding(Verst?ndigkeit)。Bythismeansalonedoesmindbecomeathomewithitselfwithinthispureexternality。There，then，mind”sfreedomisexistentandmindbecomesobjectivetoitselfinthiselementwhichisimplicitlyinimicaltomind”sappointedend，freedom；ithastodothereonlywithwhatithasitselfproducedandstampedwithitsseal。Itisinthiswaythenthattheformofuniversalitycomesexplicitlyintoexistenceinthought，andthisformistheonlyworthyelementfortheexistenceoftheIdea。Thefinalpurposeofeducation，therefore，isliberationandthestruggleforahigherliberationstill；educationistheabsolutetransitionfromanethicalsubstantialitywhichisimmediateandnaturaltotheonewhichisintellectualandsobothinfinitelysubjectiveandloftyenoughtohaveattaineduniversalityofform。
Intheindividualsubject，thisliberationisthehardstruggleagainstpuresubjectivityofdemeanour，againsttheimmediacyofdesire，againsttheemptysubjectivityoffeelingandthecapriceofinclination。Thedisfavourshoweredoneducationisdueinparttoitsbeingthishardstruggle；butitisthroughthiseducationalstrugglethatthesubjectivewillitselfattainsobjectivitywithin，anobjectivityinwhichaloneitisforitspartcapableandworthyofbeingtheactualityoftheIdea。
Moreover，thisformofuniversality—theUnderstanding，towhichparticularityhasworkeditswayanddevelopeditself，bringsitaboutatthesametimethatparticularitybecomesindividualitygenuinelyexistentinitsowneyes。Andsinceitisfromthisparticularitythattheuniversalderivesthecontentwhichfillsitaswellasitscharacterasinfiniteself-determination，particularityitselfispresentinethicallifeasinfinitelyindependentfreesubjectivity。ThisisthepositionwhichrevealseducationasamomentimmanentintheAbsoluteandwhichmakesplainitsinfinitevalue。
Addition:Byeducatedmen，wemayprimafacieunderstandthosewhowithouttheobtrusionofpersonalidiosyncrasycandowhatothersdo。Itispreciselythisidiosyncrasy，however，whichuneducatedmendisplay，sincetheirbehaviourisnotgovernedbytheuniversalcharacteristicsofthesituation。Similarly，anuneducatedmanisapttohurtthefeelingsofhisneighbours。liesimplyletshimselfgoanddoesnotreflectonthesusceptibilitiesofothers。Itisnotthatheintendstohurtthem，buthisconductisnotconsonantwithhisintention。Thuseducationrubstheedgesoffparticularcharacteristicsuntilamanconductshimselfinaccordancewiththenatureofthething。
Genuineoriginality，whichproducestherealthing，demandsgenuineeducation，whilebastardoriginalityadoptseccentricitieswhichonlyentertheheadsoftheuneducated。
§188。
Civilsocietycontainsthreemoments:
(A)Themediationofneedandoneman”ssatisfactionthroughhislabourandthesatisfactionoftheneedsofallothers—theSystemofNeeds。
(B)Theactualityoftheuniversalprincipleoffreedomthereincontained—
theprotectionofpropertythroughtheAdministrationofJustice。
(C)Provisionagainstcontingenciesstilllurkinginsystems(A)and(B)，andcareforparticularinterest，asacommoninterest，bymeansofthePublicAuthorityandtheCorporation。
A。TheSystemofNeedsa:KindofNeedb:KindofLabourc:Classes§189。
Particularityisinthefirstinstancecharacterisedingeneralbyitscontrastwiththeuniversalprincipleofthewillandthusissubjectiveneed(see§59)。Thisattainsitsobjectivityi。e。itssatisfaction，bymeansof[a]externalthings，whichatthisstagearelikewisethepropertyandproductoftheneedsandwillsofothers，and[b]labourandeffort，themiddletermbetweenthesubjectiveandtheobjective。
Theaimhereisthesatisfactionofsubjectiveparticularity，buttheuniversalassertsitselfinthebearingwhichthissatisfactionhasontheneedsofothersandtheirfreearbitrarywills。TheshowofrationalitythusproducedinthissphereoffinitudeistheUnderstanding，andthisistheaspectwhichisofmostimportanceinconsideringthissphereandwhichitselfconstitutesthereconcilingelementwithinit。
Remark:Politicaleconomyisthesciencewhichstartsfromthisviewofneedsandlabourbutthenhasthetaskofexplainingmass-relationshipsandmass-movementsintheircomplexityandtheirqualitativeandquantitativecharacter。Thisisoneofthescienceswhichhavearisenoutoftheconditionsofthemodernworld。Itsdevelopmentaffordstheinterestingspectacle(asinSmith，Say，andRicardo)ofthoughtworkingupontheendlessmassofdetailswhichconfrontitattheoutsetandextractingtherefromthesimpleprinciplesofthething，theUnderstandingeffectiveinthethinganddirectingit。Itistofindreconciliationheretodiscoverinthesphereofneedsthisshowofrationalitylyinginthethingandeffectivethere；butifwelookatitfromtheoppositepointofview，thisisthefieldinwhichtheUnderstandingwithitssubjectiveaimsandmoralfanciesventsitsdiscontentandmoralfrustration。
