Theoppositetothinkingofthestateassomethingtobeknownandapprehendedasexplicitlyrationalistakingexternalappearances-i。e。contingenciessuchasdistress，needforprotection，force，riches，&c-notasmomentsinthestate\'shistoricaldevelopment，butasitssubstance。Hereagainwhatconstitutestheguidingthreadofdiscoveryistheindividualinisolation-not，however，evensomuchasthethoughtofthisindividuality，butinsteadonlyempiricalindividuals，withattentionfocusedontheiraccidentalcharacteristics，theirstrengthandweakness，richesandpoverty，&c。ThisingeniousideaofignoringtheabsoluteinfinityandrationalityinthestateandexcludingthoughtfromapprehensionofitsinwardnaturehasassuredlyneverbeenputforwardinsuchanunadulteratedformasinHerrvonHaller\'sRestaurationderStaatswissenschaft。Isay\'unadulterated\'，becauseinallotherattemptstograsptheessenceofthestate，nomatteronwhatone-sidedorsuperficialprinciples，thisveryintentionofcomprehendingthestaterationallyhasbroughtwithitthoughts，i。e。universaldeterminations。HerrvonHaller，however，withhiseyesopen，hasnotmerelyrenouncedtherationalmaterialofwhichthestateconsists，aswellastheformofthought，buthehasevengoneonwithpassionatefervourtoinveighagainsttheformandthematerialsosetaside。PartofwhatHerrvonHallerassuresusisthe\'widespread\'effectofhisprinciples。ThisRestaurationundoubtedlyowestothefactthat，inhisexposition，hehasdeliberatelydispensedwiththoughtaltogether，andhasdeliberatelykepthiswholebookallofapiecewithitslackofthought。Forinthiswayhehaseliminatedtheconfusionanddisorderwhichlessentheforceofanexpositionwheretheaccidentalistreatedalongwithhintsofthesubstantial，wherethepurelyempiricalandexternalaremixedwithareminiscenceoftheuniversalandrational，andwhereinthemidstofwretchedinanitiesthereaderisnowandagainremindedoftheloftiersphereoftheinfinite。Forthesamereasonagainhisexpositionisconsistent。Hetakesastheessenceofthestate，notwhatissubstantivebutthesphereofaccident，andconsistencyindealingwithasphereofthatkindamountstothecompleteinconsistencyofutterthoughtlessnesswhichjogsalongwithoutlookingbehind，andisjustasmuchathomenowwiththeexactoppositeofwhatitapprovedamomentago。
Addition:Thestateinandbyitselfistheethicalwhole，theactualisationoffreedom；anditisanabsoluteendofreasonthatfreedomshouldbeactual。Thestateismindonearthandconsciouslyrealisingitselfthere。Innature，ontheotherhand，mindactualisesitselfonlyasitsownother，asmindasleep。Onlywhenitispresentinconsciousness，whenitknowsitselfasareallyexistentobject，isitthestate。Inconsideringfreedom，thestarting-pointmustbenotindividuality，thesingleself-consciousness，butonlytheessenceofself-consciousness；forwhethermanknowsitornot，thisessenceisexternallyrealisedasaself-subsistentpowerinwhichsingleindividualsareonlymoments。ThemarchofGodintheworld，thatiswhatthestateis。Thebasisofthestateisthepowerofreasonactualisingitselfaswill。InconsideringtheIdeaofthestate，wemustnothaveoureyesonparticularstatesoronparticularinstitutions。InsteadwemustconsidertheIdea，thisactualGod，byitself。Onsomeprincipleorother，anystatemaybeshowntobebad，thisorthatdefectmaybefoundinit；andyet，atanyrateifoneofthematurestatesofourepochisinquestion，ithasinitthemomentsessentialtotheexistenceofthestate。Butsinceitiseasiertofinddefectsthantounderstandtheaffirmative，wemayreadilyfallintothemistakeoflookingatisolatedaspectsofthestateandsoforgettingitsinwardorganiclife。Thestateisnoidealworkofart；itstandsonearthandsointhesphereofcaprice，chance，anderror，andbadbehaviourmaydisfigureitinmanyrespects。Buttheugliestofmen，oracriminal，oraninvalid，oracripple，isstillalwaysalivingman。
Theaffirmative，life，subsistsdespitehisdefects，anditisthisaffirmativefactorwhichisourthemehere。
Footnote:Ihavedescribedthebooksufficientlytoshowthatitisofanoriginalkind。Theremightbesomethingnobleintheauthor\'sindignationbyitself，sinceitwaskindledbythefalsetheories，mentionedabove，emanatingprincipallyfromRousseau，andespeciallybytheattempttorealisetheminpractice。Buttosavehimselffromthesetheories，HerrvonHallerhasgonetotheotherextremebydispensingwiththoughtaltogetherandconsequentlyitcannotbesaidthatthereisanythingofintrinsicvalueinhisvirulenthatredofalllawsandlegislation，ofallexpresslyandlegallydeterminaterights。Thehatredoflaw，ofrightmadedeterminateinlaw，istheshibbolethwherebyfanaticism，flabby-mindedness，andthehypocrisyofgoodintentionsareclearlyandinfalliblyrecognisedforwhattheyare，disguisethemselvesastheymay。
OriginalitylikeHerrvonHaller\'sisalwaysacuriousphenomenon，andforthoseofmyreaderswhoarenotyetacquaintedwithhisbookIwillquoteafewspecimenpassages。Thisishowhelaysdownhismostimportantbasicproposition:\'Justas，intheinorganicworld，thegreaterdislodgesthelessandthemightytheweak……sointheanimalkingdom，andthenamongsthumanbeings，thesamelawappearsinnobler\'(often，too，surelyinignobler?)\'forms\'，and\'this，therefore，istheeternal，unalterable，ordinanceofGod，thatthemightierrules，mustrule，andwillalwaysrule\'。Itisclearenoughfromthis，letalonefromwhatfollows，inwhatsense\'might\'istakenhere。Itisnotthemightofjusticeandethics，butonlytheirrationalpowerofbruteforce。HerrvonHallerthengoesontosupportthisdoctrineonvariousgrounds，amongstthemthat\'naturewithamazingwisdomhassoordereditthatthemeresenseofpersonalsuperiorityirresistiblyennoblesthecharacterandencouragesthedevelopmentofjustthosevirtueswhicharemostnecessaryfordealingwithsubordinates\'。Heaskswithagreatelaborationofundergraduaterhetoric[ibid。]\'whetheritisthestrongortheweakinthekingdomofsciencewhomoremisusetheirtrustandtheirauthorityinordertoachievetheirpettyselfishendsandtheruinofthecredulous；whethertobeapastmasterinlegallearningisnottobeapettifogger，aleguleius，onewhocheatsthehopesofunsuspectingclients，whomakeswhiteblackandblackwhite，whomisappliesthelawandmakesitavehicleforwrongdoing，whobringstobeggarythosewhoneedhisassistanceandtendsthemasthehungryvulturetendstheinnocentlamb\'，&c。，&c。HerrvonHallerforgetsherethatthepointofthisrhetoricistosupporthispropositionthattheruleofthemightierisaneverlastingordnanceofGod；sopresumablyitisbythesameordinancethatthevulturerendstheinnocentlamb，andthathencethemightyarequiterighttotreattheirunsuspectingclientsastheweakandtomakeuseofknowledgeofthelawtoemptytheirpockets。Itwouldbetoomuch，however，toaskthattwothoughtsshouldbeputtogetherwherethereisreallynotasingleone。
ItgoeswithoutsayingthatHerrvonHallerisanenemyofcodesoflaw。Inhisview，thelawsoftheland，areontheonehand，inprinciple\'unnecessary，becausetheyspringself-explanatoryfromthelawsofnature\'。Ifmenhadremainedsatisfiedwith\'self-explanatory\'asthebasisoftheirthinking，thentheywouldhavebeensparedtheendlesslabourdevoted，sinceevertherewerestates，tolegislationandlegalcodes，andwhichisstilldevotedtheretoandtothestudyofpositivelaw。\'Ontheotherhand，lawsarenotexactlypromulgatedforprivateindividuals，butasinstructionstopuisnejudges，acquaintingthemwiththewillofthehighcourt\'。
Apartfromthat，theprovisionoflaw-courtsisandallovertheplace)notastateduty，butafavour，helprenderedbytheauthorities，and\'quitesupererogatory\'；itisnotthemostperfectmethodofguaranteeingmen\'srights；onthecontrary，itisaninsecureanduncertainmethod，\'theonlyonelefttousbyourmodernlawyers。
Theyhavereftusoftheotherthreemethods，ofjustthosewhichleadmostswiftlyandsurelytothegoal，thosewhich，unlikelaw-courts，，friendlynaturehasgiventomanforthesafeguardingofhisrightfulfreedom\'。
Andthesethreemethodsare-whatdoyousuppose?-(1)Personalacceptanceandinculcationofthelawofnature；(2)Resistancetowrong；(3)Flight，whenthereisnootherremedy\'。Lawyersareunfriendlyindeed，itappears，incomparisonwiththefriendlinessofnature！\'Butthenatural，divine，law，giventoeveryonebynaturetheall-bountiful，is:Honoureveryoneasthineequal\'(ontheauthor\'sprinciplesthisshouldread\'Honournotthemanwhoisthineequal，buttheonewhoismightier\')；\'hurtnomanwhohurtstheenot；
demandfromhimnothingbutwhatheowes\'(butwhatdoesheowe?)；\'naymore，lovethyneighbourandservehimwhenthoucanst\'。The\'implantingofthislaw\'istomakealegislatorandaconstitutionsuperfluous。ItwouldbecurioustoseehowHerrvonHallermakesitintelligiblewhylegislatorsandconstitutionshaveappearedintheworlddespitethis\'implanting\'。
Invol。iii，theauthorcomestothe\'so-callednationalliberties\'，bywhichhemeansthelawsandconstitutionsofnationstates。Everylegallyconstitutedrightisinthiswidesenseoftheworda\'liberty\'。Oftheselawshesays，interalia，that\'theircontentisusuallyveryinsignificant，althoughinbooksahighvaluemaybeplacedondocumentarylibertiesofthatkind\'。WhenwethenrealisethattheauthorisspeakinghereofthenationallibertiesoftheGermanEstates，oftheEnglishpeople(e。g。MagnaCartawhichislittleread，andonaccountofitsarchaicphraseologystilllessunderstood\'，theBillofRights，andsoforth)，ofthepeopleofHungary，&c。，wearesurprisedtofindthatthesePossessions，formerlysohighlyprized，areonlyinsignificant；andnolessSurprisedtolearnthatitisonlyinbooksthatthesenationsplaceavalueonlawswhoseco-operationhasenteredintoeverycoatthatiswornIndeverycrustthatiseaten，andstillentersintoeverydayandhourofthelivesofeveryone。
Tocarryquotationfurther，HerrvonHallerspeaksparticularly，illofthePrussianGeneralLegalCode，becauseofthe\'incredible\'influenceonitoftheerrorsoffalsephilosophy(thoughinthisinstanceatanyratethefaultcannotbeascribedtoKant\'sphilosophy，atopiconwhichHerrvonHallerisathisangriest)，especiallywhereitspeaksofthestate，theresourcesofthestate，theendofthestate，theheadofthestate，hisduties，andthoseofcivilservants，andsoforth。HerrvonHallerfindsparticularlymischievous\'therightofdefrayingtheexpensesofthestatebylevyingtaxesontheprivatewealthofindividuals，ontheirbusinesses，ongoodsproducedorconsumed。Underthosecircumstances，neitherthekinghimself(sincetheresourcesofthestatebelongtothestateandarenottheprivatepropertyoftheking)，northePrussiancitizenscancallanythingtheirown，neithertheirpersonnortheirproperty；andallsubjectsarebondslavestothelaw，sincetheymaynotwithdrawthemselvesfromtheserviceofthestate。\'
Inthiswelterofincrediblecrudity，whatisperhapsmostcomicalofallistheemotionwithwhichHerrvonHallerdescribeshisunspeakablepleasureinhisdiscoveries-\'ajoysuchasonlythefriendoftruthcanfeelwhenafterhonestsearchhehasbecomeconfidentthathehasfoundasitwere\'(yesindeed?\'isitwere\'isright！)\'thevoiceofnature，theverywordofGod\'。(ThetruthisthatthewordofGodveryclearlydistinguishesitsrevelationsfromthevoicesofnatureandunregenerateman。)\'Theauthorcouldhavesunktothegroundinopenamazement，astreamofjoyfultearsburstfromhiseyes，andlivingreligiousfeelingsprangupinhimthereandthen。，HerrvonHallermighthavediscoveredbyhis\'religiousfeeling\'thatheshouldratherbewailhisconditionasthehardestchastisementofGod。Forthehardestthingwhichmancanexperienceistobesofarexcludedfromthoughtandreason，fromrespectforthelaws，andfromknowinghowinfinitelyimportantanddivineitisthatthedutiesofthestateandtherightsofthecitizens，aswellastherightsofthestateandthedutiesofthecitizens，shouldbedefinedbylaw-tobesofarexcludedfromallthisthatabsurditycanfoistitselfuponhimasthewordofGod。
