Igroundmyselfthereforeonthisprinciple——thatiftheabuseisproved，thecontractisbroken，andwere-enterintoallourrights;
thatis，intotheexerciseofallourduties。Ourownauthorityisindeedasmuchatrustoriginally，asthecompany’sauthorityisatrustderivatively;anditistheusewemakeoftheresumedpowerthatmustjustifyorcondemnusintheresumptionofit。Whenwehaveperfectedtheplanlaidbeforeusbytherighthonourablemover，theworldwillthenseewhatitiswedestroy，andwhatitiswecreate。Bythattestwestandorfall;andbythattestItrustthatitwillbefoundintheissue，thatwearegoingtosupersedeacharterabusedtothefullextentofallthepowerswhichitcouldabuse，andexercisedintheplenitudeofdespotism，tyranny，andcorruption;andthatinoneandthesameplan，weprovidearealcharteredsecurityfortheRIGHTSOFMEN，cruellyviolatedunderthatcharter。
Thisbill，andthoseconnectedwithit，areintendedtoformthemagnachartaofHindostan。WhateverthetreatyofWestphaliaistothelibertyoftheprincesandfreecitiesoftheempire，andtothethreereligionsthereprofessed;whateverthegreatcharter，thestatuteoftallege，thepetitionofright，andthedeclarationofright，aretoGreatBritain，thesebillsaretothepeopleofIndia。Ofthisbenefit，Iamcertain，theirconditioniscapable;andwhenIknowthattheyarecapableofmore，myvoteshallmostassuredlybeforourgivingtothefullextentoftheircapacityofreceiving;andnocharterofdominionshallstandasabarinmywaytotheircharterofsafetyandprotection。
ThestrongadmissionIhavemadeofthecompany’srights(Iamconsciousofit)bindsmetodoagreatdeal。Idonotpresumetocondemnthosewhoargueapriori，againsttheproprietyofleavingsuchextensivepoliticalpowersinthehandsofacompanyofmerchants。Iknowmuchis，andmuchmoremaybe，saidagainstsuchasystem。But，withmyparticularideasandsentiments，Icannotgothatwaytowork。Ifeelaninsuperablereluctanceingivingmyhandtodestroyanyestablishedinstitutionofgovernment，uponatheory，howeverplausibleitmaybe。
Myexperienceinlifeteachesmenothingclearuponthesubject。Ihaveknownmerchantswiththesentimentsandtheabilitiesofgreatstatesmen;andIhaveseenpersonsintherankofstatesmen，withtheconceptionsandcharactersofpedlars。Indeed，myobservationhasfurnishedmewithnothingthatistobefoundinanyhabitsoflifeoreducation，whichtendswhollytodisqualifymenforthefunctionsofgovernment，butthatbywhichthepowerofexercisingthosefunctionsisveryfrequentlyobtained，Imeanaspiritandhabitsoflowcabalandintrigue;whichIhavenever，inoneinstance，seenunitedwithacapacityforsoundandmanlypolicy。TojustifyusintakingtheadministrationoftheiraffairsoutofthehandsoftheEast-IndiaCompany，onmyprinciples，Imustseeseveralconditions。1st。Theobjectaffectedbytheabuseshouldbegreatandimportant。2nd。Theabuseaffectingthisgreatobjectoughttobeagreatabuse。3rd。Itoughttobehabitual，andnotaccidental。4th。Itoughttobeutterlyincurableinthebodyasitnowstandsconstituted。Allthisoughttobemadeasvisibletomeasthelightofthesun，beforeIshouldstrikeoffanatomoftheircharter。
PARLIAMENTSANDELECTIONS。
Allareagreed，thatparliamentsshouldnotbeperpetual;theonlyquestionis，whatisthemostconvenienttimefortheirduration？Onwhichtherearethreeopinions。Weareagreed，too，thatthetermoughtnottobechosenmostlikelyinitsoperationtospreadcorruption，andtoaugmentthealreadyovergrowninfluenceoftheCrown。OntheseprinciplesImeantodebatethequestion。Itiseasytopretendazealforliberty。Those，whothinkthemselvesnotlikelytobeencumberedwiththeperformanceoftheirpromises，eitherfromtheirknowninability，ortotalindifferenceabouttheperformance，neverfailtoentertainthemostloftyideas。Theyarecertainlythemostspecious，andtheycostthemneitherreflectiontoframe，norpainstomodify，normanagementtosupport。Thetaskisofanothernaturetothose，whomeantopromisenothingthatitisnotintheirintention，ormaypossiblybeintheirpower，toperform;tothose，whoareboundandprinciplednomoretodeludetheunderstandingsthantoviolatethelibertyoftheirfellow-subjects。Faithfulwatchmenweoughttobeovertherightsandprivilegesofthepeople。Butourduty，ifwearequalifiedforitasweought，istogivetheminformation，andnottoreceiveitfromthem;wearenottogotoschooltothemtolearntheprinciplesoflawandgovernment。Indoingso，weshouldnotdutifullyserve，butweshouldbaselyandscandalouslybetray，thepeople，whoarenotcapableofthisservicebynature，norinanyinstancecalledtoitbytheconstitution。
Ireverentiallylookuptotheopinionofthepeople，andwithanawethatisalmostsuperstitious。Ishouldbeashamedtoshowmyfacebeforethem，ifIchangedmyground，astheycrieduporcrieddownmen，orthings，oropinions;ifIwaveredandshiftedaboutwitheverychange，andjoinedinit，oropposed，asbestansweredanylowinterestorpassion;ifIheldthemuphopes，whichIknewIneverintended，orpromisedwhatIwellknewIcouldnotperform。Ofallthesethingstheyareperfectsovereignjudges，withoutappeal;butastothedetailofparticularmeasures，ortoanygeneralschemesofpolicy，theyhaveneitherenoughofspeculationinthecloset，norofexperienceinbusiness，todecideuponit。Theycanwellseewhetherwearetoolsofacourt，ortheirhonestservants。Ofthattheycanwelljudge;andI