Addition:Therearecertainuniversalneedssuchasfood，drink，clothing，&c。，anditdependsentirelyonaccidentalcircumstanceshowthesearesatisfied。Thefertilityofthesoilvariesfromplacetoplace，harvestsvaryfromyeartoyear，onemanisindustrious，anotherindolent。Butthismedleyofarbitrarinessgeneratesuniversalcharacteristicsbyitsownworking；andthisapparentlyscatteredandthoughtlesssphereisupheldbyanecessitywhichautomaticallyentersit。Todiscoverthisnecessaryelementhereistheobjectofpoliticaleconomy，asciencewhichisacredittothoughtbecauseitfindslawsforamassofaccidents。Itisaninterestingspectacleheretoseeallchainsofactivityleadingbacktothesamepoint；particularspheresofactionfallintogroups，influenceothers，andarehelpedorhinderedbyothers。Themostremarkablethinghereisthismutualinterlockingofparticulars，whichiswhatonewouldleastexpectbecauseatfirstsighteverythingseemstobegivenovertothearbitrarinessoftheindividual，andithasaparallelinthesolarsystemwhichdisplaystotheeyeonlyirregularmovements，thoughitslawsmaynonethelessbeascertained。
(a)TheKindofNeedandSatisfaction[typicalofcivilsociety]
§190。
Ananimal”sneedsanditswaysandmeansofsatisfyingthemarebothalikerestrictedinscope。Thoughmanissubjecttothisrestrictiontoo，yetatthesametimeheevinceshistranscendenceofitandhisuniversality，firstbythemultiplicationofneedsandmeansofsatisfyingthem，andsecondlybythedifferentiationanddivisionofconcreteneedintosinglepartsandaspectswhichinturnbecomedifferentneeds，particularisedandsomoreabstract。
Remark:In[abstract]right，whatwehadbeforeuswastheperson；inthesphereofmorality，thesubject；inthefamily，thefamily-member；incivilsocietyasawhole，theburgherorbourgeois。
Hereatthestandpointofneeds(compareRemarkto§123)whatwehavebeforeusisthecompositeideawhichwecallman。Thusthisisthefirsttime，andindeedproperlytheonlytime，tospeakofmaninthissense。
Addition:Ananimalisrestrictedtoparticularity。Ithasitsinstinctsandmeansofsatisfyingthem，meanswhicharelimitedandwhichitcannotoverstep。Someinsectsareparasiticonacertainkindofplant；someanimalshaveawiderrangeandcanliveindifferentclimates，butthereisalwaysarestrictionpreventingthemfromhavingtherangeopentoman。Theneedofshelterandclothing，thenecessityofcookinghisfoodtomakeitfittoeatandtoovercomeitsnaturalrawness，bothmeanthatmanhaslesscomfortthanananimal，andindeed，asmind，heoughttohaveless。
Intelligence，withitsgraspofdistinctions，multipliesthesehumanneeds，andsincetasteandutilitybecomecriteriaofjudgment，eventheneedsthemselvesareaffectedthereby。Finally，itisnolongerneedbutopinionwhichhastobesatisfied，anditisjusttheeducatedmanwhoanalysestheconcreteintoitsparticulars。Theverymultiplicationofneedsinvolvesacheckondesire，becausewhenmanythingsareinIuse，theurgetoobtainanyonethingwhichmightbeneededislessstrong，andthisisasignthatwantaltogetherisnotsoimperious。
§191。
Similarly，themeanstoparticularisedneedsandallthewaysofsatisfyingthesearethemselvesdividedandmultipliedandsointurnbecomeproximateendsandabstractneeds。Thismultiplicationgoesonadinfinitum；takenasawhole，itisrefinement，i。e。adiscriminationbetweenthesemultipliedneeds，andjudgmentonthesuitabilityofmeanstotheirends。
Addition:WhattheEnglishcall‘comfort”issomethinginexhaustibleandillimitable。[Otherscandiscovertoyouthatwhatyoutaketobe]comfortatanystageisdiscomfort，andthesediscoveriesnevercometoanend。Hencetheneedforgreatercomfortdoesnotexactlyarisewithinyoudirectly；itissuggestedtoyoubythosewhohopetomakeaprofitfromitscreation。
§192。
Needsandmeans，asthingsexistentrealiter，becomesomethingwhichhasbeingforothersbywhoseneedsandlaboursatisfactionforallalikeisconditioned。
Whenneedsandmeansbecomeabstractinquality(see§191)，abstractionisalsoacharacterofthereciprocalrelationofindividualstooneanother。Thisabstractcharacter，universality，isthecharacterofbeingrecognisedandisthemomentwhichmakesconcrete，i。e。social，theisolatedandabstractneedsandtheirwaysandmeansofsatisfaction。
Addition:ThefactthatImustdirectmyconductbyreferencetoothersintroducesheretheformofuniversality。ItisfromothersthatIacquirethemeansofsatisfactionandImustaccordinglyaccepttheirviews。Atthesametime，however，Iamcompelledtoproducemeansforthesatisfactionofothers。Weplayintoeachother”shandsandsohangtogether。Tothisextenteverythingprivatebecomessomethingsocial。Indressfashionsandhoursofmeals，therearecertainconventionswhichwehavetoacceptbecauseinthesethingsitisnotworththetroubletoI
insistondisplayingone”sowndiscernment。Thewisestthinghereistodoasothersdo。
§193。
Thissocialmomentthusbecomesaparticularend-determinantformeansinthemselvesandtheiracquisition，aswellasforthemannerinwhichneedsaresatisfied。Further，itdirectlyinvolvesthedemandforequalityofsatisfactionwithothers。Theneedforthisequalityandforemulation，whichistheequalisingofoneselfwithothers，aswellastheotherneedalsopresenthere，theneedoftheparticulartoassertitselfinsomedistinctiveway，becomethemselvesafruitfulsourceofthemultiplicationofneedsandtheirexpansion。