§259。
TheIdeaofthestate:
(A)hasimmediateactualityandistheindividualstateasaself-dependentorganism-theConstitutionorConstitutionalLaw；
(B)passesoverintotherelationofonestatetootherstates-InternationalLaw；
(C)istheuniversalIdeaasagenusandasanabsolutepoweroverindividualstates-themindwhichgivesitselfitsactualityintheprocessofWorld-History。
Remark:Thestateinitsactualityisessentiallyanindividualstate，andbeyondthataparticularstate。Individualityistobedistinguishedfromparticularity。TheformerisamomentintheveryIdeaofthestate，whilethelatterbelongstohistory。Statesassuchareindependentofoneanother，andthereforetheirrelationtooneanothercanonlybeanexternalone，sothattheremustbeathirdthingstandingabovethemtobindthemtogether。Nowthisthirdthingisthemindwhichgivesitselfactualityinworld-historyandistheabsolutejudgeofstates。Severalstatesmayformanalliancetobeasortofcourtwithjurisdictionoverothers，theremaybeconfederationsofstates，liketheHolyAllianceforexample，butthesearealwaysrelativeonlyandrestricted，likeperpetualpeace\'。Theoneandonlyabsolutejudge，whichmakesitselfauthoritativeagainsttheparticularandatalltimes，istheabsolutemindwhichmanifestsitselfinthehistoryoftheworldastheuniversalandasthegenusthereoperative。
A。ConstitutionalLaw§260。
Thestateistheactualityofconcretefreedom。Butconcretefreedomconsistsinthis，thatpersonalindividualityanditsparticularinterestsnotonlyachievetheircompletedevelopmentandgainexplicitrecognitionfortheirright(astheydointhesphereofthefamilyandcivilsociety)but，foronething，theyalsopassoveroftheirownaccordintotheinterestoftheuniversal，and，foranotherthing，theyknowandwilltheuniversal；theyevenrecogniseitastheirownsubstantivemind；
theytakeitastheirendandaimandareactiveinitspursuit。Theresultisthattheuniversaldoesnotprevailorachievecompletionexceptalongwithparticularinterestsandthroughtheco-operationofparticularknowingandwilling；andindividualslikewisedonotliveasprivatepersonsfortheirownendsalone，butintheveryactofwillingthesetheywilltheuniversalinthelightoftheuniversal，andtheiractivityisconsciouslyaimedatnonebuttheuniversalend。Theprincipleofmodernstateshasprodigiousstrengthanddepthbecauseitallowstheprincipleofsubjectivitytoprogresstoitsculminationintheextremeofself-subsistentpersonalparticularity，andyetatthesametimebringsitbacktothesubstantiveunityandsomaintainsthisunityintheprincipleofsubjectivityitself。
Addition:TheIdeaofthestateinmoderntimeshasaspecialcharacterinthatthestateistheactualisationoffreedomnotinaccordancewithsubjectivewhimbutinaccordancewiththeconceptofthewill，i。e。inaccordancewithitsuniversalityanddivinity。ImmaturestatesarethoseinwhichtheIdeaofthestateisstillveiledandwhereitsparticulardeterminationshavenotyetattainedfreeself-subsistence。Inthestatesofclassicalantiquity，universalitywaspresent，butparticularityhadnotthenbeenreleased，givenfreescope，andbroughtbacktouniversality，i。e。totheUniversalendofthewhole。Theessenceofthemodernstateisthattheuniversalbeboundupwiththecompletefreedomofitsparticularmembersandwithprivatewell-being，thatthustheinterestsoffamilyandcivilsocietymustconcentratethemselvesonthestate，althoughthe-universalendcannotbeadvancedwithoutthepersonalknowledgeandwillofitsparticularmembers，whoseownrightsmustbemaintained。Thustheuniversalmustbefurthered，butsubjectivityontheotherhandmustattainitsfullandlivingdevelopment。Itisonlywhenboththesemomentssubsistintheirstrengththatthestatecanberegardedasarticulatedandgenuinelyorganised。
§261。
Incontrastwiththespheresofprivaterightsandprivatewelfare(thefamilyandcivilsociety)，thestateisfromonepointofviewanexternalnecessityandtheirhigherauthority；itsnatureissuchthattheirlawsandinterestsaresubordinatetoitanddependentonit。Ontheotherhand，however，itistheendimmanentwithinthem，anditsstrengthliesintheunityofitsownuniversalendandaimwiththeparticularinterestofindividuals，inthefactthatindividualshavedutiestothestateinproportionastheyhaverightsagainstit(see§155)。
Remark:IntheRemarkto§3above，referencewasmadetothefactthatitwasMontesquieuaboveallwho，inhisfamousworkL”EspritdesLois，keptinsightandtriedtoworkoutindetailboththethoughtofthedependenceoflaws-inparticular，lawsconcerningtherightsofpersons-
onthespecificcharacterofthestate，andalsothephilosophicnotionofalwaystreatingthepartinitsrelationtothewhole。
Dutyisprimarilyarelationtosomethingwhichfrommypointofviewissubstantive，absolutelyuniversal。Aright，ontheotherhand，issimplytheembodimentofthissubstanceandthusistheparticularaspectofitandenshrinesmyparticularfreedom。Henceatabstractlevels，rightanddutyappearparcelledoutondifferentsidesorindifferentpersons。Inthestate，assomethingethical，astheinter-penetrationofthesubstantiveandtheparticular，myobligationtowhatissubstantiveisatthesametimetheembodimentofmyparticularfreedom。Thismeansthatinthestatedutyandrightareunitedinoneandthesamerelation。Butfurther，sincenonethelessthedistinctmomentsacquireinthestatetheshapeandrealitypeculiartoeach，andsincethereforethedistinctionbetweenrightanddutyentershereonceagain，itfollowsthatwhileimplicitly，i。e。inform，identical，theyatthesametimedifferincontent。Inthespheresofpersonalrightsandmorality，thenecessarybearingofrightanddutyononeanotherfallsshortofactualisation；andhencethereisatthatpointonlyanabstractsimilarityofcontentbetweenthem，i。e。inthoseabstractspheres，whatisoneman\'srightoughtalsotobeanother\'s，andwhatisoneman\'sdutyoughtalsotobeanother\'s。Theabsoluteidentityofrightanddutyinthestateispresentinthesespheresnotasagenuineidentitybutonlyasasimilarityofcontent，becauseinthemthiscontentisdeterminedasquitegeneralandissimplythefundamentalprincipleofbothrightandduty，i。e。theprinciplethatmen，aspersons，arefree。Slaves，therefore，havenodutiesbecausetheyhavenorights，andviceversa。(Religiousdutiesarenothereinpoint。)
InthecourseoftheinwarddevelopmentoftheconcreteIdea，however，itsmomentsbecomedistinguishedandtheirspecificdeterminacybecomesatthesametimeadifferenceofcontent。Inthefamily，thecontentofason\'sdutiestohisfatherdiffersfromthecontentofhisrightsagainsthim；thecontentoftherightsofamemberofcivilsocietyisnotthesameasthecontentofhisdutiestohisprinceandgovernment。
Thisconceptoftheunionofdutyandrightisapointofvitalimportanceandinittheinnerstrengthofstatesiscontained。
Dutyonitsabstractsidegoesnofartherthanthepersistentneglectandproscriptionofaman\'sparticularinterest，onthegroundthatitistheinessential，eventhediscreditable，momentinhislife。
Duty，takenconcretelyasIdea，revealsthemomentofparticularityasitselfessentialandsoregardsitssatisfactionasindisputablynecessary。Inwhateverwayanindividualmayfulfilhisduty，hemustatthesametimefindhisaccountthereinandattainhispersonalinterestandsatisfaction。
Outofhispositioninthestate，arightmustaccruetohimwherebypublicaffairsshallbehisownparticularaffair。Particularinterestsshouldinfactnotbesetasideorcompletelysuppressed；
instead，theyshouldbeputincorrespondencewiththeuniversal，andtherebyboththeyandtheuniversalareupheld。Theisolatedindividual，sofarashisdutiesareconcerned，isinsubjection；
butasamemberofcivilsocietyhefindsinfulfillinghisdutiestoitprotectionofhispersonandproperty，regardforhisprivatewelfare，thesatisfactionofthedepthsofhisbeing，theconsciousnessandfeelingofhimselfasamemberofthewhole；and，insofarashecompletelyfulfilshisdutiesbyperformingtasksandservicesforthestate，heisupheldandpreserved。Takedutyabstractly，andtheuniversal\'sinterestwouldconsistsimplyinthecompletionasdutiesofthetasksandserviceswhichitexacts。
Addition:Inthestateeverythingdependsontheunityofuniversalandparticular。Inthestatesofantiquity，thesubjectiveendsimplycoincidedwiththestate\'swill。Inmoderntimes，however，wemakeclaimsforprivatejudgement，privatewilling，andprivateconscience。Theancientshadnoneoftheseinthemodernsense；theultimatethingwiththemwasthewillofthestate。WhereasunderthedespotsofAsiatheindividualhadnoinnerlifeandnojustificationinhimself，inthemodernworldManinsistsonrespectbeingpaidtohisinnerlife。Theconjunctionofdutyandrighthasatwofoldaspect:whatthestatedemandsfromusasadutyiseoipsoourrightasindividuals，sincethestateisnothingbutthearticulationoftheconceptoffreedom。Thedeterminationsoftheindividualwillaregivenanobjectiveembodimentthroughthestateandtherebytheyattaintheirtruthandtheiractualisationforthefirsttime。TheStateistheoneandonlyprerequisiteoftheattainmentofparticularendsandwelfare。
§262。
TheactualIdeaismind，which，sunderingitselfintothetwoidealspheresofitsconcept，familyandcivilsociety，entersuponitsfinitephase，butitdoessoonlyinordertoriseaboveitsidealityandbecomeexplicitasinfiniteactualmind。ItisthereforetotheseidealspheresthattheactualIdeaassignsthematerialofthisitsfiniteactuality，viz。humanbeingsasamass，insuchawaythatthefunctionassignedtoanygivenindividualisvisiblymediatedbycircumstances，hiscapriceandhispersonalchoiceofhisstationinlife(see§185andtheRemarkthereto)。
Addition:InPlato\'sstate，subjectivefreedomdoesnotcount，becausepeoplehavetheiroccupationsassignedtothembytheGuardians。Inmanyorientalstates，thisassignmentisdeterminedbybirth。Butsubjectivefreedom，whichmustberespected，demandsthatindividualsshouldhavefreechoiceinthismatter。
§263。
Inthesespheresinwhichitsmoments，particularityandindividuality，havetheirimmediateandreflectedreality，mindispresentastheirobjectiveuniversalityglimmeringinthemasthepowerofreasoninnecessity(see§184)，i。e。astheinstitutionsconsideredabove。
Addition:Thestate，asmind，sundersitselfintotheparticulardeterminationsofitsconcept，ofitsmodeofbeing。Wemightusehereanillustrationdrawnfromnature。Thenervoussystemisthesensitivesystemproper；itistheabstractmoment，themomentofbeingbyoneselfandsoofhavingidentitywithoneself。Butanalysisofsensationreveals，thatithastwoaspectsandthesearedistinctinsuchawaythateachofthemseemstobeawholesystembyitselfThefirstisfeelingintheabstract，keepingoneselfself-enclosed，thedullmovementwhichgoesoninternally，reproduction，internalself-nutrition，growth，anddigestion。Thesecondmomentisthatthisself-relatedexistencehasoveragainstitthemomentofdifference，amovementoutwards。Thisisirritability，sensationmovingoutwards。Thisconstitutesasystemofitsown，andtherearesomeofthelowertypesofanimalswhichhavedevelopedthissystemalone，whiletheylackthesoul-chargedunityofinnersensation。Ifwecomparethesenaturalfeatureswiththoseofmind，thenthefamilymustbeparalleledwithsensibilityandcivilsocietywithirritability。Nowthethirdisthestate，thenervoussystemasIawhole，somethinginwardlyorganised；butthislivesonlyinsofarasbothmoments(inthiscasefamilyandcivilsociety)aredevelopedwithinit。Thelawsregulatingfamilyandcivilsocietyaretheinstitutionsoftherationalorderwhichglimmersinthem。
Butthegroundandfinaltruthoftheseinstitutionsismind，theiruniversalendandknownobjective。
Thefamilytooisethical，onlyitsendisnotknownassuch，whileitistheseparationbetweenonemanandanotherwhichmakescivilsocietywhatitis。
§264。