wish，thattheyalwaysexercisedtheirjudgment;butoftheparticularmeritsofameasureIhaveotherstandards。****Thatthefrequencyofelectionsproposedbythisbillhasatendencytoincreasethepowerandconsiderationoftheelectors，notlessencorruptibility，Idomostreadilyallow;sofaritisdesirable;thisiswhatithas，Iwilltellyounowwhatithasnot：1st。Ithasnosortoftendencytoincreasetheirintegrityandpublicspirit，unlessanincreaseofpowerhasanoperationuponvotersinelections，thatithasinnoothersituationintheworld，anduponnootherpartofmankind。2nd。ThisbillhasnotendencytolimitthequantityofinfluenceintheCrown，torenderitsoperationmoredifficult，ortocounteractthatoperation，whichitcannotprevent，inanywaywhatsoever。Ithasitsfullweight，itsfullrange，anditsuncontrolledoperationontheelectorsexactlyasithadbefore。3rd。Nor，thirdly，doesitabatetheinterestorinclinationofministerstoapplythatinfluencetotheelectors：onthecontrary，itrendersitmuchmorenecessarytothem，iftheyseektohaveamajorityinparliamenttoincreasethemeansofthatinfluence，andredoubletheirdiligence，andtosharpendexterityintheapplication。Thewholeeffectofthebillisthereforetheremovingtheapplicationofsomepartoftheinfluencefromtheelectedtotheelectors，andfurthertostrengthenandextendacourtinterestalreadygreatandpowerfulinboroughs;heretofixtheirmagazinesandplacesofarms，andthustomakethemtheprincipal，notthesecondarytheatreoftheirmanoeuvresforsecuringadeterminedmajorityinparliament。Ibelievenobodywilldeny，thattheelectorsarecorruptible。Theyaremen;itissayingnothingworseofthem;manyofthemarebutillinformedintheirminds，manyfeebleintheircircumstances，easilyover-reached，easilyseduced。
Iftheyaremany，thewagesofcorruptionarethelower;andwouldtoGoditwerenotratheracontemptibleandhypocriticaladulationthanacharitablesentimenttosay，thatthereisalreadynodebauchery，nocorruption，nobribery，noperjury，noblindfury，andinterestedfactionamongtheelectorsinmanypartsofthiskingdom：norisitsurprising，oratallblamable，inthatclassofprivatemen，whentheyseetheirneighboursaggrandised，andthemselvespoorandvirtuouswithoutthateclatordignity，whichattendsmeninhighersituations。
Butadmititweretrue，thatthegreatmassoftheelectorsweretoovastanobjectforcourtinfluencetograsp，orextendto，andthatindespairtheymustabandonit;hemustbeveryignorantofthestateofeverypopularinterest，whodoesnotknow，thatinallthecorporations，alltheopenboroughs，indeedineverydistrictofthekingdom，thereissomeleadingman，someagitator，somewealthymerchant，orconsiderablemanufacturer，someactiveattorney，somepopularpreacher，somemoney-lender，etc。etc。whoisfollowedbythewholeflock。Thisisthestyleofallfreecountries。
“——MultuminFabiavalethic，valetilleVelina;
Cuilibethicfascesdabiteripietquecurule。”
Thesespirits，eachofwhichinformsandgovernshisownlittleorb，areneithersomany，norsolittlepowerful，norsoincorruptible，butthataministermay，ashedoesfrequently，findmeansofgainingthem，andthroughthemalltheirfollowers。Toestablish，therefore，averygeneralinfluenceamongelectorswillnomorebefoundanimpracticableproject，thantogainanundueinfluenceovermembersofparliament。
ThereforeIamapprehensive，thatthisbill，thoughitshiftstheplaceofthedisorder，doesbynomeansrelievetheconstitution。Iwentthroughalmosteverycontestedelectioninthebeginningofthisparliament，andactedasamanagerinverymanyofthem;bywhich，thoughasataschoolofprettysevereandruggeddiscipline，Icametohavesomedegreeofinstructionconcerningthemeans，bywhichparliamentaryinterestsareingeneralprocuredandsupported。
Theory，Iknow，wouldsuppose，thateverygeneralelectionistotherepresentativeadayofjudgment，inwhichheappearsbeforehisconstituentstoaccountfortheuseofthetalent，withwhichtheyintrustedhim，andfortheimprovementhehasmadeofitforthepublicadvantage。Itwouldbeso，ifeverycorruptiblerepresentativeweretofindanenlightenedandincorruptibleconstituent。Butthepracticeandknowledgeoftheworldwillnotsufferustobeignorant，thattheconstitutiononpaperisonething，andinfactandexperienceisanother。Wemustknow，thatthecandidate，insteadoftrustingathiselectiontothetestimonyofhisbehaviourinparliament，mustbringthetestimonyofalargesumofmoney，thecapacityofliberalexpenseinentertainments，thepowerofservingandobligingtherulersofcorporations，ofwinningoverthepopularleadersofpoliticalclubs，associations，andneighbourhoods。Itistenthousandtimesmorenecessarytoshowhimselfamanofpower，thanamanofintegrity，inalmostalltheelectionswithwhichIhavebeenacquainted。Elections，therefore，becomeamatterofheavyexpense;andifcontestsarefrequent，tomanytheywillbecomeamatterofanexpensetotallyruinous，whichnofortunescanbear;butleastofallthelandedfortunes，encumberedastheyoften，indeedastheymostly，arewithdebts，withportions，withjointures;andtiedupinthehandsofthepossessorbythelimitationsofsettlement。Itisamaterial，itisinmyopinionalasting，considerationinallthequestionsconcerningelection。Letnoonethinkthechargesofelectionsatrivialmatter。
Thechargethereforeofelectionsoughtnevertobelostsightofinaquestionconcerningtheirfrequency;becausethegrandobjectyouseekisindependence。Independenceofmindwilleverbemoreorlessinfluencedbyindependenceoffortune;andif，everythreeyears，theexhaustingsluicesofentertainments，drinkings，openhouses，tosaynothingofbribery，aretobeperiodicallydrawnupandrenewed;——ifgovernment-favours，forwhichnow，insomeshapeorother，thewholeraceofmenarecandidates，aretobecalledforuponeveryoccasion，I
seethatprivatefortuneswillbewashedaway，andevery，eventotheleast，traceofindependencebornedownbythetorrent。Idonotseriouslythinkthisconstitution，eventothewrecksofit，couldsurvivefivetriennialelections。Ifyouaretofightthebattle，youmustputonthearmouroftheministry;youmustcallinthepublic，totheaidofprivate，money。Theexpenseofthelastelectionhasbeencomputed(andIampersuadedthatithasnotbeenover-rated)at1，500，000pounds;——threeshillingsinthepoundmoreinthelandtax。