§194。
Sinceinsocialneeds，astheconjunctionofimmediateornaturalneedswithmentalneedsarisingfromideas，itisneedsofthelattertypewhichbecauseoftheiruniversalitymakethemselvespreponderant，thissocialmomenthasinittheaspectofliberation，i。e。thestrictnaturalnecessityofneedisobscuredandmanisconcernedwithhisownopinion，indeedwithanopinionwhichisuniversal，andwithanecessityofhisownmakingalone，insteadofwithanexternalnecessity，aninnercontingency，andmerecaprice。
Remark:Theideahasbeenadvancedthatinrespectofhisneedsmanlivedinfreedomintheso-called‘stateofnature”whenhisneedsweresupposedtobeconfinedtowhatareknownasthesimplenecessitiesofnature，andwhenherequiredfortheirsatisfactiononlythemeanswhichtheaccidentsofnaturedirectlyassuredtohim。Thisviewtakesnoaccountofthemomentofliberationintrinsictolabour，onwhichseethefollowingParagraphs。Andapartfromthis，itisfalse，becausetobeconfinedtomerephysicalneedsassuchandtheirdirectsatisfactionwouldsimplybetheconditioninwhichthementalisplungedinthenaturalandsowouldbeoneofsavageryandunfreedom，whilefreedomitselfistobefoundonlyinthereflectionofmindintoitself，inmind”sdistinctionfromnature，andinthereflexofmindinnature。
§195。
Thisliberationisabstractsincetheparticularityoftheendsremainstheirbasiccontent。Whensocialconditionstendtomultiplyandsubdivideneeds，means，andenjoymentsindefinitely—aprocesswhich，likethedistinctionbetweennaturalandrefinedneeds，hasnoqualitativelimits—thisisluxury。Inthissameprocess，however，dependenceandwantincreaseadinfinitum，andthematerialtomeettheseispermanentlybarredtotheneedymanbecauseitconsistsofexternalobjectswiththespecialcharacterofbeingproperty，theembodimentofthefreewillofothers，andhencefromhispointofviewitsrecalcitranceisabsolute。
Addition:TheentireCynicalmodeoflifeadoptedbyDiogeneswasnothingmoreorlessthanaproductofAtheniansociallife，andwhatdetermineditwasthewayofthinkingagainstwhichhiswholemannerprotested。Henceitwasnotindependentofsocialconditionsbutsimplytheirresult；
itwasitselfarudeproductofluxury。Whenluxuryisatitsheight，distressanddepravityareequallyextreme，andinsuchcircumstancesCynicismistheoutcomeofoppositiontorefinement。
(b)TheKindofLabour[typicalofcivilsociety]
§196。
Themeansofacquiringandpreparingtheparticularisedmeansappropriatetooursimilarlyparticularisedneedsislabour。Throughlabourtherawmaterialdirectlysuppliedbynatureisspecificallyadaptedtothesenumerousendsbyallsortsofdifferentprocesses。Nowthisformativechangeconfersvalueonmeansandgivesthemtheirutility，andhencemaninwhatheconsumesismainlyconcernedwiththeproductsofmen。Itistheproductsofhumaneffortwhichmanconsumes。
Addition:Thereishardlyanyrawmaterialwhichdoesnotneedtobeworkedonbeforeuse。
Evenairhastobeworkedforbecausewehavetowarmit。Waterisperhapstheonlyexception，becausewecandrinkitaswefindit。Itisbythesweatofhisbrowandthetoilofhishandsthatmanobtainsthemeanstosatisfyhisneeds。
§197。
Themultiplicityofobjectsandsituationswhichexciteinterestisthestageonwhichtheoreticaleducationdevelops。Thiseducationconsistsinpossessingnotsimplyamultiplicityofideasandfacts，butalsoaflexibilityandrapidityofmind，abilitytopassfromoneideatoanother，tograspcomplexandgeneralrelations，andsoon。Itistheeducationoftheunderstandingineveryway，andsoalsothebuildingupoflanguage。Practicaleducation，acquiredthroughworking，consistsfirstintheautomaticallyrecurrentneedforsomethingtodoandthehabitofsimplybeingbusy；next，inthestrictadaptationofone”sactivityaccordingnotonlytothenatureofthematerialworkedon，butalso，andespecially，tothepleasureofotherworkers；andfinally，inahabit，producedbythisdiscipline，ofobjectiveactivityanduniversallyrecognisedaptitudes。
Addition:Thesavageislazyandisdistinguishedfromtheeducatedmanbyhisbroodingstupidity，becausepracticaleducationisjusteducationintheneedandhabitofbeingbusy。A
clumsymanalwaysproducesaresulthedoesnotintend；heisnotmasterofhisownjob。Theskilledworker，ontheotherhand，maybesaidtobethemanwhoproducesthethingasitoughttobeandwhohitsthenailontheheadwithoutshrinking(keineSpr?digkeitinseinemsubjektivenTungegendenZweckfindet)。
§198。
Theuniversalandobjectiveelementinlabour，ontheotherhand，liesintheabstractingprocesswhicheffectsthesubdivisionofneedsandmeansandtherebyeoipsosubdividesproductionandbringsaboutthedivisionoflabour。Bythisdivision，thelabouroftheindividualbecomeslesscomplex，andconsequentlyhisskillathissectionofthejobincreases，likehisoutput。Atthesametime，thisabstractionofoneman”sskillandmeansofproductionfromanother”scompletesandmakesnecessaryeverywherethedependenceofmenononeanotherandtheirreciprocalrelationinthesatisfactionoftheirotherneeds。