Mindisthenatureofhumanbeingsenmasseandtheirnatureisthereforetwofold:(i)atoneextreme，explicitindividualityofconsciousnessandwill，and(ii)attheotherextreme，universalitywhichknowsandwillswhatissubstantive。
Hencetheyattaintheirrightinboththeserespectsonlyinsofarasboththeirprivatepersonalityanditssubstantivebasisareactualised。Nowinthefamilyandcivilsocietytheyacquiretheirrightinthefirstoftheserespectsdirectlyandinthesecondindirectly，inthat(i)theyfindtheirsubstantiveself-consciousnessinsocialinstitutionswhicharetheuniversalimplicitintheirparticularinterests，and(ii)theCorporationsuppliesthemwithanoccupationandanactivitydirectedonauniversalend。
§265。
Theseinstitutionsarethecomponentsoftheconstitution(i。e。ofrationalitydevelopedandactualised)inthesphereofparticularity。Theyare，therefore，thefirmfoundationnotonlyofthestatebutalsoofthecitizen\'strustinitandsentimenttowardsit。Theyarethepillarsofpublicfreedomsinceinthemparticularfreedomisrealisedandrational，andthereforethereisimplicitlypresenteveninthemtheunionoffreedomandnecessity。
Addition:Aswasremarkedearlieron，thesanctityofmarriageandtheinstitutionsinwhichcivilsocietyisanappearanceofethicallifeconstitutethestabilityofthewhole，i。e。stabilityissecuredwhenuniversalaffairsaretheaffairsofeachmemberinhisparticularcapacity。Whatisoftheutmostimportanceisthatthelawofreasonshouldbeshotthroughandthroughbythelawofparticularfreedom，andthatmyparticularendshouldbecomeidentifiedwiththeuniversalend，orotherwisethestateisleftintheair。Thestateisactualonlywhenitsmembershaveafeelingoftheirownself-hoodanditisstableonlywhenpublicandprivateendsareidentical。Ithasoftenbeensaidthattheendofthestateisthehappinessofthecitizens。Thatimperfectlytrue。Ifallisnotwellwiththem，iftheirsubjectiveaimsarenotsatisfied，iftheydonotfindthatthestateassuchisthemeanstotheirsatisfaction，thenthefootingofthestateitselfisinsecure。
§266。
Butmindisobjectiveandactualtoitselfnotmerelyasthisnecessityandasarealmofappearance，butalsoastheidealityandtheheartofthisnecessity。Onlyinthiswayisthissubstantiveuniversalityawareofitselfasitsownobjectandend，withtheresultthatthenecessityappearstoitselfintheshapeoffreedomaswell。
§267。
Thisnecessityinidealityistheinnerself-developmentoftheIdea。Asthesubstanceoftheindividualsubject，itishispoliticalsentiment[patriotism]；indistinctiontherefrom，asthesubstanceoftheobjectiveworld，itistheorganismofthestate，i。e。itisthestrictlypoliticalstateanditsconstitution。
Addition:Theunityofthefreedomwhichknowsandwillsitselfispresentfirstofallasnecessity。Heresubstanceispresentasthesubjectiveexistenceofindividuals。Necessity\'sothermodeofbeing，however，istheorganism，i。e。mindisaprocessinternaltoitself，itarticulatesitselfwithin，positsdifferencesinitself，andtherebycompletesthecycleofitslife。
§268。
Thepoliticalsentiment，patriotismpureandsimple，isassuredconvictionwithtruthasitsbasis—meresubjectiveassuranceisnottheoutcomeoftruthbutisonlyopinion—andavolitionwhichhasbecomehabitual。Inthissenseitissimplyaproductoftheinstitutionssubsistinginthestate，sincerationalityisactuallypresentinthestate，whileactioninconformitywiththeseinstitutionsgivesrationalityitspracticalproof。Thissentimentis，ingeneral，trust(whichmaypassoverintoagreaterorlesserdegreeofeducatedinsight)，ortheconsciousnessthatmyinterest，bothsubstantiveandparticular，iscontainedandpreservedinanother\'s(i。e。inthestate\'s)interestandend，i。e。intheother\'srelationtomeasanindividual。Inthisway，thisveryotherisimmediatelynotanotherinmyeyes，andinbeingconsciousofthisfact，Iamfree。
Remark:Patriotismisoftenunderstoodtomeanonlyareadinessforexceptionalsacrificesandactions。Essentially，however，itisthesentimentwhich，intherelationshipsofourdailylifeandunderordinaryconditions，habituallyrecognisesthatthecommunityisone\'ssubstantivegroundworkandend。Itisoutofthisconsciousness，whichduringlife\'sdailyroundstandsthetestinallcircumstances，thattheresubsequentlyalsoarisesthereadinessforextraordinaryexertions。
Butsincemenwouldoftenratherbemagnanimousthanlaw-abiding，theyreadilypersuadethemselvesthattheypossessthisexceptionalpatriotisminordertobesparingintheexpressionofagenuinepatrioticsentimentortoexcusetheirlackofit。Ifagainthisgenuinepatriotismislookeduponasthatwhichmaybeginofitselfandarisefromsubjectiveideasandthoughts，itisbeingconfusedwithopinion，becausesoregardedpatriotismisdeprivedofitstrueground，objectivereality。
Addition:Immaturemindsdelightinargumentationandfault-finding，becauseitiseasyenoughtofindfault，thoughhardtoseethegoodanditsinnernecessity。Thelearneralwaysbeginsbyfindingfault，butthescholarseesthepositivemeritineverything。Inreligion，thisorthatisquicklydismissedassuperstitious，butitisinfinitelyhardertoapprehendthetruthunderlyingthesuperstition。Hencemen\'sapparentsentimenttowardsthestateistobedistinguishedfromwhattheyreallywill；inwardlytheyreallywillthething，buttheyclingtodetailsandtakedelightinthevanityofpretendingtoknowbetter。Weareconfidentthatthestatemustsubsistandthatinitalonecanparticularinterestsbesecured。Buthabitblindsustothatonwhichourwholeexistencedepends。Whenwewalkthestreetsatnightinsafety，itdoesnotstrikeusthatthismightbeotherwise。Thishabitoffeelingsafehasbecomesecondnature，andwedonotreflectonjusthowthisisduesolelytotheworkingofspecialinstitutions。Commonplacethinkingoftenhastheimpressionthatforceholdsthestatetogether，butinfactitsonlybondisthefundamentalsenseoforderwhicheverybodypossesses。
§269。
Thepatrioticsentimentacquiresitsspecificallydeterminedcontentfromthevariousmembersoftheorganismofthestate。ThisorganismisthedevelopmentoftheIdeatoitsdifferencesandtheirobjectiveactuality。Hencethesedifferentmembersarethevariouspowersofthestatewiththeirfunctionsandspheresofaction，bymeansofwhichtheuniversalcontinuallyengendersitself，andengendersitselfinanecessarywaybecausetheirspecificcharacterisfixedbythenatureoftheconcept。Throughoutthisprocesstheuniversalmaintainsitsidentity，sinceitisitselfthepresuppositionofitsownproduction。Thisorganismistheconstitutionofthestate。
Addition:Thestateisanorganism，i。e。thedevelopmentoftheIdeatothearticulationofitsdifferences。Thusthesedifferentsidesofthestateareitsvariouspowerswiththeirfunctionsandspheresofaction，bymeansofwhichtheuniversalcontinuallyengendersitselfinanecessaryway；
inthisprocessitmaintainsitsidentitysinceitispresupposedeveninitsownproduction。Thisorganismistheconstitutionofthestate；itisproducedperpetuallybythestate，whileitisthroughitthatthestatemaintainsitself。Ifthestateanditsconstitutionfallapart，ifthevariousmembersoftheorganismfreethemselves，thentheunityproducedbytheconstitutionisnolongeranaccomplishedfact。Thistallieswiththefableaboutthebellyandtheothermembers。Thenatureofanorganismissuchthatunlesseachofitspartsisbroughtintoidentitywiththeothers，unlesseachofthemispreventedfromachievingautonomy，thewholemustperish。Bylistingattributes，axioms，&c。，noprogresscanbemadeinassessingthenatureofthestate；itmustbeapprehendedasanorganism。
OnemightaswelltrytounderstandthenatureofGodbylistinghisattributes，whilethetruthisthatwemustintuitGod\'slifeinthatlifeitself。
§270。
(1)Theabstractactualityorthesubstantialityofthestateconsistsinthefactthatitsendistheuniversalinterestassuchandtheconservationthereinofparticularinterestssincetheuniversalinterestisthesubstanceofthese。
(2)Butthissubstantialityofthestateisalsoitsnecessity，sinceitssubstantialityisdividedintothedistinctspheresofitsactivitywhichcorrespondtothemomentsofitsconcept，andthesespheres，owingtothissubstantiality，arethusactuallyfixeddeterminatecharacteristicsofthestate，i。e。itsPowers。
(3)Butthisverysubstantialityofthestateismindknowingandwillingitselfafterpassingthroughtheformingprocessofeducation。Thestate，therefore，knowswhatitwillsandknowsitinitsuniversality，i。e。assomethingthought。
Henceitworksandactsbyreferencetoconsciouslyadoptedends，knownprinciples，andlawswhicharenotmerelyimplicitbutareactuallypresenttoconsciousness；andfurther，itactswithpreciseknowledgeofexistingconditionsandcircumstances，inasmuchasitsactionshaveabearingonthese。
Remark:Thisistheplacetoalludetotherelationofthestatetoreligion，becauseitisoftenreiteratednowadays“thatreligionisthebasisofthestate，andbecausethosewhomakethisassertionevenhavetheimpertinencetosuggestthat，onceitismade，politicalsciencehassaiditslastword。Nodoctrineismorefittedtoproducesomuchconfusion，morefitted-indeedtoexaltconfusionitselftobetheconstitutionofthestateandtheproperformofknowledge。
Inthefirstplace，itmayseemsuspiciousthatreligionisprincipallysoughtandrecommendedfortimesofpubliccalamity，disorder，andoppression，andthatpeoplearereferredtoitasasolaceinfaceofwrongorasahopeincompensationforloss。Thenfurther，whilethestateismindonearth(derGeistderinderWeltsteht)，religionmaysometimesbelookeduponascommandingdownrightindifferencetoearthlyinterests，themarchofevents，andcurrentaffairs，andsototurnmen\'sattentiontoreligiondoesnotseemtobethewaytoexalttheinterestandbusinessofthestateintothefundamentalandseriousaimoflife。Onthecontrary，thissuggestionseemstoassertthatpoliticsiswhollyamatterofcapriceandindifference，eitherbecausethiswayoftalkingmerelyamountstosayingthatitisonlytheaimsofpassionandlawlessforce，&c。，whichbearswayinthestate，orbecausethisrecommendationofreligionissupposedtobeofself-sufficientvalidity，andreligionistoclaimtodecidethelawandadministerit。Whileitmightseemabitterjesttostifleallanimusagainsttyrannybyassertingthattheoppressedfindtheirconsolationinreligion，itstillmustnotbeforgottenthatreligionmaytakeaformleadingtotheharshestbondageinthefettersofsuperstitionandman\'sdegradedsubserviencetoanimals。(TheEgyptiansandtheHindus，forinstance，revereanimalsasbeingshigherthanthemselves。)Thisphenomenonmayatleastmakeitevidentthatweoughtnottospeakofreligionatallingeneraltermsandthatwereallyneedapowertoprotectusfromitinsomeofitsformsandtoespouseagainstthemtherightsofreasonandself-consciousness。
Theessenceoftherelationbetweenreligionandthestatecanbedetermined，however，onlyifwerecalltheconceptofreligion。Thecontentofreligionisabsolutetruth，andconsequentlythereligiousisthemostsublimeofalldispositions。Asintuition，feeling，representativeknowledge，itstaskisconcentrateduponGodastheunrestrictedprincipleandcauseonwhicheverythinghangs。
Itthusinvolvesthedemandthateverythingelseshallbeseeninthislightanddependonitforcorroboration，justification，andverification。Itisinbeingthusrelatedtoreligionthatstate，laws，anddutiesallalikeacquireforconsciousnesstheirsupremeconfirmationandtheirsupremeobligatoriness，becauseeventhestate，laws，anddutiesareintheiractualitysomethingdeterminatewhichpassesoverintoahighersphereandsointothatonwhichitisgrounded。Itisforthisreasonthatinreligionthereliestheplacewheremanisalwaysassuredoffindingaconsciousnessoftheunchangeable，ofthehighestfreedomandsatisfaction，evenwithinallthemutabilityoftheworldanddespitethefrustrationofhisaimsandthelossofhisinterestsandpossessions。