Aboutthecloseofthelastparliament，andthebeginningofthis，severalagentsforboroughswentabout，andIrememberwell，thatitwasineveryoneoftheirmouths——“Sir，yourelectionwillcostyouthreethousandpounds，ifyouareindependent;butiftheministrysupportsyou，itmaybedonefortwo，andperhapsforless;“and，indeed，thethingspokeitself。Wherealivingwastobegotforone，acommissioninthearmyforanother，aliftinthenavyforathird，andcustom-houseofficesscatteredaboutwithoutmeasureornumber，whodoubtsbutmoneymaybesaved？Thetreasurymayevenaddmoney;butindeeditissuperfluous。Agentlemanoftwothousandayear，whomeetsanotherofthesamefortune，fightswithequalarms;butiftooneofthecandidatesyouaddathousanda-yearinplacesforhimself，andapowerofgivingawayasmuchamongothers，onemust，orthereisnotruthinarithmeticaldemonstration，ruinhisadversary，ifheistomeethimandtofightwithhimeverythirdyear。Itwillbesaid，Idonotallowfortheoperationofcharacter;butIdo;andIknowitwillhaveitsweightinmostelections;perhapsitmaybedecisiveinsome。
Buttherearefewinwhichitwillbepreventgreatexpenses。
Thedestructionofindependentfortuneswillbetheconsequenceonthepartofthecandidate。Whatwillbetheconsequenceoftriennialcorruption，triennialdrunkenness，triennialidleness，trienniallaw-suits，litigations，prosecutions，triennialphrensy，ofsocietydissolved，industryinterrupted，ruined;ofthosepersonalhatreds，thatwillneverbesufferedtosoften;thoseanimositiesandfeuds，whichwillberenderedimmortal;thosequarrels，whicharenevertobeappeased;moralsvitiatedandgangrenedtothevitals？Ithinknostableandusefuladvantageswereevermadebythemoneygotatelectionsbythevoter，butallhegetsisdoublylosttothepublic;itismoneygiventodiminishthegeneralstockofthecommunity，whichisintheindustryofthesubject。Iamsure，thatitisagoodwhilebeforeheorhisfamilysettleagaintotheirbusiness。Theirheadswillnevercool;
thetemptationsofelectionswillbeforeverglitteringbeforetheireyes。Theywillallgrowpoliticians;everyone，quittinghisbusiness，willchoosetoenrichhimselfbyhisvote。Theywillalltakethegauging-rod;newplaceswillbemadeforthem;theywillruntothecustom-housequay，theirloomsandploughswillbedeserted。
SowasRomedestroyedbythedisordersofcontinualelections，thoughthoseofRomeweresoberdisorders。Theyhadnothingbutfaction，bribery，bread，andstageplays，todebauchthem。Wehavetheinflammationofliquorsuperadded，afuryhotterthananyofthem。Therethecontestwasonlybetweencitizenandcitizen;hereyouhavethecontestofambitiouscitizensononeside，supportedbytheCrown，toopposetotheefforts(letitbeso)ofprivateandunsupportedambitionontheother。YetRomewasdestroyedbythefrequencyandchargeofelections，andthemonstrousexpenseofanunremittedcourtshiptothepeople。Ithink，therefore，theindependentcandidateandelectormayeachbedestroyedbyit;thewholebodyofthecommunitybeaninfinitesufferer;andavitiousministrytheonlygainer。
RELIGIONANDMAGISTRACY。
InaChristiancommonwealththechurchandthestateareoneandthesamething，beingdifferentintegralpartsofthesamewhole。Forthechurchhasbeenalwaysdividedintotwoparts，theclergyandthelaity;ofwhichthelaityisasmuchanessentialintegralpart，andhasasmuchitsdutiesandprivileges，astheclericalmember;andintherule，order，andgovernmentofthechurchhasitsshare。Religionissofar，inmyopinion，frombeingoutoftheprovinceofthedutyofaChristianmagistrate，thatitis，anditoughttobe，notonlyhiscare，buttheprincipalthinginhiscare;becauseitisoneofthegreatbondsofhumansociety;anditsobjectthesupremegood，theultimateendandobjectofmanhimself。Themagistrate，whoisaman，andchargedwiththeconcernsofmen，andtowhomveryspeciallynothinghumanisremoteandindifferent，hasarightandadutytowatchoveritwithanunceasingvigilance，toprotect，topromote，toforwarditbyeveryrational，just，andprudentmeans。Itisprincipallyhisdutytopreventtheabuses，whichgrowoutofeverystrongandefficientprinciple，thatactuatesthehumanmind。Asreligionisoneofthebondsofsociety，heoughtnottosufferittobemadethepretextofdestroyingitspeace，order，liberty，anditssecurity。Aboveall，heoughtstrictlytolooktoitwhenmenbegintoformnewcombinations，tobedistinguishedbynewnames，andespeciallywhentheymingleapoliticalsystemwiththeirreligiousopinions，trueorfalse，plausibleorimplausible。
Itistheinterest，anditistheduty，andbecauseitistheinterestandtheduty，itistherightofgovernmenttoattendmuchtoopinions;
because，asopinionssooncombinewithpassions，evenwhentheydonotproducethem，theyhavemuchinfluenceonactions。Factionsareformeduponopinions;whichfactionsbecomeineffectbodiescorporateinthestate;——nay，factionsgenerateopinionsinordertobecomeacentreofunion，andtofurnishwatch-wordstoparties;andthismaymakeitexpedientforgovernmenttoforbidthingsinthemselvesinnocentandneutral。Iamnotfondofdefiningwithprecisionwhattheultimaterightsofthesovereignsupremepowerinprovidingforthesafetyofthecommonwealthmaybe，ormaynotextendto。Itwillsignifyverylittlewhatmynotions，orwhattheirownnotions，onthesubjectmaybe;
because，accordingtotheexigence，theywilltake，infact，thestepswhichseemtothemnecessaryforthepreservationofthewhole;forasself-preservationinindividualsisthefirstlawofnature，thesamewillprevailinsocieties，whowill，rightorwrong，makethatanobjectparamounttoallotherrightswhatsoever。
PERSECUTION，FALSEINTHEORY。
Thebottomofthistheoryofpersecutionisfalse。Itisnotpermittedtoustosacrificethetemporalgoodofanybodyofmentoourownideasofthetruthandfalsehoodofanyreligiousopinions。Bymakingmenmiserableinthislife，theycounteractoneofthegreatendsofcharity;whichis，inasmuchasinuslies，tomakemenhappyineveryperiodoftheirexistence，andmostinwhatmostdependsuponus。Butgivetotheseoldpersecutorstheirmistakenprinciple，intheirreasoningtheyareconsistent，andintheirtemperstheymaybeevenkindandgood-natured。Butwheneverafactionwouldrendermillionsofmankindmiserable，somemillionsoftheraceco-existentwiththemselves，andmanymillionsintheirsuccession，withoutknowing，orsomuchaspretendingtoascertain，thedoctrinesoftheirownschool(inwhichthereismuchofthelashandnothingofthelesson)，theerrors，whichthepersonsinsuchafactionfallinto，arenotthosethatarenaturaltohumanimbecility，noristheleastmixtureofmistakenkindnesstomankindaningredientintheseveritiestheyinflict。