Further，theabstractionofoneman”sproductionfromanother”smakeslabourmoreandmoremechanical，untilfinallymanisabletostepasideandinstallmachinesinhisplace。
(c)Capital[andclass-divisions]
§199。
Whenmenarethusdependentononeanotherandreciprocallyrelatedtooneanotherintheirlabourandthesatisfactionoftheirneeds，subjectiveself-seekingturnsintoacontributiontothesatisfactionoftheneedsofeveryoneelse。Thatistosay，byadialecticaladvance，subjectiveself-seekingturnsintothemediationoftheparticularthroughtheuniversal，withtheresultthateachmaninearning，producing，andenjoyingonhisownaccountiseoipsoproducingandearningfortheenjoymentofeveryoneelse。Thecompulsionwhichbringsthisaboutisrootedinthecomplexinterdependenceofeachonall，anditnowpresentsitselftoeachastheuniversalpermanentcapital(see§170)whichgiveseachtheopportunity，bytheexerciseofhiseducationandskill，todrawasharefromitandsobeassuredofhislivelihood，whilewhathethusearnsbymeansofhislabourmaintainsandincreasesthegeneralcapital。
§200。
Aparticularman”sresources，orinotherwordshisopportunityofsharinginthegeneralresources，areconditioned，however，partlybyhisownunearnedprincipal(hiscapital)，andpartlybyhisskill；thisinturnisitselfdependentnotonlyonhiscapital，butalsoonaccidentalcircumstanceswhosemultiplicityintroducesdifferencesinthedevelopmentofnatural，bodily，andmentalcharacteristics，whichwerealreadyinthemselvesdissimilar。Inthissphereofparticularity，thesedifferencesareconspicuousineverydirectionandoneverylevel，and，togetherwiththearbitrarinessandaccidentwhichthisspherecontainsaswell，theyhaveastheirinevitableconsequencedisparitiesofindividualresourcesandability。
Remark:TheobjectiverightoftheparticularityofmindiscontainedintheIdea。Menaremadeunequalbynature，whereinequalityisinitselement，andincivilsocietytherightofparticularityissofarfrom。annullingthisnaturalinequalitythatitproducesitoutofmindandraisesittoaninequalityofskillandresources，andeventooneofmoralandintellectualattainment。ToopposetothisrightademandforequalityisafollyoftheUnderstandingwhichtakesasrealandrationalitsabstractequalityandits‘ought-to-be”。
Thissphereofparticularity，whichfanciesitselftheuniversal，isstillonlyrelativelyidenticalwiththeuniversal，andconsequentlyitstillretainsinitselftheparticularityofnature，i。e。arbitrariness，orinotherwordstherelicsofthestateofnature。Further，itisreason，immanentintherestlesssystemofhumanneeds，whicharticulatesitintoanorganicwholewithdifferentmembers(seethefollowing§)。
§201。
Theinfinitelycomplex，criss-cross，movementsofreciprocalproductionandexchange，andtheequallyinfinitemultiplicityofmeansthereinemployed，becomecrystallised，owingtotheuniversalityinherentintheircontent，anddistinguishedintogeneralgroups。Asaresult，theentirecomplexisbuiltupintoparticularsystemsofneeds，means，andtypesofworkrelativetotheseneeds，modesofsatisfactionandoftheoreticalandpracticaleducation，i。e。intosystems，tooneorotherofwhichindividualsareassigned—inotherwords，intoclass-divisions。
Addition:Thewaysandmeansofsharinginthecapitalofsocietyarelefttoeachman”sparticularchoice，butthesubdivisionofcivilsocietyintodifferentgeneralbranchesisanecessity。
Thefamilyisthefirstpreconditionofthestate，butclassdivisionsarethesecond。Theimportanceofthelatterisduetothefactthatalthoughprivatepersonsareself-seeking，theyarecompelledtodirecttheirattentiontoothers。Herethenistherootwhichconnectsself-seekingtotheuniversal，i。e。tothestate，whosecareitmustbethatthistieisahardandfastone。
§202。
Theclassesarespecificallydeterminedinaccordancewiththeconceptas(a)thesubstantialorimmediate[oragricultural]class；
(b)thereflectingorformal[orbusiness]class；andfinally，(c)theuniversalclass[theclassofcivilservants]。
§203。
(a)Thesubstantial[oragricultural]classhasitscapitalinthenaturalproductsofthesoilwhichitcultivates—soilwhichiscapableofexclusivelyprivateownershipandwhichdemandsformationinanobjectivewayandnotmerehaphazardexploitation。Infaceoftheconnectionof[agricultural]labouranditsfruitswithseparateandfixedtimesoftheyear，andthedependenceofharvestsonthevariabilityofnaturalprocesses，theaimofneedinthisclassturnsintoprovisionforthefuture；butowingtotheconditionshere，theagriculturalmodeofsubsistenceremainsonewhichowescomparativelylittletoreflectionandindependenceofwill，andthismodeoflifeisingeneralsuchthatthisclasshasthesubstantialdispositionofanethicallifewhichisimmediate，restingonfamilyrelationshipandtrust。