Footnote:Religion，knowledgeandsciencehaveastheirprincipleaformpeculiartoeachanddifferentfromthatofthestate。Theythereforeenterthestatepartlyasmean-meanstoeducationand(ahigher)
mentality-partlyinsofarastheyareinessenceendsinthemselves，forthereasonthattheyareembodiedinexistentinstitutions。Inboththeserespectstheprinciplesoftilestatehave，intheirapplication，abearingonthem。Acomprehensive，concretetreatiseonthestatewouldalsohavetodealwiththosespheresoflifeiswellaswithartandsuchthingsasmeregeographicalmatters，andtoconsidertheirplaceinthestateandtheirbearingonit。Inthisbook，however，itistheprincipleofthestateinitsownspecialspherewhichisbeingfullyexpoundedinaccordancewiththeIdeal，anditisonlyinpassingthatreferencecanbemadetotheprinciplesofreligion，&c。，andtotheapplicationoftherightofthestatetothem。
Remark:Nowifreligionisinthiswaythegroundworkwhichincludestheethicalrealmingeneral，andthestate\'sfundamentalnature-thedivinewill-inparticular，itisatthesametimeonlyagroundwork；anditisatthispointthatstateandreligionbegintodiverge。Thestateisthedivinewill，inthesensethatitismindpresentonearth，unfoldingitselftobetheactualshapeandorganisationofaworld。Thosewhoinsistonstoppingattheformofreligion，asopposedtothestate，areactinglikethoselogicianswhothinktheyarerightiftheycontinuallystopattheessenceandrefusetoadvancebeyondthatabstractiontoexistence，orlikethosemoralists(seeRemarkto§140)whowillonlygoodintheabstractandleaveittocapricetodecidewhatisgood。ReligionisarelationtotheAbsolute，arelationwhichtakestheformoffeeling，representativethinking，faith；and，broughtwithinitsall-embracingcircumference，everythingbecomesonlyaccidentalandtransient。Nowif，inrelationtothestate，weclingtothisformofexperienceandmakeittheauthorityforthestateanditsessentialdeterminant，thestatemustbecomeapreytoweakness，insecurity，anddisorder，becauseitisanorganisminwhichfirmlyfixeddistinctpowers，laws，andinstitutionshavebeendeveloped。Incontrastwiththeformofreligion，aformwhichdrawsaveilovereverythingdeterminate，andsocomestobepurelysubjective，theobjectiveanduniversalelementinthestate，i。e。thelaws，acquiresanegativeinsteadofastableandauthoritativecharacter，andtheresultistheproductionofmaximsofconductlikethefollowing:\'Totherighteousmannolawisgiven；onlybepious，andfortherest，practisewhatthouwilt；yieldtothineowncapriceandpassion，andiftherebyotherssufferwrong，commendthemtotheconsolationsandhopesofreligion，orbetterstill，callthemirreligiousandcondemnthemtoperdition。\'Thisnegativeattitude，however，maynotconfineitselftoaninnerdispositionandattitudeofmind；itmayturninsteadtotheoutsideworldandassertitsauthoritythere，andthenthereisanoutbreakofthereligiousfanaticismwhich，likefanaticisminpolitics，discardsallgovernmentandlegalorderasbarrierscrampingtheinnerlifeoftheheartandincompatiblewithitsinfinity，andatthesametimeproscribesprivateproperty，marriage，thetiesandworkinvolvedincivilsociety，&c。，&c。，asdegradingtoloveandthefreedomoffeeling。Butsinceeventhendecisionsmustsomehowbemadeforeverydaylifeandpractice，thesamedoctrinewhichwehadbefore(seeRemarkto§
140，wherewedealtgenerallywiththesubjectivityofthewillwhichknowsitselftobeabsolute)
turnsupagainhere，namelythatsubjectiveideas，i。e。opinionandcapriciousinclination，aretodothedeciding。
Incontrastwiththetruththusveiledbehindsubjectiveideasandfeelings，thegenuinetruthistheprodigioustransferoftheinnerintotheouter，thebuildingofreasonintotherealworld，andthishasbeenthetaskoftheworldduringthewholecourseofitshistory。Itisbyworkingatthistaskthatcivilisedmanhasactuallygivenreasonanembodimentinlawandgovernmentandachievedconsciousnessofthefact。Thosewho\'seekguidancefromtheLord\'andareassuredthatthewholetruthisdirectlypresentintheirunschooledopinions，failtoapplythemselvestothetaskofexaltingtheirsubjectivitytoconsciousnessofthetruthandtoknowledgeofdutyandobjectiveright。Theonlypossiblefruitsoftheirattitudearefolly，abomination，andthedemolitionofthewholeethicalorder，andthesefruitsmustinevitablybereapedifthereligiousdispositionholdsfirmlyandexclusivelytoitsintuitiveformandsoturnsagainsttherealworldandthetruthpresentinitintheformoftheuniversal，i。e。ofthelaws。Still，thereisnonecessityforthisdispositiontoturnoutwardandactualiseitselfinthisway。Withitsnegativestandpoint，itisofcoursealsoopentoittoremainsomethinginward，toaccommodateitselftogovernmentandlaw，andtoacquiesceinthesewithsneersandidlelongings，orwithasighofresignation。Itisnotstrengthbutweaknesswhichhasturnedreligiousfeelingnowadaysintopietyofapolemicalkind，whetherthepolemicbeConnectedwithsomegenuineneedorsimplywithunsatisfiedvanity。Insteadofsubduingone\'sopinionsbythelabourofstudy，andsubjectingone\'swilltodisciplineandsoelevatingittofreeobedience，thelineofleastresistanceistorenounceknowledgeofobjectivetruth。Alongthislinewemaypreserveafeelingofabjecthumilityandsoalsoofself-conceit，andclaimtohavereadytohandingodlinesseverythingrequisiteforseeingintotheheartoflawandgovernment，forpassingsentenceonthem，andlayingdownwhattheircharactershouldandmustbe；andofcourseifwetakethisline，thesourceofourclaimsisapiousheart，andtheyarethereforeinfallibleandunimpeachable，andtheupshotisthatsincewemakereligionthebasisofourintentionsandassertions，theycannotbecriticisedonthescoreoftheirshallownessortheirimmorality。
Butifreligionbereligionofagenuinekind，itdoesnotruncountertothestateinanegativeorpolemicalwaylikethekindjustdescribed。Itratherrecognisesthestateandupholdsit，andfurthermoreithasapositionandanexternalorganisationofitsown。Thepracticeofitsworshipconsistsinritualanddoctrinalinstruction，andforthispurposepossessionsandpropertyarerequired，aswellasindividualsdedicatedtotheserviceoftheflock。Therethusarisesarelationbetweenthestateandthechurch。Todeterminethisrelationisasimplematter。Inthenatureofthecase，thestatedischargesadutybyaffordingeveryassistanceandprotectiontothechurchinthefurtheranceofitsreligiousends；and，inaddition，sincereligionisanintegratingfactorinthestate，implantingasenseofunityinthedepthsofmen\'sminds，thestateshouldevenrequireallitscitizenstobelongtoachurch-achurchisallthatcanbesaid，becausesincethecontentofaman\'sfaithdependsonhisprivateideas，thestatecannotinterferewithit。Astatewhichisstrongbecauseitsorganisationismaturemaybeallthemoreliberalinthismatter；itmayentirelyoverlookdetailsofreligiouspracticewhichaffectit，andmayeventolerateasect(though，ofcourse，alldependsonitsnumbers)whichonreligiousgroundsdeclinestorecogniseevenitsdirectdutiestothestate。
Thereasonforthestate\'sliberalattitudehereisthatitmakesoverthemembersofsuchsectstocivilsocietyanditslaws，andiscontentiftheyfulfiltheirdirectdutiestothestatepassively，forinstancebysuchmeansascommutationortheperformanceofadifferentservice。
Footnote:Quakers，Anabaptists，&c。，maybesaidtobeactivemembersonlyofcivilsociety，andtheymayberegardedasprivatepersonsstandinginmerelyprivaterelationstoothers。Evenwhenthispositionhasbeenallowedthem，theyhavebeenexemptedfromtakingtheoath。Theyfulfiltheirdirectdutiestothestateinapassiveway；oneofthemostimportantoftheseduties，thedefenceofthestateagainstitsenemies，theyrefuseoutrighttofulfil，andtheirrefusalmayperhapsbeadmittedprovidedtheyperformsomeotherserviceinstead。Tosectsofthiskind，thestate\'sattitudeistolerationinthestrictsenseoftheword，becausesincetheydeclinetorecognisetheirdutytothestate，theymaynotclaimtherightsofcitizenship。Ononeoccasionwhentheabolitionoftheslave-tradewasbeingpressedwithgreatvigourintheAmericanCongress，amemberfromoneoftheSouthernStatesmadethestrikingretort:\'Giveusourslaves，andyoumaykeepyourQuakers。\'
Onlyifthestateisotherwisestrongcanitoverlookandsuffersuchanomalies，becauseitcanthenrelyprincipallyonthestrengthofcustomandtheinnerrationalityofitsinstitutionstodiminishandclosethegapbetweentheexistenceofanomaliesandthefullassertionofitsownstrictrights。ThustechnicallyitmayhavebeenrighttorefuseagrantofevencivilrightstotheJewsonthegroundthattheyshouldberegardedasbelongingnotmerelytoareligioussectbuttoaforeignrace。ButthefierceoutcryraisedagainsttheJews，fromthatpointofviewandothers，ignoresthefactthattheyare，aboveall，nien；andmanhood，sofarfrombeingameresuperficial，abstractquality(seeRemarkto§209)，isonthecontraryitselfthebasisofthefactthatwhatcivilrightsrouseintheirpossessorsisthefeelingofoneselfascountingincivilsocietyasapersonwithrights，andthisfeelingofself-hood，infiniteandfreefromallrestrictions，istherootfromwhichthedesiredsimilarityindispositionandwaysofthinkingcomesintobeing。ToexcludetheJewsfromrights，ontheotherhand，wouldratherbetoconfirmtheisolationwithwhichtheyhavebeenreproached-aresultforwhichthestaterefusingthemrightswouldbeblamableandreproachable，becausebysorefusing，itwouldmisunderstooditsownbasicprinciple，itsnatureasanobjectiveandpowerfulinstitution(comparetheendoftheRemarkto§268)。TheexclusionoftheJewsfromcivilrightsmaybesupposedtobearightofthehighestkindandmaybedemandedonthatground；butexperiencehasshownthatsotoexcludethemisthesilliestfolly，andthewayinwhichgovernmentsnowtreatthemhasproveditselftobebothprudentanddignified。
Remark:Butsincethechurchownspropertyandcarriesonbesidesthepracticeofworship，andsincethereforeitmusthavepeopleinitsservice，itforsakestheinnerfortheworldlylifeandthereforeentersthedomainofthestate，andeoipsocomesunderitslaws。Theoathandethicaltiesgenerally，likethemarriagebond，entailthatinnerpermeationandelevationofsentimentwhichacquiresitsdeepestconfirmationthroughreligion。Butsinceethicaltiesareinessencetieswithintheactualrationalorder，thefirstthingistoaffirmwithinthatordertherightswhichitinvolves。Confirmationoftheserightsbythechurchissecondaryandisonlytheinward，comparativelyabstract，sideofthematter。
Asfortheotherwaysinwhichanecclesiasticalcommuniongivesexpressiontoitself，sofarasdoctrineisconcernedtheinwardpreponderatesovertheoutwardtoagreaterextentthanisthecasewithactsofworshipandotherlinesofconductconnectedwiththese，inwhichthelegalsideatleastseemsatoncetobeamatterforthestate。(Itistrue，ofcourse，thatchurcheshavemanagedtoexempttheirministersandpropertyfromthepowerandjurisdictionofthestate，andtheyhaveevenarrogatedtothemselvesjurisdictionoverlaymenaswellinmattersinwhichreligionco-operates，suchasdivorceandthetakingoftheoath，&c。)Publiccontrolofactionsofthiskindisindeterminateinextent，butthisisduetothenatureofpubliccontrolitselfandobtainssimilarlyinpurelyciviltransactions(see§234)。Whenindividuals，holdingreligiousviewsincommon，formthemselvesintoachurch，aCorporation，theyfallunderthegeneralcontrolandoversightofthehigherstateofficials。Doctrineassuch，however，hasitsdomaininconscienceandfallswithintherightofthesubjectivefreedomofself-consciousness，thesphereoftheinnerlife，whichassuchisnotthedomainofthestate。Yetthestate，too，hasadoctrine，sinceitsorganisationandwhateverrightsandconstitutionareauthoritativewithinitexistessentiallyintheformofthoughtaslaw。Andsincethestateisnotamechanismbuttherationallifeofself-consciousfreedom，thesystemoftheethicalworld，itfollowsthatanessentialmomentintheactualstateisthementalattitudeofthecitizens，andsotheirconsciousnessoftheprincipleswhichthisattitudeimplies。Ontheotherhand，thedoctrineofthechurchisnotpurelyandsimplyaninwardconcernofconscience。Asdoctrineitisrathertheexpressionofsomething，infacttheexpressionofasubject-matterwhichismostcloselylinked，orevendirectlyconcerned，withethicalprinciplesandthelawoftheland。