Thewholeisnothingbutpureandperfectmalice。Itis，indeed，aperfectioninthatkindbelongingtobeingsofahigherorderthanman，andtothemweoughttoleaveit。Thiskindofpersecutors，withoutzeal，withoutcharity，knowwellenough，thatreligion，topassbyallquestionsofthetruthorfalsehoodofanyofitsparticularsystems(amatterIabandontothetheologiansonallsides)，isasourceofgreatcomforttousmortalsinthisourshortbuttediousjourneythroughtheworld。Theyknow，thattoenjoythisconsolation，menmustbelievetheirreligionuponsomeprincipleorother，whetherofeducation，habit，theory，orauthority。Whenmenaredrivenfromanyofthoseprinciples，onwhichtheyhavereceivedreligion，withoutembracingwiththesameassuranceandcordialitysomeothersystem，adreadfulvoidisleftintheirminds，andaterribleshockisgiventotheirmorals。Theylosetheirguide，theircomfort，theirhope。Nonebutthemostcruelandhard-heartedofmen，whohadbanishedallnaturaltendernessfromtheirminds，suchasthosebeingsofiron，theatheists，couldbringthemselvestoanypersecutionlikethis。Strangeitis，butsoitis，thatmen，drivenbyforcefromtheirhabitsinonemodeofreligion，have，bycontraryhabits，underthesameforce，oftenquietlysettledinanother。Theysuborntheirreasontodeclareinfavouroftheirnecessity。Manandhisconsciencecannotalwaysbeatwar。Ifthefirstraceshavenotbeenabletomakeapacificationbetweentheconscienceandtheconvenience，theirdescendantscomegenerallytosubmittotheviolenceofthelaws，withoutviolencetotheirminds。
IRISHLEGISLATION。
ThelegislatureofIreland，likealllegislatures，oughttoframeitslawstosuitthepeopleandthecircumstancesofthecountry，andnotanylongertomakeittheirwholebusinesstoforcethenature，thetemper，andtheinveteratehabitsofanationtoaconformitytospeculativesystemsconcerninganykindoflaws。Irelandhasanestablishedgovernment，andareligionlegallyestablished，whicharetobepreserved。Ithasapeople，whoaretobepreservedtoo，andtobeledbyreason，principle，sentiment，andinteresttoacquiesceinthatgovernment。Irelandisacountryunderpeculiarcircumstances。ThepeopleofIrelandareaverymixedpeople;andthequantitiesoftheseveralingredientsinthemixtureareverymuchdisproportionedtoeachother。Arewetogovernthismixedbodyasifitwerecomposedofthemostsimpleelements，comprehendingthewholeinonesystemofbenevolentlegislation;orarewenotrathertoprovidefortheseveralpartsaccordingtothevariousanddiversifiednecessitiesoftheheterogeneousnatureofthemass？Wouldnotcommonreasonandcommonhonestydictatetousthepolicyofregulatingthepeopleintheseveraldescriptionsofwhichtheyarecomposed，accordingtothenaturalranksandclassesofanorderlycivilsociety，underacommonprotectingsovereign，andunderaformofconstitutionfavourableatoncetoauthorityandtofreedom;suchastheBritishconstitutionboaststobe，andsuchasitis，tothosewhoenjoyit？
HENRYOFNAVARRE。
Ihaveobservedtheaffectationwhich，formanyyearspast，hasprevailedinPariseventoadegreeperfectlychildish，ofidolizingthememoryofyourHenrytheFourth。Ifanythingcouldputanyoneoutofhumourwiththatornamenttothekinglycharacter，itwouldbethisoverdonestyleofinsidiouspanegyric。Thepersonswhohaveworkedthisenginethemostbusilyarethosewhohaveendedtheirpanegyricsindethroninghissuccessoranddescendant;aman，asgoodnatured，attheleast，asHenrytheFourth;altogetherasfondofhispeople;andwhohasdoneinfinitelymoretocorrecttheancientvicesofthestatethanthatgreatmonarchdid，orwearesureheevermeanttodo。Wellitisforhispanegyriststhattheyhavenothimtodealwith。ForHenryofNavarrewasaresolute，active，andpoliticprince。Hepossessedindeedgreathumanityandmildness;butahumanityandmildnessthatneverstoodinthewayofhisinterests。Heneversoughttobelovedwithoutputtinghimselffirstinaconditiontobefeared。Heusedsoftlanguagewithdeterminedconduct。Heassertedandmaintainedhisauthorityinthegross，anddistributedhisactsofconcessiononlyinthedetail。Hespenttheincomeofhisprerogativenobly;buthetookcarenottobreakinuponthecapital;neverabandoningforamomentanyoftheclaimswhichhemadeunderthefundamentallaws，norsparingtoshedthebloodofthosewhoopposedhim，ofteninthefield，sometimesuponthescaffold。Becauseheknewhowtomakehisvirtuesrespectedbytheungrateful，hehasmeritedthepraisesofthose，whomiftheyhadlivedinhistime，hewouldhaveshutupintheBastile，andbroughttopunishmentalongwiththeregicideswhomhehangedafterhehadfamishedParisintoasurrender。
TESTACTS。
Inadiscussionwhichtookplaceintheyear1790，Mr。Burkedeclaredhisintention，incasethemotionforrepealingtheTestActshadbeenagreedto，ofproposingtosubstitutethefollowingtestintheroomofwhatwasintendedtoberepealed。“I，A。B。do，inthepresenceofGod，sincerelyprofessandbelieve，thatareligiousestablishmentinthisstateisnotcontrarytothelawofGod，ordisagreeabletothelawofnature，ortothetrueprinciplesoftheChristianreligion，orthatitisnoxioustothecommunity;andIdosincerelypromiseandengage，beforeGod，thatIneverwill，byanyconspiracy，contrivance，orpoliticaldevicewhatever，attempt，orabetothersinanyattempt，tosubverttheconstitutionofthechurchofEngland，asthesameisnowbylawestablished，andthatIwillnotemployanypowerorinfluence，whichImayderivefromanyofficecorporate，oranyotherofficewhichIhold，orshallhold，underhismajesty，hisheirsandsuccessors，todestroyandsubvertthesame;or，tocausememberstobeelectedintoanycorporation，orintoparliament，givemyvoteintheelectionofanymemberormembersofparliament，orintoanyoffice，fororonaccountoftheirattachmenttoanyotherordifferentreligiousopinionsorestablishments，orwithanyhope，thattheymaypromotethesametotheprejudiceoftheestablishedchurch;butwilldutifullyandpeaceablycontentmyselfwithmyprivatelibertyofconscience，asthesameisallowedbylaw。
“SohelpmeGod。”