Remark:Therealbeginningandoriginalfoundationofstateshasbeenrightlyascribedtotheintroductionofagriculturealongwithmarriage，becausetheprincipleofagriculturebringswithittheformationofthelandandconsequentiallyexclusivelyprivateproperty(compareRemarkto§
170)；thenomadiclifeofsavages，whoseektheirlivelihoodfromplacetoplace，itbringsbacktothetranquillityofprivaterightsandtheassuredsatisfactionoftheirneeds。Alongwiththesechanges，sexualloveisrestrictedtomarriage，andthisbondinturngrowsintoanenduringleague，inherentlyuniversal，whileneedsexpandintocareforafamily，andpersonalpossessionsintofamilygoods。Security，consolidation，lastingsatisfactionofneeds，andsoforth—thingswhicharethemostobviousrecommendationsofmarriageandagriculture—arenothingbutformsofuniversality，modesinwhichrationality，thefinalendandaim，assertsitselfinthesespheres。
Inthismatter，nothingisofmoreinterestthantheingeniousandlearnedexplanationswhichmydistinguishedfriend，HerrCreuzer，hasgivenoftheagrarianfestivals，images，andsanctuariesoftheancients。Heshowsthatitwasbecausetheancientsthemselveshadbecomeconsciousofthedivineoriginofagricultureandotherinstitutionsassociatedwithitthattheyheldtheminsuchreligiousveneration。
Incourseoftime，thecharacterofthisclassas‘substantial”undergoesmodificationsthroughtheworkingofthecivillaw，inparticulartheadministrationofjustice，aswellasthroughtheworkingofeducation，instruction，andreligion。Thesemodifications，whichoccurintheotherclassesalso，donotaffectthesubstantialcontentoftheclassbutonlyitsformandthedevelopmentofitspowerofreflection。
Addition:Inourdayagricultureisconductedonmethodsdevisedbyreflectivethinking，i。e。likeafactory。Thishasgivenitacharacterlikethatofindustryandcontrarytoitsnaturalone。Still，theagriculturalclasswillalwaysretainamodeoflifewhichispatriarchalandthesubstantialframeofmindpropertosuchalife。Thememberofthisclassacceptsunreflectivelywhatisgivenhimandtakeswhathegets，thankingGodforitandlivinginfaithandconfidencethatthisgoodnesswillcontinue。Whatcomestohimsufficeshim；onceitisconsumed，morecomesagain。Thisisthesimpleattitudeofmindnotconcentratedonthestruggleforriches。Itmaybedescribedastheattitudeoftheoldnobilitywhichjustatewhattherewas。Sofarasthisclassisconcerned，naturedoesthemajorpart，whileindividualeffortissecondary。Inthebusinessclass，however，itisintelligencewhichistheessentialthing，andnaturalproductscanbetreatedonlyasrawmaterials。
§204。
(b)Thebusinessclasshasforitstasktheadaptationofrawmaterials，andforitsmeansoflivelihooditisthrownbackonitswork，onreflectionandintelligence，andessentiallyonthemediationofoneman”sneedsandlabourwiththoseofothers。Forwhatthisclassproducesandenjoys，ithasmainlyitself，itsownindustry，tothank。Thetaskofthisclassissubdividedinto[a]worktosatisfysingleneedsinacomparativelyconcretewayandtosupplysingleorders—craftsmanship；
[b]workofamoreabstractkind，mass-productiontosatisfysingleneeds，butneedsinmoreuniversaldemand—manufacture；
[c]thebusinessofexchange，wherebyseparateutilitiesareexchangedtheonefortheother，principallythroughtheuseoftheuniversalmediumofexchange，money，whichactualisestheabstractvalueofallcommodities—
trade。
Addition:Inthebusinessclass，theindividualisthrownbackonhimself，andthisfeelingofself-hoodismostintimatelyconnectedwiththedemandforlawandorder。Thesenseoffreedomandorderhasthereforearisenaboveallintowns。Theagriculturalclass，ontheotherhand，haslittleoccasiontothinkofitself；whatitobtainsisthegiftofastranger，ofnature。Itsfeelingofdependenceisfundamentaltoit，andwiththisfeelingthereisreadilyassociatedawillingnesstosubmittowhatevermaybefallitatothermen”shands。Theagriculturalclassisthusmoreinclinedtosubservience，thebusinessclasstofreedom。
§205。
(c)Theuniversalclass[theclassofcivilservants]hasforitstasktheuniversalinterestsofthecommunity。Itmustthereforeberelievedfromdirectlabourtosupplyitsneeds，eitherbyhavingprivatemeansorbyreceivinganallowancefromthestatewhichclaimsitsindustry，withtheresultthatprivateinterestfindsitssatisfactioninitsworkfortheuniversal。
§206。
Itisinaccordancewiththeconceptthatclass-organisation，asparticularitybecomeobjectivetoitself，issplitinthiswayintoitsgeneraldivisions。Butthequestionoftheparticularclasstowhichanindividualistobelongisoneonwhichnaturalcapacity，birth，andothercircumstanceshavetheirinfluence，thoughtheessentialandfinaldeterminingfactorsaresubjectiveopinionandtheindividual”sarbitrarywill，whichwininthisspheretheirright，theirmerit，andtheirdignity。
Hencewhathappensherebyinnernecessityoccursatthesametimebythemediationofthearbitrarywill，andtotheconscioussubjectithastheshapeofbeingtheworkofhisownwill。