Henceatthispointthepathsofchurchandstateeithercoincideordivergeatrightangles。Thedifferenceoftheirtwodomainsmaybepushedbythechurchintosheerantagonismsince，byregardingitselfasenshriningthecontentofreligionscontentwhichisabsolute-itmayclaimasitsportionmind，ingeneralandsothewholeethicalsphere，andconceivethestateasameremechanicalscaffoldingfortheattainmentofexternal，non-mental，ends。ItmaytakeitselftobetheKingdomofGod，oratleastastheroadtoitoritsvestibule，whileitregardsthestateasthekingdomofthisworld，i。e。ofthetransientandthefinite。Inaword，itmaythinkthatitisanendinitself，whilethestateisameremeans。Theseclaimsproducethedemand，inconnectionwithdoctrinalinstruction，thatthestateshouldnotonlyallowthechurchtodoasitlikeswithcompletefreedom，butthatitshouldpayunconditionalrespecttothechurch\'sdoctrinesasdoctrines，whatevertheircharacter，becausetheirdeterminationissupposedtobethetaskofthechurchalone。Thechurchbasesthisclaimonthewidegroundthatthewholedomainofmind(Geist)isitsproperty。Butscienceandalltypesofknowledgealsohaveafootinginthatdomainand，likeachurch，theybuildthemselvesintoawholewithaguidingprincipleofitsown，and，withevenbetterjustification，mayregardthemselvesasoccupyingthepositionwhichthechurchclaims。Hencesciencealsomayinthesamewaydemandtobeindependentofthestate，whichisthensupposedtobeameremeanswiththetaskofprovidingforscienceasthoughsciencewereanendinitself。
Further，fordeterminingtherelationbetweenchurchandstate，itmakesnodifferencewhethertheleadersofcongregationsorindividualsordainedtotheserviceofthechurchfeelimpelledtowithdrawfromthestateandleadasortofsecludedlifeoftheirown，sothatonlytheotherchurchmembersaresubjecttothestate\'scontrol，orwhethertheyremainwithinthestateexceptintheircapacityasecclesiastics，acapacitywhichtheytaketobebutonesideoftheirlife。themoststrikingthingaboutsucha-conceptionofthechurch\'srelationtothestateisthatitimpliestheidea-thatthestate\'sspecificfunctionconsistsinprotectingandsecuringeveryone\'slife，property，andcaprice，insofarasthesedonotencroachuponthelife，property，andcapriceofothers。Thestatefromthispointofviewistreatedsimplyasanorganisationtosatisfymen\'snecessities。Inthiswaytheelementofabsolutetruth，ofmindinitshigherdevelopment，isplaced，assubjectivereligiousfeelingortheoreticalscience，beyondthereachofthestate。Thestate，asthelaitypureandsimple，isconfinedtopayingitsrespectstothiselementandsoisentirelydeprivedofanystrictlyethicalcharacter。Nowitis，ofcourse，amatterofhistorythatintimesandunderconditionsofbarbarism，allhigherformsofintellectuallifehadtheirseatonlyinthechurch，whilethestatewasameremundaneruleofforce，caprice，andpassion。Atsuchtimesitwastheabstractoppositionofstateandchurchwhichwasthemainunderlyingprincipleofhistory(see§359)。ButitisfartooblindandshallowaproceedingtodeclarethatthissituationistheonewhichtrulycorrespondswiththeIdea。ThedevelopmentofthisIdeahasprovedthisrathertobethetruth，thatmind，asfreeandrational，isimplicitlyethical，whiletheIdeainitstruthisrationalityactualised；andthisitiswhichexistsasthestate。Further，thisIdeahasmadeitnolessclearlyevidentthattheethicaltruthinitispresenttoconsciousthoughtasacontentworkedupintotheformofuniversality，i。e。aslaw-inshort，thatthestateknowsitsaims，apprehendsandgivespracticalproofofthemwithaclear-
cutconsciousnessandinaccordancewithprinciples。Now，asIsaidearlier，religionhasthetruthasitsuniversalsubject-matter，butitpossessesitonlyasagivencontentwhichhasnotbeenapprehendedinitsfundamentalcharacteristicsasaresultofthinkingandtheuseofconcepts。
Similarly，therelationoftheindividualtothissubject-matterisanobligationgroundedonauthority，whilethe\'witnessofhisownspiritandheart\'，i。e。thatwhereinthemomentoffreedomresides，isfaithandfeeling。Itisphilosophicinsightwhichseesthatwhilechurchandstatedifferinform，theydonotstandopposedincontent，fortruthandrationalityarethecontentofboth。Thuswhenthechurchbeginstoteachdoctrines(thoughthereareandhavebeensomechurcheswitharitualonly，andothersinwhichritualisthechiefthing，whiledoctrineandamoreeducatedconsciousnessareonlysecondary)，andwhenthesedoctrinestouchonobjectiveprinciples，onthoughtsoftheethicalandtherational，\'thentheirexpressioneoipsobringsthechurchintothedomainofthestate。Incontrastwiththechurch\'sfaithandauthorityinmattersaffectingethicalprinciples，rightness，laws，institutions，incontrastwiththechurch\'ssubjectiveconviction，thestateisthatwhichknows。Itsprincipleissuchthatitscontentisinessencenolongerclothedwiththeformoffeelingandfaithbutisdeterminatethought。
Ifthecontentofabsolutetruthappearsintheformofreligionasaparticularcontent，i。e。asthedoctrinespeculiartothechurchasareligiouscommunity，thenthesedoctrinesremainoutofthereachofthestate(inProtestantismtheyareoutofthereachofprieststoobecause，asthereisnolaitythere，sothereisnopriesthoodtobeanexclusivedepositoryofchurchdoctrine)。Sinceethicalprinciplesandtheorganisationofthestateingeneralaredrawnintothedomainofreligionandnotonlymay，butalsoshould，beestablishedbyreferencethereto，thisreferencegivesreligiouscredentialstothestateitself。Ontheotherhand，however，thestateretainstherightandtheformofself-conscious，objective，rationality，therighttomakethisformcountandtomaintainitagainstpretensionsspringingfromtruthinasubjectivedress，nomatterhowsuchtruthmaygirdleitselfwithcertitudeandauthority。
Thestateisuniversalinform，aformwhoseessentialprincipleisthought。Thisexplainswhyitwasinthestatethatfreedomofthoughtandsciencehadtheirorigin。Itwasachurch，ontheotherhand，whichburntGiordanoBruno，forcedGalileotorecantonhiskneeshisexpositionoftheCopernicanviewofthesolarsystem，andsoforth。
Footnote:WhenGalileopublishedthediscoveries\'aboutthephasesofVenus，&c。，whichhehadmadewiththeaidofthetelescope，\'heshowedthattheyincontestablyprovedthemotionoftheearth。ButthisideaofthemotionoftheearthwasdeclaredhereticalbyanassemblyofCardinals，andGalileo，itsmostfamousadvocate，washaledbeforetheInquisitionandcompelledtorecantit，underpainofsevereimprisonment。Oneofthestrongestofpassionsistheloveoftruthinamanofgenius……Convincedofthemotionoftheearthasaresultofhisownobservations，Galileomeditatedalongwhileonanewworkinwhichhehadresolvedtodevelopalltheproofsinitsfavour。Butinorderatthesametimetoescapefromthepersecutionofwhichotherwisehewouldinevitablyhavebeenthevictim，hehituponthedeviceofexpoundingthemintheformofdialoguesbetweenthreespeakers……ItisobviousenoughinthemthattheadvantagelieswiththeadvocateoftheCopernicansystem；butsinceGalileodidnotdecidebetweenthespeakers，andgaveasmuchweightaspossibletotheobjectionsraisedbythepartisansofPtolemy，hemightwellhaveexpectedtobelefttoenjoyundisturbedthepeacetowhichhisadvancedageandhislabourshadentitledhim……InhisseventiethyearhewashaledoncemorebeforethetribunaloftheInquisition……Hewasimprisonedandrequiredtorecanthisopinionsasecondtimeunderthreatofthepenaltyfixedforarelapseintoheresy……Hewasmadetosignanabjurationinthefollowingterms:“I，Galileo，appearinginpersonbeforethecourtinmyseventiethyear，kneeling，andwithmyeyesontheholyGospelswhichIholdinmyhands，abjure，damn，andexecratewithmywholeheartandtruebelieftheabsurd，false，andhereticaldoctrineofthemotionoftheearth……”Whataspectacle！Anaged，venerableman，famousthroughoutalonglifeexclusivelydevotedtothestudyofnature，abjuringonhisknees，againstthewitnessofhisownconscience，thetruthwhichhehaddemonstratedsoconvincingly！BythejudgementoftheInquisitionhewascondemnedtoperpetualimprisonment。AyearlaterhewassetatlibertythroughtheintercessionoftheGrandDukeofFlorence……Hediedin1642……Europemournedhisloss。Ithadbeenenlightenedbyhislaboursandwasexasperatedbythejudgementpassedbyadetestedtribunalonamanofhisgreatness。\'(Laplace:Expositiondusystèmedumonde，BookV，chap。4。)
Remark:Sciencetoo，therefore，hasitsplaceonthesideofthestatesinceithasoneelement，itsform，incommonwiththestate，anditsaimisknowledge，knowledgeofobjectivetruthandrationalityintermsofthought。Suchknowledgemay，ofcourse，fallfromtheheightsofscienceintoopinionanddeductiveargumentation，and，turningitsattentiontoethicalmattersandtheorganisationofthestate，setitselfagainsttheirbasicprinciples。Anditmayperhapsdothiswhilemakingforthisopiningasifitwerereasonandtherightofsubjectiveself-consciousness-thesamepretentiousclaimasthechurchmakesforitsownsphere，theclaim，namely，tobefreefromrestraintinitsopinionsandconvictions。
Thisprincipleofthesubjectivityofknowinghasbeendealtwithabove(seeRemarkto§140)-Itishereonlynecessarytoaddanoteonthetwofoldattitudeofthestatetothisopining。Ontheonehand，insofarasopiningismereopining，apurelysubjectivematter，itiswithoutanygenuineinherentforceorpower，plumeitselfasitmay；andfromthispointofviewthestatemaybeastotallyindifferenttoitasthepainterwhostickstothethreeprimarycoloursonhispaletteisindifferenttotheacademicwisdomwhichtellshimthereareseven。Ontheotherhand，however，whenthisopiningofbadprinciplesembodiesitselfinageneralorganisationcorrosiveoftheactualorder，thestatehastosetitsfaceagainstitandprotectobjectivetruthandtheprinciplesofethicallife(anditmustdothesameinfaceoftheformulaeofunconditionedsubjectivityifthesehaveproposedtotakethestartingpointofscienceastheirbasis，andturnstateeducationalinstitutionsagainstthestatebyencouragingthemtomakeagainstitclaimsaspretentiousasthoseofachurch)；while，viceversa，infaceofachurchclaimingunrestrictedandunconditionalauthority，thestatehasingeneraltomakegoodtheformalrightofself-consciousnesstoitsowninsight，itsownconviction，and，inshort，itsownthoughtofwhatistoholdgoodasobjectivetruth。
Mentionmayalsobemadeofthe\'unityofstateandchurch\'-afavouritetopicofmoderndiscussionandheldupbysomeasthehighestofideals。Whilestateandchurchareessentiallyoneintruthofprincipleanddisposition，itisnolessessentialthat，despitethisunity，thedistinctionbetweentheirformsofconsciousnessshouldbeexternalisedasadistinctionbetweentheirspecialmodesofexistence。Thisoftendesiredunityofchurchandstateisfoundunderorientaldespotisms，butanorientaldespotismisnotastate，oratanyratenottheself-consciousformofstatewhichisaloneworthyofmind，theformwhichisorganicallydevelopedandwheretherearerightsandafreeethicallife。