WHATFACTIONOUGHTTOTEACH。
If，however，youcouldfindoutthesepedigreesofguilt，Idonotthinkthedifferencewouldbeessential。Historyrecordsmanythings，whichoughttomakeushateevilactions;butneitherhistory，normorals，norpolicy，canteachustopunishinnocentmenonthataccount。Whatlessondoestheiniquityofprevalentfactionsreadtous？Itoughttolessonusintoanabhorrenceoftheabuseofourownpowerinourownday;whenwehateitsexcessessomuchinotherpersonsandinothertimes。Tothatschooltruestatesmenoughttobesatisfiedtoleavemankind。Theyoughtnottocallfromthedeadallthediscussionsandlitigationswhichformerlyinflamedthefuriousfactions，whichhadtorntheircountrytopieces;theyoughtnottorakeintothehideousandabominablethings，whichweredoneintheturbulentfuryofaninjured，robbed，andpersecutedpeople，andwhichwereafterwardscruellyrevengedintheexecution，andasoutrageouslyandshamefullyexaggeratedintherepresentation，inorder，ahundredandfiftyyearsafter，tofindsomecolourforjustifyingthemintheeternalproscriptionandcivilexcommunicationofawholepeople。
GRIEVANCESBYLAW。
Thisbusinessappearsintwopointsofview。1。Whetheritisamatterofgrievance。2。Whetheritiswithinourprovincetoredressitwithproprietyandprudence。Whetheritcomesproperlybeforeusonapetitionuponmatterofgrievance，Iwouldnotinquiretoocuriously。I
know，technicallyspeaking，thatnothingagreeabletolawcanbeconsideredasagrievance。Butanover-attentiontotherulesofanyactdoessometimesdefeattheendsofit，andIthinkitdoessointhisparliamentaryact，asmuchatleastasinanyother。Iknowmanygentlementhink，thattheveryessenceoflibertyconsistsinbeinggovernedaccordingtolaw;asifgrievanceshadnothingrealandintrinsic;butIcannotbeofthatopinion。Grievancesmaysubsistbylaw。Nay，Idonotknowwhetheranygrievancecanbeconsideredasintolerableuntilitisestablishedandsanctifiedbylaw。Iftheactoftolerationwerenotperfect，iftherewereacomplaintofit，I
wouldgladlyconsenttoamendit。ButwhenIheardacomplaintofapressureonreligiousliberty，tomyastonishment，IfindthattherewasnocomplaintwhatsoeveroftheinsufficiencyoftheactofKingWilliam，noranyattempttomakeitmoresufficient。Thematterthereforedoesnotconcerntoleration，butestablishment;anditisnottherightsofprivateconsciencethatareinquestion，buttheproprietyoftheterms，whichareproposedbylawasatitletopublicemoluments;sothatthecomplaintisnot，thatthereisnottolerationofdiversityinopinion，butthatdiversityinopinionisnotrewardedbybishoprics，rectories，andcollegiatestalls。Whengentlemencomplainofthesubscriptionasmatterofgrievance，thecomplaintarisesfromconfoundingprivatejudgment，whoserightsareanteriortolaw，andthequalifications，whichthelawcreatesforitsownmagistracies，whethercivilorreligious。Totakeawayfrommentheirlives，theirliberty，ortheirproperty，thosethings，fortheprotectionofwhichsocietywasintroduced，isgreathardshipandintolerabletyranny;buttoannexanyconditionyoupleasetobenefits，artificiallycreated，isthemostjust，natural，andproperthingintheworld。Whenenovoyouformanarbitrarybenefit，anadvantage，pre-eminence，oremolument，notbynature，butinstitution，youorderandmodifyitwithallthepowerofacreatoroverhiscreature。Suchbenefitsofinstitutionareroyalty，nobility，priesthood;allofwhichyoumaylimittobirth;youmightprescribeevenshapeandstature。TheJewishpriesthoodwashereditary。Founders’kinsmenhaveapreferenceintheelectionofFellowsinmanycollegesofouruniversities;thequalificationsatAllSoulsare，thattheyshouldbe——optimenati，benevestiti，mediocriterdocti。
Bycontendingforlibertyinthecandidatefororders，youtakeawaythelibertyoftheelector，whichisthepeople;thatis，thestate。Iftheycanchoose，theymayassignareasonfortheirchoice;iftheycanassignareason，theymaydoitinwriting，andprescribeitasacondition;theymaytransfertheirauthoritytotheirrepresentatives，andenablethemtoexercisethesame。Inallhumaninstitutionsagreatpart，almostallregulations，aremadefromthemerenecessityofthecase，letthetheoreticalmeritsofthequestionbewhattheywill。Fornothinghappenedatthereformation，butwhatwillhappeninallsuchrevolutions。Whentyrannyisextreme，andabusesofgovernmentintolerable，menresorttotherightsofnaturetoshakeitoff。Whentheyhavedoneso，theverysameprincipleofnecessityofhumanaffairs，toestablishsomeotherauthority，whichshallpreservetheorderofthisnewinstitution，mustbeobeyed，untiltheygrowintolerable;andyoushallnotbesufferedtopleadoriginallibertyagainstsuchaninstitution。SeeHolland，Switzerland。
Ifyouwillhavereligionpubliclypractisedandpubliclytaught，youmusthaveapowertosaywhatthatreligionwillbewhichyouwillprotectandencourage;andtodistinguishitbysuchmarksandcharacteristics，asyouinyourwisdomshallthinkfit。AsIsaidbefore，yourdeterminationmaybeunwiseinthisasinothermatters，butitcannotbeunjust，hard，oroppressive，orcontrarytothelibertyofanyman，orintheleastdegreeexceedingyourprovince。
Itisthereforeasagrievancefairlynoneatall，nothingbutwhatisessentialnotonlytotheorder，buttotheliberty，ofthewholecommunity。
REVOLUTIONARYPOLITICS。
InFranceyouarenowinthecrisisofarevolution，andinthetransitfromoneformofgovernmenttoanother——youcannotseethatcharacterofmenexactlyinthesamesituationinwhichweseeitinthiscountry。Withusitismilitant;withyouitistriumphant;andyouknowhowitcanactwhenitspoweriscommensuratetoitswill。I
wouldnotbesupposedtoconfinethoseobservationstoanydescriptionofmen，ortocomprehendallmenofanydescriptionwithinthem——No！farfromit。Iamasincapableofthatinjustice，asIamofkeepingtermswiththosewhoprofessprinciplesofextremes;
andwho，underthenameofreligion，teachlittleelsethanwildanddangerouspolitics。Theworstofthesepoliticsofrevolutionisthis：theytemperandhardenthebreast，inordertoprepareitforthedesperatestrokeswhicharesometimesusedinextremeoccasions。