Remark:Inthisrespecttoothereisaconspicuousdifference，inrelationtotheprincipleofparticularityandthesubject”sarbitrarywill，betweenthepoliticallifeoftheeastandthewest，andalsobetweenthatoftheancientandthemodernworld。Intheformer，thedivisionofthewholeintoclassescameaboutobjectivelyofitself，becauseitisinherentlyrational；buttheprincipleofsubjectiveparticularitywasatthesametimedenieditsrights，inthat，forexample，theallotmentofindividualstoclasseswaslefttotherulingclass，asinPlato”sRepublic，ortotheaccidentofbirth，asintheIndiancaste-system。Thussubjectiveparticularitywasnotincorporatedintotheorganisationofsocietyasawhole；itwasnotreconciledinthewhole，andtherefore—sinceasanessentialmomentitemergesthereinanyevent—itshowsitselfthereassomethinghostile，asacorruptionofthesocialorder(seeRemarkto§185)Eitheritoverthrowssociety，ashappenedintheGreekstatesandintheRomanRepublic；orelse，shouldsocietypreserveitselfinbeingasaforceorasareligiousauthority，forinstance，itappearsasinnercorruptionandcompletedegeneration，aswasthecasetosomeextentinSpartaandisnowaltogetherthecaseinIndia。
Butwhensubjectiveparticularityisupheldbytheobjectiveorderinconformitywithitandisatthesametimealloweditsrights，thenitbecomestheanimatingprincipleoftheentirecivilsociety，ofthedevelopmentalikeofmentalactivity，merit，anddignity。Therecognitionandtherightthatwhatisbroughtaboutbyreasonofnecessityincivilsocietyandthestateshallatthesametimebeeffectedbythemediationofthearbitrarywillisthemoreprecisedefinitionofwhatisprimarilymeantbyfreedomincommonparlance(see§121)。
§207。
Amanactualiseshimselfonlyinbecomingsomethingdefinite，i。e。somethingspecificallyparticularised；thismeansrestrictinghimselfexclusivelytooneoftheparticularspheresofneed。Inthisclass-system，theethicalframeofmindthereforeisrectitudeandespritdecorps，i。e。thedispositiontomakeoneselfamemberofoneofthemomentsofcivilsocietybyone”sownact，throughone”senergy，industry，andskill，tomaintainoneselfinthisposition，andtofendforoneselfonlythroughthisprocessofmediatingoneselfwiththeuniversal，whileinthiswaygainingrecognitionbothinone”sowneyesandintheeyesofothers。
Moralityhasitsproperplaceinthisspherewheretheparamountthingisreflectiononone”sdoings，andthequestofhappinessandprivatewants，andwherethecontingencyinsatisfyingthesemakesintoadutyevenasingleandcontingentactofassistance。
Remark:Atfirst(i。e。especiallyinyouth)amanchafesattheideaofresolvingonaparticularsocialposition，andlooksuponthisasarestrictiononhisuniversalcharacterandasanecessityimposedonhimpurelyabextra。Thisisbecausehisthinkingisstillofthatabstractkindwhichrefusestomovebeyondtheuniversalandsoneverreachestheactual。Itdoesnotrealisethatiftheconceptistobedeterminate，itmustfirstofalladvanceintothedistinctionbetweentheconceptanditsrealexistenceandtherebyintodeterminacyandparticularity(see§7)—Itisonlythusthattheconceptcanwinactualityandethicalobjectivity。
Addition:Whenwesaythatamanmustbea‘somebody”，wemeanthatheshouldbelongtosomespecificsocialclass，sincetobeasomebodymeanstohavesubstantivebeing。Amanwithnoclassisamereprivatepersonandhisuniversalityisnotactualised。Ontheotherhand，theindividualinhisparticularitymaytakehimselfastheuniversalandpresumethatbyenteringaclassheissurrenderinghimselftoanindignity。Thisisthefalseideathatinattainingadeterminacynecessarytoit，athingisrestrictingandsurrenderingitself。
§208。
Astheprivateparticularityofknowingandwilling，theprincipleofthissystemofneedscontainsabsoluteuniversality，theuniversalityoffreedom，onlyabstractlyandthereforeastherightofproperty。Atthispoint，however，thisrightisnolongermerelyimplicitbuthasattaineditsrecognisedactualityastheprotectionofpropertythroughtheadministrationofjustice。
B。AdministrationofJusticea:RightasLawb:DeterminateLawc:Courts§209。
Therelatednessarisingfromthereciprocalbearingononeanotherofneedsandlabourtosatisfytheseisfirstofallreflectedintoitselfasinfinitepersonality，asabstractright。Butitisthisverysphereofrelatedness—asphereofeducation，whichgivesabstractrightthedeterminateexistenceofbeingsomethinguniversallyrecognised，known，andwilled，andhavingavalidityandanobjectiveactualitymediatedbythisknownandwilledcharacter。
Remark:Itispartofeducation，ofthinkingastheconsciousnessofthesingleintheformofuniversality，thattheegocomestobeapprehendedasauniversalpersoninwhichallareidentical。
Amancountsas‘amaninvirtueofhismanhoodalone，notbecauseheisaJew，Catholic，Protestant，German，Italian，&c。Thisisanassertionwhichthinkingratifiesandtobeconsciousofitisofinfiniteimportance。Itisdefectiveonlywhenitiscrystallised，e。g。asacosmopolitanisminoppositiontotheconcretelifeofthestate。