Further，ifthestateistocomeintoexistenceastheself-knowingethicalactualityofmind，itisessentialthatitsformshouldbedistinctfromthatofauthorityandfaith。Butthisdistinctionemergesonlyinsofarasthechurchissubjectedtoinwarddivisions。Itisonlythereafterthatthestate，incontrastwiththeparticularsects，hasattainedtouniversalityofthought-itsformalprinciple-andisbringingthisuniversalityintoexistence。(Inordertounderstandthis，itisnecessarytoknownotonlywhatuniversalityisinitself，butalsowhatitsexistenceis。Hencesofarfromitsbeingoritshavingbeenamisfortuneforthestatethatthechurchisdisunited，itisonlyasaresultofthatdisunionthatthestatehasbeenabletoreachitsappointedendasaself-consciouslyrationalandethicalorganisation。Moreover，thisdisunionisthebestpieceofgoodfortunewhichcouldhavebefalleneitherthechurchorthoughtsofarasthefreedomandrationalityofeitherisconcerned)。
Addition:Thestateisactual，anditsactualityconsistsinthis，thattheinterestofthewholeisrealisedinandthroughparticularends。Actualityisalwaystheunityofuniversalandparticular，theuniversaldismemberedintheparticularswhichseemtobeself-subsistent，althoughtheyreallyareupheldandcontainedonlyinthewhole。Wherethisunityisnotpresent，athingisnotactualeventhoughitmayhaveacquiredexistence。Abadstateisonewhichmerelyexists；asickbodyexiststoo，butithasnogenuinereality。Ahandwhichiscutoffstilllookslikeahand，anditexists，butwithoutbeingactual。Genuineactualityisnecessity；whatisactualisinherentlynecessary。
Necessityconsistsinthis，thatthewholeissunderedintothedifferencesoftheconceptandthatthisdividedwholeyieldsafixedandpermanentdeterminacy，thoughonewhichisnotfossilisedbutperpetuallyrecreatesitselfinitsdissolution。
Toamaturestatethoughtandconsciousnessessentiallybelong。Thereforethestateknowswhatitwillsandknowsitassomethingthought。Nowsinceknowinghasitsseatinthestate，theseatofsciencemustbetheretooandnotinthechurch。Despitethis，itisoftensaidnowadaysthatthestatemustgrowoutofreligion。Thestateismindfullymatureanditexhibitsitsmomentsinthedaylightofconsciousness。NowthefactthatwhatishiddenintheIdeastepsforthintoobjectiveexistencegivesthestatetheappearanceofsomethingfinite，andsothestaterevealsitselfasadomainofworldliness，whilereligiondisplaysitselfasadomainoftheinfinite。Ifthisbeso，thestateseemstobethesubordinate，andsincewhatisfinitecannotstandonitsownfeet，thestateisthereforesaidtoneedthechurchasitsbasis。Asfinite，itlacksjustification，anditisonlythroughreligionthatitcanbecomesacrosanctandpertaintotheinfinite。Thishandlingofthematter，however，issupremelyone-sided。Ofcoursethestateisessentiallyworldlyandfinite；ithasparticularendsandparticularpowers；butitsworldlycharacterisonlyoneofitsaspects，anditisonlytoanunintelligentsuperficialglancethatitisfiniteandnothingmore。Forthestatehasalife-givingsoul，andthesoulwhichanimatesitissubjectivity，whichcreatesdifferencesandyetatthesametimeholdsthemtogetherinunity。Intherealmofreligiontootherearedistinctionsandlimitations。God，itissaid，istriune；thustherearethreepersonswhoseunityaloneisSpirit(Geist)。
ThereforetoapprehendthenatureofGodconcretelyistoapprehenditthroughdistinctionsalone。
HenceinthekingdomofGodtherearelimitations，justasthereareintheworld，andtoholdthatmind(Geist)onearth，i。e。thestate，isonlyafinitemind，isaone-sidedview，sincethereisnothingirrationalaboutactuality。Ofcourseabadstateisworldlyandfiniteandnothingelse，buttherationalstateisinherentlyinfinite。
Secondly，itisaverredthatthestatemustdenyeitsjustificationfromreligion。Inreligion，theIdeaismindintheinwardnessoftheheart，butitisthissameIdeawhichgivesitselfaworldlyformasthestateandfashionsforitselfanembodimentandanactualityinknowingandwilling。Nowifyousaythatthestatemustbegroundedonreligion，youmaymeanthatitshouldrestonrationalityandariseoutofit；butyourstatementmayalsobemisunderstoodtomeanthatmenaremostadroitlyschooledtoobedienceiftheirmindsareshackledbyaslavishreligion。(TheChristianreligion，however，isthereligionoffreedom，thoughitmustbeadmittedthatthisreligionmaybecomechangedincharacterandpervertedfromfreedomtobondagewhenitisinfectedwithsuperstition。)Nowifyoumeanthatmenmusthavereligionsothattheirminds，alreadyshackled，maythemoreeasilybeoppressedbythestate，thenthepurportofyourstatementisbad。Butifyoumeanthatmenoughttorespectthestate，thiswholewhoselimbstheyare，thenofcoursethebestmeansofeffectingthisistogivethemphilosophicalinsightintotheessenceofthestate，though，indefaultofthat，areligiousframeofmindmayleadtothesameresult。Forthisreason，thestatemayhaveneedofreligionandfaith。Butthestateremainsessentiallydistinctfromreligion，sincewhateveritclaims，itclaimsintheformofalegalduty，anditisamatterofindifferencetoitinwhatspiritthatdutyisperformed。Thefieldofreligion，ontheotherhand，istheinnerlife，andjustasthestatewouldjeopardisetherightofthatlifeif，likereligion，itmadeclaimsonit，soalsowhenthechurchactslikeastateandimposespenalties，itdegeneratesintoareligionoftyranny。
Athirddifferencewhichisconnectedwiththeforegoingisthatthecontentofreligionisandremainsveiled，andconsequentlyreligion\'splaceisinthefieldoftheheart，feeling，andrepresentativethinking。Inthisfieldeverythinghastheformofsubjectivity。Thestate，ontheotherhand，actualisesitselfandgivesitsspecificinstitutionsastable，objective，existence。Nowifreligiousfeelingwishedtoassertitselfinthestateinthesamewayasitiswonttodoinitsownfield，itwouldoverturntheorganisationofthestate，becausethedifferentorgansofthestatehavelatitudetopursuetheirseveraldistinctpaths，whileinreligioneverythingisalwaysreferredbacktothewhole。Ifthiswhole，then，wishedtoengulfalltheconcernsofthestate，thiswouldbetantamounttofanaticism；thewishtohavethewholeineveryparticularcouldbefulfilledonlybythedestructionoftheparticular，andfanaticismisjusttherefusaltogivescopetoparticulardifferences。Hencetosay:\'Tothepiousmannolawisgiven\'isnothingbutanexpressionofthissamefanaticism。Oncepietyusurpstheplaceofthestate，itcannottoleratethedeterminatebutsimplyshattersit。Itisquiteconsistentwiththisifpietyleavesdecisionstoconscience，totheinnerlife，andisnotgovernedbyreasons。Thisinnerlifedoesnotdevelopintoreasonedargumentorgiveanaccountofitself。Henceifpietyistopassfortheactualityofthestate，alllawsarecasttothewindsandsubjectivefeelingisthelegislator。Thisfeelingmaybepurecaprice，andwhetheritisornotcanonlybelearntfromitsactions。Butbybecomingactionsandprecepts，itsactionsassumetheguiseoflaws，andthisisjusttheveryoppositeofthesubjectivefeelingwithwhichwestarted。ThisfeelinghasGodforitsobject，andwemightmakehimthedeterminantofeverything。
ButGodistheuniversalIdeaandthisfeelingcanregardhimonlyastheindeterminate，whichistooimmaturetodeterminewhatisexistentinthestateinadevelopedform。Itispreciselythefactthateverythinginthestateisfixedandsecurewhichisthebulwarkagainstcapriceanddogmaticopinion。Religionassuch，then，oughtnottobethegovernor。
§271。
Theconstitutionofthestateis，inthefirstplace，theorganisationofthestateandtheself-relatedprocessofitsorganiclife，aprocesswherebyitdifferentiatesitsmomentswithinitselfanddevelopsthemtoself-subsistence。Secondly，thestateisanindividual，uniqueandexclusive，andthereforerelatedtoothers。Thusitturnsitsdifferentiatingactivityoutwardandaccordinglyestablisheswithinitselftheidealityofitssubsistinginwarddifferentiations。
Addition:Justasirritabilityinthelivingorganismisitselffromonepointofviewsomethinginward，somethingpertainingtotheorganismassuch，sohereagaintheoutwardreferenceisaninwardtendency。Theinnersideofthestateassuchisthecivilpower，whileitsoutwardtendencyisthemilitarypower，althoughthishasafixedplaceinsidethestateitself。Nowtohaveboththesepowersinequilibriumconstitutesanimportantfactorinthespiritofthestate。Sometimesthecivilpoweriswhollyeffacedandrestsentirelyonthemilitarypower，aswasthecase，forinstance，inthetimeoftheRomanEmperorsandthePraetorians。Atothertimes，nowadaysforexample，themilitarypowerisamereby-productofthecivilpoweronceallthecitizensareconscriptable。
1。TheConstitution(onitsinternalsideonly)
2。Sovereigntyvis-à-visforeignStatesB。InternationalLaw§330。
Internationallawspringsfromtherelationsbetweenautonomousstates。Itisforthisreasonthatwhatisabsoluteinitretainstheformofanought-to-be，sinceitsactualitydependsondifferentwillseachofwhichissovereign。
Addition:Statesarenotprivatepersonsbutcompletelyautonomoustotalitiesinthemselves，andsotherelationbetweenthemdiffersfromamoralrelationandarelationinvolvingprivaterights。Attemptshaveoftenbeenmadetoregardthestateasapersonwiththerightsofpersonsandasamoralentity。Butthepositionwithprivatepersonsisthattheyareunderthejurisdictionofacourtwhichgiveseffecttowhatisrightinprinciple。Nowarelationbetweenstatesoughtalsotoberightinprinciple，butinmundaneaffairsaprincipleoughtalsotohavepower。Nowsincethereisnopowerinexistencewhichdecidesinfaceofthestatewhatisrightinprincipleandactualisesthisdecision，itfollowsthatsofarasinternationalrelationsareconcernedwecannevergetbeyondan\'ought\'。Therelationbetweenstatesisarelationbetweenautonomousentitieswhichmakemutualstipulationsbutwhichatthesametimearesuperiortothesestipulations。
§331。
Thenationstateismindinitssubstantiverationalityandimmediateactualityandisthereforetheabsolutepoweronearth。Itfollowsthateverystateissovereignandautonomousagainstitsneighbours。Itisentitledinthefirstplaceandwithoutqualificationtobesovereignfromtheirpointofview，i。e。toberecognisedbythemassovereign。Atthesametime，however，thistitleispurelyformal，andthedemandforthisrecognitionofthestate，merelyonthegroundthatitisastate，isabstract。Whetherastateisinfactsomethingabsolutedependsonitscontent，i。e。
onitsconstitutionandgeneralsituation；andrecognition，implyingasitdoesanidentityofbothformandcontent，isconditionalontheneighbouringstate\'sjudgementandwill。
Remark:Astateisaslittleanactualindividualwithoutrelationstootherstates(see§322)asanindividualisactuallyapersonwithoutrapportwithotherpersons(see§71andelsewhere)。
Theauthorityofastateand，moreparticularly，sofarasitsforeignrelationsareconcerned，ofitsmonarchalso，ispartlyapurelydomesticmatter(onestateshouldnotmeddlewiththedomesticaffairsofanother)。Ontheotherhand，however，itisnolessessentialthatthisauthorityshouldreceiveitsfullandfinallegitimationthroughitsrecognitionbyotherstates，althoughthisrecognitionrequirestobesafeguardedbytheprovisothatwhereastateistoberecognisedbyothers，itshalllikewiserecognisethem，i。e。respecttheirautonomy；andsoitcomesaboutthattheycannotbeindifferenttoeachother\'sdomesticaffairs。
Thequestionariseshowfaranomadicpeople，forinstance，oranypeopleonalowlevelofcivilisation，canberegardedasastate。AsoncewasthecasewiththeJewsandtheMohammedanpeoples，religiousviewsmayentailanoppositionatahigherlevelbetweenonepeopleanditsneighboursandsoprecludethegeneralidentitywhichisrequisiteforrecognition。
Addition:WhenNapoleonsaidbeforethePeaceofCampoformiothat\'theFrenchRepublicneedsrecognitionaslittleasthesunrequiresit\'，whathiswordsimpliedwassimplythething\'sstrengthwhichcarrieswithit，withoutanyverbalexpression，theguaranteeofrecognition。
§332。
Theimmediateactualitywhichanystatepossessesfromthepointofviewofotherstatesisparticularisedintoamultiplicityofrelationswhicharedeterminedbythearbitrarywillofbothautonomouspartiesandwhichthereforepossesstheformalnatureofcontractspureandsimple。Thesubject-matterofthesecontracts，however，isinfinitelylessvariedthanitisincivilsociety，becauseincivilsocietyindividualsarereciprocallyinterdependentinthemostnumerousrespects，whileautonomousstatesareprincipallywholeswhoseneedsaremetwithintheirownborders。