Butastheseoccasionsmayneverarrive，themindreceivesagratuitoustaint;andthemoralsentimentssuffernotalittle，whennopoliticalpurposeisservedbythedepravation。Thissortofpeoplearesotakenupwiththeirtheoriesabouttherightsofman，thattheyhavetotallyforgottenhisnature。Withoutopeningonenewavenuetotheunderstanding，theyhavesucceededinstoppingupthosethatleadtotheheart。Theyhavepervertedinthemselves，andinthosethatattendtothem，allthewell-placedsympathiesofthehumanbreast。
ThisfamoussermonoftheOldJewrybreathesnothingbutthisspiritthroughallthepoliticalpart。Plots，massacres，assassinations，seemtosomepeopleatrivialpriceforobtainingarevolution。Acheap，bloodlessreformation，aguiltlessliberty，appearflatandvapidtotheirtaste。Theremustbeagreatchangeofscene;theremustbeamagnificentstageeffect;theremustbeagrandspectacletorousetheimagination，growntorpidwiththelazyenjoymentofsixtyyears’
security，andthestillunanimatingreposeofpublicprosperity。ThepreacherfoundthemallintheFrenchrevolution。Thisinspiresajuvenilewarmththroughhiswholeframe。Hisenthusiasmkindlesasheadvances;andwhenhearrivesathisperorationitisinafullblaze。
Thenviewing，fromthePisgahofhispulpit，thefree，moral，happy，flourishing，andgloriousstateofFrance，asinabird-eyelandscapeofapromisedland，hebreaksoutintorapture。
TOLERATIONBECOMEINTOLERANT。
Whenanydissenters，oranybodyofpeople，comeherewithapetition，itisnotthenumberofpeople，butthereasonablenessoftherequest，thatshouldweighwiththehouse。Abodyofdissenterscometothishouse，andsay，Tolerateus——wedesireneithertheparochialadvantageoftithes，nordignities，northestallsofyourcathedrals。No！letthevenerableordersofthehierarchyexistwithalltheiradvantages。AndshallItellthem，Irejectyourjustandreasonablepetition，notbecauseitshakesthechurch，butbecausethereareothers，whileyouliegrovellingupontheearth，thatwillkickandbiteyou？Judgewhichofthesedescriptionsofmencomeswithafairrequest——that，whichsays，Sir，Idesirelibertyformyown，becauseItrespassonnoman’sconscience;——ortheother，whichsays，Idesirethatthesemenshouldnotbesufferedtoactaccordingtotheirconsciences，thoughIamtoleratedtoactaccordingtomine。ButIsignabodyofarticles，whichismytitletotoleration;Isignnomore，becausemoreareagainstmyconscience。ButIdesirethatyouwillnottoleratethesemen，becausetheywillnotgosofarasI，thoughIdesiretobetolerated，whowillnotgoasfarasyou。No，imprisonthem，iftheycomewithinfivemilesofacorporatetown，becausetheydonotbelievewhatIdoinpointofdoctrines。ShallInotsaytothesemen，“Arrangez-vous，canaille？”You，whoarenotthepredominantpower，willnotgivetootherstherelaxation，underwhichyouareyourselfsufferedtolive。Ihaveashighanopinionofthedoctrinesofthechurchasyou。Ireceivethemimplicitly，orIputmyownexplanationonthem，ortakethatwhichseemstometocomebestrecommendedbyauthority。Therearethoseofthedissenters，whothinkmorerigidlyofthedoctrineofthearticlesrelativetopredestination，thanothersdo。Theysignthearticlerelativetoitexanimo，andliterally。Othersallowalatitudeofconstruction。Thesetwopartiesareinthechurch，aswellasamongthedissenters;yetinthechurchwelivequietlyunderthesameroof。Idonotseewhy，aslongasProvidencegivesusnofurtherlightintothisgreatmystery，weshouldnotleavethingsastheDivinewisdomhasleftthem。Butsupposeallthesethingstometobeclear(whichProvidencehoweverseemstohaveleftobscure)，yetwhilstdissentersclaimatolerationinthingswhich，seemingcleartome，areobscuretothem，withoutenteringintothemeritofthearticles，withwhatfacecanthesemensay，Tolerateus，butdonottoleratethem？Tolerationisgoodforall，oritisgoodfornone。
Thediscussionthisdayisnotbetweenestablishmentononehand，andtolerationontheother，butbetweenthose，whobeingtoleratedthemselves，refusetolerationtoothers。Thatpowershouldbepuffedupwithpride，thatauthorityshoulddegenerateintorigour，ifnotlaudable，isbuttoonatural。Butthisproceedingoftheirsismuchbeyondtheusualallowancetohumanweakness;itnotonlyisshockingtoourreason，butitprovokesourindignation。Quiddominifacient，audentcumtaliafures？Itisnottheproudprelatethunderinginhiscommissioncourt，butapackofmanumittedslaveswiththelashofthebeadleflagrantontheirbacks，andtheirlegsstillgalledwiththeirfetters，thatwoulddrivetheirbrethrenintothatprison-housefromwhencetheyhavejustbeenpermittedtoescape。If，insteadofpuzzlingthemselvesinthedepthsoftheDivinecounsels，theywouldturntothemildmoralityoftheGospel，theywouldreadtheirowncondemnation：——O
thouwickedservant，Iforgavetheeallthatdebtbecausethoudesiredstme：shouldestnotthoualsohavecompassiononthyfellow-servant，evenasIhadpityonthee？
WILKESANDRIGHTOFELECTION。
Inthelastsession，thecorpscalledthe“king’sfriends“madeahardyattempt，allatonce，TOALTERTHERIGHTOFELECTIONITSELF;toputitintothepoweroftheHouseofCommonstodisableanypersondisagreeabletothemfromsittinginparliament，withoutanyotherrulethantheirownpleasure;tomakeincapacities，eithergeneralfordescriptionsofmen，orparticularforindividuals;andtotakeintotheirbody，personswhoavowedlyneverbeenchosenbythemajorityoflegalelectors，noragreeablytoanyknownruleoflaw。
Theargumentsuponwhichthisclaimwasfoundedandcombated，arenotmybusinesshere。Neverhasasubjectbeenmoreamplyandmorelearnedlyhandled，norupononeside，inmyopinion，moresatisfactorily;theywhoarenotconvincedbywhatisalreadywrittenwouldnotreceiveconvictionTHOUGHONEAROSEFROMTHEDEAD。
Itoohavethoughtonthissubject：butmypurposehere，isonlytoconsideritasapartofthefavouriteprojectofgovernment;toobserveonthemotiveswhichledtoit;andtotraceitspoliticalconsequences。