Addition:Fromonepointofview，itisthroughtheworkingofthesystemofparticularitythatrightbecomesanexternalcompulsionasaprotectionofparticularinterests。Eventhoughthisresultisduetotheconcept，rightnonethelessonlybecomessomethingexistentbecausethisisusefulformen”sneeds。Tobecomeconsciousinthoughtofhisright，manmustbetrainedtothinkandgiveupdallyingwithmeresensation。Wemustinvesttheobjectsofourthoughtwiththeformofuniversalityandsimilarlywemustdirectourwillingbyauniversalprinciple。Itisonlyaftermanhasdevisednumerousneedsandaftertheiracquisitionhasbecomeintertwinedwithhissatisfaction，thathecanframelawsforhimself。
§210。
Theobjectiveactualityoftherightconsists，first，initsexistenceforconsciousness，initsbeingknowninsomewayorother；secondly，initspossessingthepowerwhichtheactualpossesses，initsbeingvalid，andsoalsoinitsbecomingknownasuniversallyvalid。
(a)RightasLaw§211。
Theprincipleofrightnessbecomesthelaw(Gesetz)when，initsobjectiveexistence，itisposited(gesetzt)，i。e。whenthinkingmakesitdeterminateforconsciousnessandmakesitknownaswhatisrightandvalid；andinacquiringthisdeterminatecharacter，therightbecomespositivelawingeneral。
Remark:Topositsomethingasuniversal，i。e。tobringitbeforeconsciousnessasuniversal，is，I
needhardlysay，tothink(compareRemarksto§§13and21)。Therebyitscontentisreducedtoitssimplestformandsoisgivenitsfinaldeterminacy。Inbecominglaw，whatisrightfirsttimenotonlytheformpropertoitsuniversality，butalsoitsdeterminacy。Hencemakingalawisnottoberepresentedasmerelytheexpressionofaruleofbehaviour；validforeveryone，thoughthatisonemomentinlegislation；themoreimportantmoment，theinneressenceofthematter，isknowledgeofthecontentofthelawinitsdeterminateuniversality。
Sinceitisonlyanimalswhichhavetheirlawasinstinct，whileitismanalonewhohaslawascustom，evensystemsofcustomarylawcontainthemomentofbeingthoughtsandbeingknown。
Theirdifferencefrompositivelawconsistssolelyinthis，thattheyareknownonlyinasubjectiveandaccidentalway，withtheresultthatinthemselvestheyarelessdeterminateandtheuniversalityofthoughtislessclearinthem。(Andapartfromthis，knowledgeofasystemoflaweitheringeneralorinitsdetails，istheaccidentalpossessionofafew。)Thesuppositionthatitiscustomarylaw，onthestrengthofitscharacterascustom，whichpossessestheprivilegeofhavingbecomepartoflifeisadelusion，sincehevalidlawsofanationdonotceasetobeitscustomsbybeingwrittenandcodified—andbesides，itisasarulepreciselythoseversedinthedeadestoftopicsandthedeadestofthoughtswhotalknowadaysof‘life”andof‘becomingpartoflife”。Whenanationbeginstoacquireevenalittleculture，itscustomarylawmustsooncometobecollectedandputtogether。Suchacollectionisalegalcode，butonewhich，asamerecollection，ismarkedlyformless，indeterminate，andfragmentary。Themaindifferencebetweenitandacodeproperlyso-calledisthatinthelattertheprinciplesofjurisprudenceintheiruniversality，andsointheirdeterminacy，havebeenapprehendedintermsofthoughtandexpressed。Englishnationallawormunicipallawiscontained，asiswellknown，instatutes(writtenlaws)andinso-called‘unwritten”laws。Thisunwrittenlaw，however，isasgoodaswritten，andknowledgeofitmay，andindeedmust，beacquiredsimplybyreadingthenumerousquartoswhichitfills。Themonstrousconfusion，however，whichprevailsbothinEnglishlawanditsadministrationisgraphicallyportrayedbythoseacquaintedwiththematter。Inparticular，theycommentonthefactthat，sincethisunwrittenlawiscontainedincourtverdictsandjudgments，thejudgesarecontinuallylegislators。Theauthorityofprecedentisbindingonthem，sincetheirpredecessorshavedonenothingbutgiveexpressiontotheunwrittenlaw；andyettheyarejustasmuchexemptfromitsauthority，becausetheyarethemselvesrepositoriesoftheunwrittenlawandsohavetherighttocriticisepreviousjudgmentsandpronouncewhethertheyaccordedwiththeunwrittenlawornot。
AsimilarconfusionmighthaveariseninthelegalsystemofthelaterRomanEmpireowingtothedifferentbutauthoritativejudgmentsofallthefamousjurists。AnEmperormetthesituation，however，byasensibleexpedientwhen，bywhatwascalledtheLawofCitations，hesetupakindofCollegeofthejuristswhowerelongestdeceased。TherewasaPresident，andthemajorityvotewasaccepted。
Nogreaterinsultcouldbeofferedtoacivilisedpeopleortoitslawyersthantodenythemabilitytocodifytheirlaw；forsuchabilitycannotbethatofconstructingalegalsystemwithanovelcontent，butonlythatofapprehending，i。e。graspinginthought，thecontentofexistinglawsinitsdeterminateuniversalityandthenapplyingthemtoparticularcases。