§333。
Thefundamentalpropositionofinternationallaw(i。e。theuniversallawwhichoughttobeabsolutelyvalidbetweenstates，asdistinguishedfromtheparticularcontentofpositivetreaties)isthattreaties，asthegroundofobligationsbetweenstates，oughttobekept。Butsincethesovereigntyofastateistheprincipleofitsrelationstoothers，statesaretothatextentinastateofnatureinrelationtoeachother。Theirrightsareactualisedonlyintheirparticularwillsandnotinauniversalwillwithconstitutionalpowersoverthem。Thisuniversalprovisoofinternationallawthereforedoesnotgobeyondanought-to-be，andwhatreallyhappensisthatinternationalrelationsinaccordancewithtreatyalternatewiththeseveranceoftheserelations。
Remark:ThereisnoPraetortojudgebetweenstates；atbesttheremaybeanarbitratororamediator，andevenheexerciseshisfunctionscontingentlyonly，i。e。independenceontheparticularwillsofthedisputants。Kanthadanideaforsecuring\'perpetualpeace\'byaLeagueofNationstoadjusteverydispute。Itwastobeapowerrecognisedbyeachindividualstate，andwastoarbitrateinallcasesofdissensioninordertomakeitimpossiblefordisputantstoresorttowarinordertosettlethem。Thisideapresupposesanaccordbetweenstates；thiswouldrestonmoralorreligiousorothergroundsandconsiderations，butinanycasewouldalwaysdependultimatelyonaparticularsovereignwillandforthatreasonwouldremaininfectedwithcontingency。
§334。
Itfollowsthatifstatesdisagreeandtheirparticularwillscannotbeharmonised，themattercanonlybesettledbywar。Astatethroughitssubjectshaswidespreadconnectionsandmany-sidedinterests，andthesemaybereadilyandconsiderablyinjured；butitremainsinherentlyindeterminablewhichoftheseinjuriesistoberegardedasaspecificbreachoftreatyorasaninjurytothehonourandautonomyofthestate。Thereasonforthisisthatastatemayregarditsinfinityandhonourasatstakeineachofitsconcerns，howeverminute，anditisallthemoreinclinedtosusceptibilitytoinjurythemoreitsstrongindividualityisimpelledasaresultoflongdomesticpeacetoseekandcreateasphereofactivityabroad。
§335。
Apartfromthis，thestateisinessencemindandthereforecannotbepreparedtostopatjusttakingnoticeofaninjuryafterithasactuallyoccurred。Onthecontrary，therearisesinadditionasacauseofstrifetheideaofsuchaninjuryastheideaofadangerthreateningfromanotherstate，togetherwithcalculationsofdegreesofprobabilityonthissideandthat，guessingatintentions，&c。，&c。
§336。
Sincestatesarerelatedtooneanotherasautonomousentitiesandsoasparticularwillsonwhichtheveryvalidityoftreatiesdepends，andsincetheparticularwillofthewholeisincontentawillforitsownwelfarepureandsimple，itfollowsthatwelfareisthehighestlawgoverningtherelationofonestatetoanother。ThisisallthemorethecasesincetheIdeaofthestateispreciselythesupersessionoftheclashbetweenright(i。e。emptyabstractfreedom)andwelfare(i。e。theparticularcontentwhichfillsthatvoid)，anditiswhenstatesbecomeconcretewholesthattheyfirstattainrecognition(see§331)。
§337。
Thesubstantialwelfareofthestateisitswelfareasaparticularstateinitsspecificinterestandsituationanditsnolessspecialforeignaffairs，includingitsparticulartreatyrelations……Itsgovernmentthereforeisamatterofparticularwisdom，notofuniversalProvidence(compareRemarkto§324)。Similarly，itsaiminrelationtootherstatesanditsprincipleforjustifyingwarsandtreatiesisnotauniversalthought(thethoughtofphilanthropy)butonlyitsactuallyinjuredorthreatenedwelfareassomethingspecific。andpeculiartoitself。
Remark:Atonetimetheoppositionbetweenmoralsandpolitics，andthedemandthatthelattershouldconformtotheformer，weremuchcanvassed。Onthispointonlyageneralremarkisrequiredhere。Thewelfareofastatehasclaimstorecognitiontotallydifferentfromthoseofthewelfareoftheindividual。Theethicalsubstance，thestate，hasitsdeterminatebeing，i。e。itsright，directlyembodiedinsomethingexistent，somethingnotabstractbutconcrete，andtheprincipleofitsconductandbehaviourcanonlybethisconcreteexistentandnotoneofthemanyuniversalthoughtssupposedtobemoralcommands。Whenpoliticsisallegedtoclashwithmoralsandsotobealwayswrong，thedoctrinepropoundedrestsonsuperficialideasaboutmorality，thenatureofthestate，andthestate\'srelationtothemoralpointofview。
§338。
Thefactthatstatesreciprocallyrecogniseeachotherasstatesremains，eveninwar—thestateofaffairswhenrightsdisappearandforceandchanceholdsway—abondwhereineachcountstotherestassomethingabsolute。Henceinwar，waritselfischaracterisedassomethingwhichoughttopassaway。Itimpliesthereforetheprovisoof，thejusgentium—thatthepossibilityofpeaceberetained(andso，forexample，thatenvoysmustberespected)，and，ingeneral，thatwarbenotwagedagainstdomesticinstitutions，againstthepeaceoffamilyandprivatelife，oragainstpersonsintheirprivatecapacity。
Addition:Modernwarsarethereforehumanelywaged，andpersonisnotsetoveragainstpersoninhatred。Atmost，personalenmitiesappearinthevanguard，butinthemainbodyofthearmyhostilityissomethingvagueandgivesplacetoeachside\'srespectforthedutyoftheother。
§339。
Apartfromthis，relationsbetweenstates(e。g。inwar-time，reciprocalagreementsabouttakingprisoners；inpeace-time，concessionsofrightstosubjectsofotherstatesforthepurposeofprivatetradeandintercourse，&c。)dependprincipallyuponthecustomsofnations，custombeingtheinneruniversalityofbehaviourmaintainedinallcircumstances。
Addition:TheEuropeanpeoplesformafamilyinaccordancewiththeuniversalprincipleunderlyingtheirlegalcodes，theircustoms，andtheircivilisation。Thisprinciplehasmodifiedtheirinternationalconductaccordinglyinastateofaffairs[i。e。war]otherwisedominatedbythemutualinflictionofevils。Therelationsofstatetostateareuncertain，andthereisnoPraetoravailabletoadjustthem。Theonlyhigherjudgeistheuniversalabsolutemind，theworldmind。
§340。
Itisasparticularentitiesthatstatesenterintorelationswithoneanother。Hencetheirrelationsareonthelargestscaleamaelstromofexternalcontingencyandtheinnerparticularityofpassions，privateinterestsandselfishends，abilitiesandvirtues，vices，force，andwrong。Allthesewhirltogether，andintheirvortextheethicalwholeitself，theautonomyofthestate，isexposedtocontingency。Theprinciplesofthenationalmindsarewhollyrestrictedonaccountoftheirparticularity，foritisinthisparticularitythat，asexistentindividuals，theyhavetheirobjectiveactualityandtheirself-consciousness。Theirdeedsanddestiniesintheirreciprocalrelationstooneanotherarethedialecticofthefinitudeoftheseminds，andoutofitarisestheuniversalmind，themindoftheworld，freefromallrestriction，producingitselfasthatwhichexercisesitsright—anditsrightisthehighestrightofall—overthesefinitemindsinthe\'historyoftheworldwhichistheworld\'scourtofjudgement\'。
C。WorldHistory§341。
Theelementinwhichtheuniversalmindexistsinartisintuitionandimagery，inreligionfeelingandrepresentativethinking，inphilosophypurefreedomofthought。Inworldhistorythiselementistheactualityofmindinitswholecompassofinternalityandexternalityalike。Worldhistoryisacourtofjudgementbecauseinitsabsoluteuniversality，theparticular-i。e。thePenates，civilsociety，andthenationalmindsintheirvariegatedactualityispresentasonlyideal，andthemovementofmindinthiselementistheexhibitionofthatfact。
§342。
Further，worldhistoryisnottheverdictofmeremight，i。e。theabstractandnon-rationalinevitabilityofablinddestiny。Onthecontrary，sincemindisimplicitlyandactuallyreason，andreasonisexplicittoitselfinmindasknowledge，worldhistoryisthenecessarydevelopment，outoftheconceptofmind\'sfreedomalone，ofthemomentsofreasonandsooftheself-consciousnessandfreedomofmind。Thisdevelopmentistheinterpretationandactualisationoftheuniversalmind。
§343。
Thehistoryofmindisitsownact。Mindisonlywhatitdoes，anditsactistomakeitselftheobjectofitsownconsciousness。Inhistoryitsactistogainconsciousnessofitselfasmind，toapprehenditselfinitsinterpretationofitselftoitself。Thisapprehensionisitsbeinganditsprinciple，andthecompletionofapprehensionatonestageisatthesametimetherejectionofthatstageanditstransitiontoahigher。Touseabstractphraseology，themindapprehendingthisapprehensionanew，orinotherwordsreturningtoitselfagainoutofitsrejectionofthislowerstageofapprehension，isthemindofthestagehigherthanthatonwhichitstoodinitsearlierapprehension。
Remark:ThequestionoftheperfectibilityandEducationoftheHumanRaceariseshere。
Thosewhohavemaintainedthisperfectibilityhavedivinedsomethingofthenatureofmind，somethingofthefactthatitisitsnaturetohavegnothiseantonasthelawofitsbeing，and，sinceitapprehendsthatwhichitis，tohaveaformhigherthanthatwhichconstituteditsmerebeing。Buttothosewhorejectthisdoctrine，mindhasremainedanemptyword，andhistoryasuperficialplayofcasual，so-called\'merelyhuman\'，strivingsandpassions。Evenif，inconnectionwithhistory，theyspeakofProvidenceandtheplanofProvidence，andsoexpressafaithinahigherpower，theirideasremainemptybecausetheyexpresslydeclarethatforthemtheplanofProvidenceisinscrutableandincomprehensible。
§344。
Inthecourseofthisworkoftheworldmind，states，nations，andindividualsariseanimatedbytheirparticulardeterminateprinciplewhichhasitsinterpretationandactualityintheirconstitutionsandinthewholerangeoftheirlifeandcondition。
Whiletheirconsciousnessislimitedtotheseandtheyareabsorbedintheirmundaneinterests，theyareallthetimetheunconscioustoolsandorgansoftheworldmindatworkwithinthem。Theshapeswhichtheytakepassaway，whiletheabsolutemindpreparesandworksoutitstransitiontoitsnexthigherstage。
§345。
Justiceandvirtue，wrongdoing，powerandvice，talentsandtheirachievements，passionsstrongandweak，guiltandinnocence，grandeurinindividualandnationallife，autonomy，fortuneandmisfortuneofstatesandindividuals，allthesehavetheirspecificsignificanceandworthinthefieldofknownactuality；thereintheyarejudgedandthereintheyhavetheirpartial，thoughonlypartialjustification。
World-history，however，isabovethepointofviewfromwhichthesethingsmatter。EachofitsstagesisthepresenceofanecessarymomentintheIdeaoftheworldmind，andthatmomentattainsitsabsoluterightinthatstage。Thenationwhoselifeembodiesthismomentsecuresitsgoodfortuneandfame，anditsdeedsarebroughttofruition。
§346。
Historyismindclothingitselfwiththeformofeventsortheimmediateactualityofnature。Thestagesofitsdevelopmentarethereforepresentedasimmediatenaturalprinciples。These，becausetheyarenatural，areapluralityexternaltooneanother，andtheyarepresentthereforeinsuchawaythateachofthemisassignedtoonenationintheexternalformofitsgeographicalandanthropologicalconditions。
§347。
ThenationtowhichisascribedamomentoftheIdeaintheformofanaturalprincipleisentrustedwithgivingcompleteeffecttoitintheadvanceoftheself-developingself-consciousnessoftheworldmind。Thisnationisdominantinworldhistoryduringthisoneepoch，anditisonlyonce(see§345)thatitcanmakeitshourstrike。Incontrastwiththisitsabsoluterightofbeingthevehicleofthispresentstageintheworldmind\'sdevelopment，themindsoftheothernationsarewithoutrights，andthey，alongwiththosewhosehourhasstruckalready，countnolongerinworldhistory。