AviolentrageforthepunishmentofMr。Wilkeswasthepretenceofthewhole。Thisgentleman，bysettinghimselfstronglyinoppositiontothecourtcabal，hadbecomeatonceanobjectoftheirpersecution，andofthepopularfavour。Thehatredofthecourtpartypursuing，andthecountenanceofthepeopleprotectinghim，itverysoonbecamenotatallaquestionontheman，butatrialofstrengthbetweenthetwoparties。
Theadvantageofthevictoryinthisparticularcontestwasthepresent，butnottheonly，norbyanymeanstheprincipal，object。ItsoperationuponthecharacteroftheHouseofCommonswasthegreatpointinview。
Thepointtobegainedbythecabalwasthis;thataprecedentshouldbeestablished，tendingtoshow，THATTHEFAVOUROFTHEPEOPLEWASNOTSO
SUREAROADASTHEFAVOUROFTHECOURTEVENTOPOPULARHONOURSAND
POPULARTRUSTS。Astrenuousresistancetoeveryappearanceoflawlesspower;aspiritofindependencecarriedtosomedegreeofenthusiasm;aninquisitivecharactertodiscover，andaboldonetodisplay，everycorruptionandeveryerrorofgovernment;thesearethequalitieswhichrecommendamantoaseatintheHouseofCommons，inopenandmerelypopularelections。Anindolentandsubmissivedisposition;adispositiontothinkcharitablyofalltheactionsofmeninpower，andtoliveinamutualintercourseoffavourswiththem;aninclinationrathertocountenanceastronguseofauthority，thantobearanysortoflicentiousnessonthepartofthepeople;theseareunfavourablequalitiesinanopenelectionformembersofparliament。Theinstinctwhichcarriesthepeopletowardsthechoiceoftheformer，isjustifiedbyreason;becauseamanofsuchacharacter，eveninitsexorbitances，doesnotdirectlycontradictthepurposesofatrust，theendofwhichisacontrolonpower。Thelattercharacter，evenwhenitisnotinitsextreme，willexecutethistrustbutveryimperfectly;and，ifdeviatingtotheleastexcess，willcertainlyfrustrateinsteadofforwardingthepurposesofacontrolongovernment。ButwhentheHouseofCommonswastobenewmodelled，isprinciplewasnotonlytobechangedbutreversed。Whilstanyerrorscommittedinsupportofpowerwerelefttothelaw，witheveryadvantageoffavourableconstruction，ofmitigation，andfinallyofpardon：allexcessesonthesideofliberty，orinpursuitofpopularfavour，orindefenceofpopularrightsandprivileges，werenotonlytobepunishedbytherigouroftheknownlaw，butbyaDISCRETIONARYproceeding，whichbroughtonTHELOSSOFTHE
POPULAROBJECTITSELF。Popularitywastoberendered，ifnotdirectlypenal，atleasthighlydangerous。Thefavourofthepeoplemightleadeventoadisqualificationofrepresentingthem。Theirodiummightbecome，strainedthroughthemediumoftwoorthreeconstructions，themeansofsittingasthetrusteeofallthatwasdeartothem。Thisispunishingtheoffenceintheoffendingpart。Untilthistime，theopinionofthepeople，throughthepowerofanassembly，stillinsomesortpopular，ledtothegreatesthonoursandemolumentsinthegiftofthecrown。Nowtheprincipleisreversed;andthefavourofthecourtistheonlysurewayofobtainingandholdingthosehonourswhichoughttobeinthedisposalofthepeople。
Itsignifiesverylittlehowthismattermaybequibbledaway。Example，theonlyargumentofeffectincivillife，demonstratesthetruthofmyproposition。Nothingcanaltermyopinionconcerningthepernicioustendencyofthisexample，untilIseesomemanforhisindiscretioninthesupportofpower，forhisviolentandintemperateservility，renderedincapableofsittinginparliament。Forasitnowstands，thefaultofoverstrainingpopularqualities，and，irregularlyifyouplease，assertingpopularprivileges，hasledtodisqualification;theoppositefaultneverhasproducedtheslightestpunishment。ResistancetopowerhasshutthedooroftheHouseofCommonstooneman;
obsequiousnessandservility，tonone。
NotthatIwouldencouragepopulardisorder，oranydisorder。ButI
wouldleavesuchoffencestothelaw，tobepunishedinmeasureandproportion。Thelawsofthiscountryareforthemostpartconstituted，andwiselyso，forthegeneralendsofgovernment，ratherthanforthepreservationofourparticularliberties。Whatever，therefore，isdoneinsupportofliberty，bypersonsnotinpublictrust，ornotactingmerelyinthattrust，isliabletobemoreorlessoutoftheordinarycourseofthelaw;andthelawitselfissufficienttoanimadvertuponitwithgreatseverity。Nothingindeedcanhinderthatsevereletterfromcrushingus，exceptthetemperamentsitmayreceivefromatrialbyjury。ButifthehabitprevailOFGOINGBEYONDTHELAW，andsupersedingthisjudicature，ofcarryingoffences，realorsupposed，intothelegislativebodies，whoshallestablishthemselvesintoCOURTSOF
CRIMINALEQUITY(soTHESTARCHAMBERhasbeencalledbyLordBacon)，alltheevilsoftheSTARCHAMBERarerevived。Alargeandliberalconstructioninascertainingoffences，andadiscretionarypowerinpunishingthem，istheideaofCRIMINALEQUITY;whichisintruthamonsterinjurisprudence。Itsignifiesnothingwhetheracourtforthispurposebeacommitteeofcouncil，orahouseofcommons，orahouseoflords;thelibertyofthesubjectwillbeequallysubvertedbyit。Thetrueendandpurposeofthathouseofparliamentwhichentertainssuchajurisdiction，willbedestroyedbyit。Iwillnotbelieve，whatnoothermanlivingbelieves，thatMr。Wilkeswaspunishedfortheindecencyofhispublications，ortheimpietyofhisransackedcloset。Ifhehadfalleninacommonslaughteroflibellersandblasphemers，Icouldwellbelievethatnothingmorewasmeantthanwaspretended。ButwhenIsee，that，foryearstogether，fullasimpious，andperhapsmoredangerous，writingstoreligion，andvirtue，andorder，havenotbeenpunished，northeirauthorsdiscountenanced;thatthemostaudaciouslibelsonroyalmajestyhavepassedwithoutnotice;thatthemosttreasonableinvectivesagainstthelaws，liberties，andconstitutionofthecountry，havenotmetwiththeslightestanimadversion;Imustconsiderthisasashockingandshamelesspretence。Neverdidanenvenomedscurrilityagainsteverythingsacredandcivil，publicandprivate，ragethroughthekingdomwithsuchafuriousandunbridledlicence。Allthiswhilethepeaceofthenationmustbeshaken，toruinonelibeller，andtotearfromthepopulaceasinglefavourite。