Addition:Thesunandtheplanetshavetheirlawstoo，buttheydonotknowthem。Savagesaregovernedbyimpulses，customs，andfeelings，buttheyareunconsciousofthis。Whenrightispositedaslawandisknown，everyaccidentoffeelingvanishestogetherwiththeformofrevenge，sympathy，andselfishness，andinthiswaytherightattainsforthefirsttimeitstruedeterminacyandisgivenitsduehonour。Itisasaresultofthedisciplineofcomprehendingtherightthattherightfirstbecomescapableofuniversality。Inthecourseofapplyingthelaws，clashesoccur，andindealingwiththesethejudge”sintelligencehasitsproperscope；thisisquiteinevitable，becauseotherwisecarryingoutthelawwouldbesomethingmechanicalfromstarttofinish。Buttogosofarastogetridofclashesaltogetherbyleavingmuchtothejudge”sdiscretionisafarworsesolution，becauseeventheclashisintrinsictothought，toconsciousthinkinganditsdialectic，whilethemerefiatofajudgewouldbearbitrary。
Itisgenerallyallegedinfavourofcustomarylawthatitis‘living”，butthisvitality，i。e。theidentitybetweenthesubjectandwhatthelawprovides，isnotthewholeessenceofthematter。Law(Recht)mustbeknownbythought，itmustbeasysteminitself，andonlyassuchcanitberecognisedinacivilisedcountry。Therecentdenialthatnations‘haveavocationtocodifytheirlaws”isnotonlyaninsult；italsoimpliestheabsurdityofsupposingthatnotasingleindividualhasbeenendowedwithskillenoughtobringintoacoherentsystemtheendlessmassofexistinglaws。
Thetruthisthatitisjustsystematisation，i。e。elevationtotheuniversal，whichourtimeispressingforwithoutanylimit。Asimilarviewisthatcollectionsofjudgments，likethoseavailableinaCorpusjuris，arefarsuperiortoacodeworkedoutinthemostgeneralway。Thereasonallegedisthatsuchjudgmentsalwaysretainacertainparticularityandacertainreminiscenceofhistorywhichmenareunwillingtosacrifice。ButthemischievousnessofsuchcollectionsismadeclearenoughbythepracticeofEnglishlaw。
§212。
Itisonlybecauseofthisidentitybetweenitsimplicitanditspositedcharacterthatpositivelawhasobligatoryforceinvirtueofitsrightness。Inbeingpositedinpositivelaw，therightacquiresdeterminateexistence。Intosuchexistencetheremayenterthecontingencyofself-willandotherparticularcircumstancesandhencetheremaybeadiscrepancybetweenthecontentofthelawandtheprincipleofrightness。
Remark:Inpositivelaw，therefore，itisthelegalwhichisthesourceofourknowledgeofwhatisright，or，moreexactly，ofourlegalrights(Rechtens)。Thusthescienceofpositivelawistothatextentanhistoricalsciencewithauthorityasitsguidingprinciple。AnythingoverandabovethishistoricalstudyismatterfortheUnderstandingandconcernsthecollectionoflaws，theirclassificationonexternalprinciples，deductionsfromthem，theirapplicationtofreshdetails，&c。
WhentheUnderstandingmeddleswiththenatureofthethingitself，itstheories，e。g。ofcriminallaw，showwhatitsdeductiveargumentationcanconcoct。
Thescienceofpositivelawhasnotonlytheright，buteventheinescapableduty，tostudygivenlaws，todeducefromitspositivedatatheirprogressinhistory，theirapplicationsandsubdivisions，downtothelastdetail，andtoexhibittheirimplications。Ontheotherhand，if，afterallthesedeductionshavebeenproved，thefurtherquestionabouttherationalityofaspecificlawisstillraised，thequestionmayseemperversetothosewhoarebusiedwiththesepursuits，buttheirastonishmentatitshouldatleaststopshortofdismay。
WiththisRemark，comparewhatwassaidintheRemarkto§3about‘understanding”thelaw。
§213。
Rightbecomesdeterminateinthefirstplacewhenithastheformofbeingpositedaspositivelaw；italsobecomesdeterminateincontentbybeingappliedbothtothematerialofcivilsociety(i。e。totheendlesslygrowingcomplexityandsubdivisionofsocialtiesandthedifferentspeciesofpropertyandcontractwithinthesociety)andalsotoethicaltiesbasedontheheart，onloveandtrust，thoughonlyinsofarastheseinvolveabstractrightasoneoftheiraspects(see§159)—
Moralityandmoralcommandsconcernthewillonitsmostprivate，subjective，andparticularside，andsocannotbeamatterforpositivelegislation。Furthermaterialforthedeterminatecontentoflawisprovidedbytherightsanddutieswhichhavetheirsourceintheadministrationofjusticeitself，inthestate，andsoforth。
Addition:Inthehigherrelationshipsofmarriage，love，religion，andthestate，theonlyaspectswhichcanbecomethesubjectoflegislationarethoseofsuchanatureastopermitoftheirbeinginprincipleexternal。Still，inthisrespectthereisawidedifferencebetweenthelawsofdifferentpeoples。TheChinese，forinstance，havealawrequiringahusbandtolovehisfirstwifemorethanhisotherwives。Ifheisconvictedofdoingtheopposite，corporalpunishmentfollows。Similarly，thelegislationoftheancientsinearliertimeswasfullofpreceptsaboutuprightnessandintegritywhichareunsuitedbynaturetolegalenactmentbecausetheyfallwhollywithinthefieldoftheinnerlife。Itisonlyinthecaseoftheoath，wherebythingsarebroughthometoconscience，thatuprightnessandintegritymustbetakenintoaccountasthesubstanceofthematter。