Remark:Thehistoryofasingleworld-historicalnationcontains(a)thedevelopmentofitsprinciplefromitslatentembryonicstageuntilitblossomsintotheself-consciousfreedomofethicallifeandpressesinuponworldhistory；and(b)theperiodofitsdeclineandfall，sinceitisitsdeclineandfallthatsignalisestheemergenceinitofahigherprincipleasthepurenegativeofitsown。Whenthishappens，mindpassesoverintothenewprincipleandsomarksoutanothernationforworld-historicalsignificance。Afterthisperiod，thedecliningnationhaslosttheinterestoftheabsolute；itmayindeedabsorbthehigherprinciplepositivelyandbeginbuildingitslifeonit，buttheprincipleisonlylikeanadoptedchild，notlikearelativetowhomitstiesareimmanentlyvitalandvigorous。Perhapsitlosesitsautonomy，oritmaystillexist，ordragoutitsexistence，asaparticularstateoragroupofstatesandinvolveitselfwithoutrhymeorreasoninmanifoldenterprisesathomeandbattlesabroad。
§348。
Allactions，includingworld-historicalactions，culminatewithindividualsassubjectsgivingactualitytothesubstantial(seeRemarkto§279)。Theyarethelivinginstrumentsofwhatisinsubstancethedeedoftheworldmindandtheyarethereforedirectlyatonewiththatdeedthoughitisconcealedfromthemandisnottheiraimandobject(see§344)。Forthedeedsoftheworldmind，therefore，theyreceivenohonourorthankseitherfromtheircontemporaries(see§344)orfrompublicopinioninlaterages。Allthatisvouchsafedtothembysuchopinionisundyingfameinrespectofthesubjectiveformoftheiracts。
§349。
Anationdoesnotbeginbybeingastate。Thetransitionfromafamily，ahorde，aclan，amultitude，&c。，topoliticalconditionsistherealisationoftheIdeaintheformofthatnation。Withoutthisform，anation，as—anethicalsubstance—
whichiswhatitisimplicitly，lackstheobjectivityofpossessinginitsowneyesandintheeyesofothers，auniversalanduniversallyvalidembodimentinlaws，i。e。indeterminatethoughts，andasaresultitfailstosecurerecognitionfromothers。Solongasitlacksobjectivelawandanexplicitlyestablishedrationalconstitution，itsautonomyisformalonlyandisnotsovereignty。
Remark:Itwouldbecontraryeventocommonplaceideastocallpatriarchalconditionsa\'constitution\'orapeopleunderpatriarchalgovernmentastate\'oritsindependence\'sovereignty\'。
Hence，beforehistoryactuallybegins，wehaveontheonehanddullinnocence，devoidofinterest，and，ontheother，thecourageofrevengeandofthestruggleforformalrecognition(see§331
andRemarkto§57)
§350。
ItistheabsoluterightoftheIdeatostepintoexistenceinclear-cutlawsandobjectiveinstitutions，beginningwithmarriageandagriculture(seeRemarkto§
203)，whetherthisrightbeactualisedintheformofdivinelegislationandfavour，orintheformofforceandwrong。Thisrightistherightofheroestofoundstates。
§351。
Thesameconsiderationjustifiescivilisednationsinregardingandtreatingasbarbariansthosewholagbehindthemininstitutionswhicharetheessentialmomentsofthestate。Thusapastoralpeoplemaytreathuntersasbarbarians，andbothofthesearebarbariansfromthepointofviewofagriculturists，&c。Thecivilisednationisconsciousthattherightsofbarbariansareunequaltoitsownandtreatstheirautonomyasonlyaformality。
Remark:Whenwarsanddisputesariseinsuchcircumstances，thetraitwhichgivesthemasignificanceforworldhistoryisthefactthattheyamstrugglesforrecognitioninconnectionwithsomethingofspecificintrinsicworth。
§352。
TheconcreteIdeas，themindsofthenations，havetheirtruthandtheirdestinyintheconcreteIdeawhichisabsoluteuniversality，i。e。intheworldmind。Arounditsthronetheystandastheexecutorsofitsactualisationandassignsandornamentsofitsgrandeur。Asmind，itisnothingbutitsactivemovementtowardsabsoluteknowledgeofitselfandthereforetowardsfreeingitsconsciousnessfromtheformofnaturalimmediacyandsocomingtoitself。Thereforetheprinciplesoftheformationsofthisself-consciousnessinthecourseofitsliberation-theworld-historicalrealms-arefourinnumber。
§353。
Initsfirstandimmediaterevelation，mindhasasitsprincipletheshapeofthesubstantialmind，i。e。theshapeoftheidentityinwhichindividualityisabsorbedinitsessenceanditsclaimsarenotexplicitlyrecognised。
Thesecondprincipleisthissubstantialmindendowedwithknowledgesothatmindisboththepositivecontentandfillingofmindandalsotheindividualself-awarenesswhichisthelivingformofmind。Thisprincipleisethicalindividualityasbeauty。
Thethirdprincipleistheinwarddeepeningofthisindividualself-awarenessandknowledgeuntilitreachesabstractuniversalityandthereforeinfiniteoppositiontotheobjectiveworldwhichinthesameprocesshasbecomemind-forsaken。
Theprincipleofthefourthformationistheconversionofthisoppositionsothatmindreceivesinitsinnerlifeitstruthandconcreteessence，whileinobjectivityitisathomeandreconciledwithitself。Themindwhichhasthusrevertedtothesubstantialitywithwhichitbeganisthemindwhichhasreturnedoutoftheinfiniteopposition，andwhichconsequentlyengendersandknowsthisitstruthasthoughtandasaworldofactuallaws。
§354。
Inaccordancewiththesefourprinciples，theworld-historicalrealmsarethefollowing:(1)theOriental，(2)theGreek，(3)theRoman，(4)theGermanic。
§355。
(1)TheOrientalrealm。
Theworld-viewofthisfirstrealmissubstantial，withoutinwarddivision，anditarisesinnaturalcommunitiespatriarchicallygoverned。Accordingtothisview，themundaneformofgovernmentistheocratic，therulerisalsoahighpriestorGodhimself；constitutionandlegislationareatthesametimereligion，whilereligiousandmoralcommands，orusagesrather，areatthesametimenaturalandpositivelaw。Inthemagnificenceofthisr6gimeasawhole，individualpersonalitylosesitsrightsandperishes；theexternalworldofnatureiseitherdirectlydivineorelseGod\'sornament，andthehistoryoftheactualispoetry。Distinctionsaredevelopedincustoms，government，andstateontheirmanysides，andindefaultoflawsandamidstthesimplicityofmanners，theybecomeunwieldy，diffuse，andsuperstitiousceremonies，theaccidentsofpersonalpowerandarbitraryrule，andclassdifferencesbecomecrystallisedintohereditarycastes。HenceintheOrientalstatenothingisfixed，andwhatisstableisfossilised；itlivesthereforeonlyinanoutwardmovementwhichbecomesintheendanelementalfuryanddesolation。
Itsinnercalmismerelythecalmofnon-politicallifeandimmersioninfeeblenessandexhaustion。
Remark:Astillsubstantial，natural，mentalityisamomentinthedevelopmentofthestate，andthepointatwhichanystatetakesthisformistheabsolutebeginningofitshistory。ThishasbeenemphasisedanddemonstratedwithlearningandprofoundinsightinconnectionwiththehistoryofparticularstatesbyDr。StuhrinhisbookDerUntergang。derNaturstaaten-workinwhichheleadsthewaytoarationaltreatmentofconstitutionalhistoryandofhistorygenerally。Theprincipleofsubjectivityandself-consciousfreedomistheretooshowntobetheprincipleoftheGermanicpeople，butthebookgoesnofurtherthanthedeclineofnaturalstates，andconsequentlytheprincipleisonlybroughttothepointwhereitappearseitherasarestlessmobility，ashumancapriceandcorruption，orinitsparticularformasemotion，andwhereithasnotyetdevelopedtotheobjectivityoftheself-conscioussubstantialityortoanorganisedlegalsystem。
§356。
(2)TheGreekrealm。
Thisrealmpossessesthissubstantialunityoffiniteandinfinite，butonlyasamysteriousbackground，suppressedindimrecessesofthememory，incavesandtraditionalimagery。Thisbackground，rebornoutofthemindwhichdifferentiatesitselftoindividualmentality，emergesintothedaylightofknowingandistemperedandtransfiguredintobeautyandafreeandunruffledethicallife。Henceitisinaworldofthischaracterthattheprincipleofpersonalindividualityarises，thoughitisstillnotself-enclosedbutkeptinitsidealunity。Theresultisthatthewholeisdividedintoagroupofparticularnationalminds；ultimatedecisionisascribednottothesubjectivityofexplicitlyindependentself-consciousnessbuttoapowerstandingaboveandoutsideit(seeRemarkto§279)；ontheotherhand，theduesatisfactionofparticularneedsisnotyetcomprisedinthesphereoffreedombutisrelegatedexclusivelytoaclassofslaves。
§357。
(3)TheRomanrealm。
Inthisrealm，differentiationiscarriedtoitsconclusion，andethicallifeissunderedwithoutendintotheextremesoftheprivateself-consciousnessofpersonsontheonehand，andabstractuniversalityontheother。Thisoppositionbeginsintheclashbetweenthesubstantialintuitionofanaristocracyandtheprincipleoffreepersonalityindemocraticform。Astheoppositiongrows，thefirstoftheseopponentsdevelopsintosuperstitionandthemaintenanceofheartlessself-seekingpower，whilethesecondbecomesmoreandmorecorruptuntilitsinksintoarabble。Finally，thewholeisdissolvedandtheresultisuniversalmisfortuneandthedestructionofethicallife。NationalheroesdieawayintotheunityofaPantheon，allindividualsaredegradedtothelevelofprivatepersonsequalwithoneanother，possessedofformalrights，andtheonlybondlefttoholdthemtogetherisabstractinsatiableself-will。
§358。
(4)TheGermanicrealm。
Mindanditsworldarethusbothalikelostandplungedintheinfinitegriefofthatfateforwhichapeople，theJewishpeople，washeldinreadiness。Mindisherepressedbackuponitselfintheextremeofitsabsolutenegativity。Thisistheabsoluteturningpoint；mindrisesoutofthissituationandgraspstheinfinitepositivityofthisitsinwardcharacter，i。e。itgraspstheprincipleoftheunityofthedivinenatureandthehuman，thereconciliationofobjectivetruthandfreedomasthetruthandfreedomappearingwithinself-consciousnessandsubjectivity，areconciliationwiththefulfilmentofwhichtheprincipleofthenorth，theprincipleoftheGermanicpeoples，hasbeenentrusted。
§359。
Thisprincipleisfirstofallinwardandabstract；itexistsinfeelingasfaith，love，andhope，thereconciliationandresolutionofallcontradiction。Itthendisclosesitscontent，raisingittobecomeactualityandself-consciousrationality，tobecomeamundanerealmproceedingfromtheheart，fidelity，andcomradeshipoffreemen，arealmwhichinthisitssubjectivityisequallyarealmofcrudeindividualcapriceandbarbarousmanners。Thisrealmitsetsoveragainstaworldofbeyond，anintellectualrealm，whosecontentisindeedthetruthofits(theprinciple\'s)mind，butatruthnotyetthoughtandsostillveiledinbarbarousimagery。Thisworldofbeyond，asthepowerofmindoverthemundaneheart，actsagainstthelatterasacompulsiveandfrightfulforce。
§360。
ThesetworealmsstanddistinguishedfromoneanotherthoughatthesametimetheyarerootedinasingleunityandIdea。Heretheirdistinctionisintensifiedtoabsoluteoppositionandasternstruggleensuesinthecourseofwhichtherealmofmindlowerstheplaceofitsheaventoanearthlyhereandnow，toacommonworldlinessoffactandidea。Themundanerealm，ontheotherhand，buildsupitsabstractindependenceintothoughtandtheprincipleofrationalbeingandknowing，i。e。intotherationalityofrightandlaw。Inthiswaytheiroppositionimplicitlylosesitsmarrowanddisappears。Therealmoffacthasdiscardeditsbarbarityandunrighteous，caprice，whiletherealmoftruthhasabandonedtheworldofbeyondanditsarbitraryforce，sothatthetruereconciliationwhichdisclosesthestateastheimageandactualityofreasonhasbecomeobjective。Inthestate，self-consciousnessfindsinanorganicdevelopmenttheactualityofitssubstantiveknowingandwilling；inreligion，itfindsthefeelingandtherepresentationofthisitsowntruthasanidealessentiality；whileinphilosophicscience，itfindsthefreecomprehensionandknowledgeofthistruthasoneandthesameinitsmutuallycomplementarymanifestations，i。e。inthestate，innature，andintheidealworld。
TheEnd