Norisitthatvicemerelyskulksinanobscureandcontemptibleimpunity。Doesnotthepublicbeholdwithindignation，personsnotonlygenerallyscandalousintheirlives，buttheidenticalpersonswho，bytheirsociety，theirinstruction，theirexample，theirencouragement，havedrawnthismanintotheveryfaultswhichhavefurnishedthecabalwithapretenceforhispersecution，loadedwitheverykindoffavour，honour，anddistinction，whichacourtcanbestow？Addbutthecrimeofservility(thefoedumcrimenservitutis)toeveryothercrime，andthewholemassisimmediatelytransmutedintovirtue，andbecomesthejustsubjectofrewardandhonour。WhenthereforeIreflectuponthismethodpursuedbythecabalindistributingrewardsandpunishments，ImustconcludethatMr。Wilkesistheobjectofpersecution，notonaccountofwhathehasdoneincommonwithotherswhoaretheobjectsofreward，butforthatinwhichhediffersfrommanyofthem：thatheispursuedforthespiriteddispositionswhichareblendedwithhisvices;forhisunconquerablefirmness，forhisresolute，indefatigable，strenuousresistanceagainstoppression。
Inthiscase，therefore，itwasnotthemanthatwastobepunished，norhisfaultsthatweretobediscountenanced。Oppositiontoactsofpowerwastobemarkedbyakindofcivilproscription。Thepopularitywhichshouldarisefromsuchanoppositionwastobeshownunabletoprotectit。Thequalitiesbywhichcourtismadetothepeople，weretorendereveryfaultinexpiable，andeveryerrorirretrievable。Thequalitiesbywhichcourtismadetopower，weretocoverandtosanctifyeverything。
HethatwillhaveasureandhonourableseatintheHouseofCommons，musttakecarehowheadventurestocultivatepopularqualities;
otherwisehemayremembertheoldmaxim，BrevesetinfaustospopuliRomaniamores。If，therefore，apursuitofpopularityexposeamantogreaterdangersthanadispositiontoservility，theprinciplewhichisthelifeandsoulofpopularelectionswillperishoutoftheconstitution。
ROCKINGHAMANDCONWAY。
Itisnowgivenoutfortheusualpurposes，bytheusualemissaries，thatLordRockinghamdidnotconsenttotherepealofthisactuntilhewasbulliedintoitbyLordChatham;andthereportershavegonesofaraspubliclytoassert，inahundredcompanies，thatthehonourablegentlemanunderthegallery，whoproposedtherepealintheAmericancommittee，hadanothersetofresolutionsinhispocketdirectlythereverseofthosehemoved。Theseartificesofadesperatecauseareatthistimespreadabroad，withincrediblecare，ineverypartofthetown，fromthehighesttothelowestcompanies;asiftheindustryofthecirculationweretomakeamendsfortheabsurdityofthereport。
Sir，whetherthenoblelordisofacomplexiontobebulliedbyLordChatham，orbyanyman，Imustsubmittothosewhoknowhim。Iconfess，whenIlookbacktothattime，Iconsiderhimasplacedinoneofthemosttryingsituationsinwhich，perhaps，anymaneverstood。IntheHouseofPeerstherewereveryfewoftheministry，outofthenoblelord’sownparticularconnection(exceptLordEgmont，whoacted，asfarasIcoulddiscern，anhonourableandmanlypart)，thatdidnotlooktosomeotherfuturearrangement，whichwarpedhispolitics。Therewereinbothhousesnewandmenacingappearances，thatmightverynaturallydriveanyother，thanamostresoluteminister，fromhismeasureorfromhisstation。Thehouseholdtroopsopenlyrevolted。Thealliesofministry(those，Imean，whosupportedsomeoftheirmeasures，butrefusedresponsibilityforany)endeavouredtounderminetheircredit，andtotakegroundthatmustbefataltothesuccessoftheverycausewhichtheywouldbethoughttocountenance。Thequestionoftherepealwasbroughtonbyministryinthecommitteeofthishouse，intheveryinstantwhenitwasknownthatmorethanonecourtnegotiationwascarryingonwiththeheadsoftheopposition。Everything，uponeveryside，wasfulloftrapsandmines。Earthbelowshook;heavenabovemenaced;alltheelementsofministerialsafetyweredissolved。Itwasinthemidstofthischaosofplotsandcounterplots;itwasinthemidstofthiscomplicatedwarfareagainstpublicoppositionandprivatetreachery，thatthefirmnessofthatnoblepersonwasputtotheproof。
Heneverstirredfromhisground：no，notaninch。Heremainedfixedanddetermined，inprinciple，inmeasure，andinconduct。Hepractisednomanagements。Hesecurednoretreat。Hesoughtnoapology。
Iwilllikewisedojustice，Ioughttodoit，tothehonourablegentlemenwholedusinthishouse。Farfromtheduplicitywickedlychargedonhim，heactedhispartwithalacrityandresolution。Weallfeltinspiredbytheexamplehegaveus，downeventomyself，theweakestinthatphalanx。Ideclareforone，Iknewwellenough(itcouldnotbeconcealedfromanybody)thetruestateofthings;but，inmylife，Inevercamewithsomuchspiritsintothishouse。ItwasatimeforaMANtoactin。Wehadpowerfulenemies，butwehadfaithfulanddeterminedfriends;andagloriouscause。Wehadagreatbattletofight，butwehadthemeansoffighting;notasnow，whenourarmsaretiedbehindus。Wedidfightthatday，andconquer。
Iremember，Sir，withamelancholypleasure，thesituationofthehonourablegentleman(GeneralConway。)whomadethemotionfortherepeal;inthatcrisiswhenthewholetradinginterestofthisempire，crammedintoyourlobbies，withatremblingandanxiousexpectation，waited，almosttoawinter’sreturnoflight，theirfatefromyourresolutions。When，atlength，youhaddeterminedintheirfavour，andyourdoors，thrownopen，showedthemthefigureoftheirdelivererinthewell-earnedtriumphofhisimportantvictory，fromthewholeofthatgravemultitudetherearoseaninvoluntaryburstofgratitudeandtransport。Theyjumpeduponhimlikechildrenonalong-absentfather。
Theyclungabouthimascaptivesabouttheirredeemer。AllEngland，allAmericajoinedtohisapplause。Nordidheseeminsensibletothebestofallearthlyrewards，theloveandadmirationofhisfellow-citizens。
HOPEELEVATED，ANDJOYBRIGHTENEDHISCREST。Istoodnearhim;andhisface，tousetheexpressionofthescriptureofthefirstmartyr，“hisfacewasasifithadbeenthefaceofanangel。”Idonotknowhowothersfeel;butifIhadstoodinthatsituation，Ineverwouldhaveexchangeditforallthatkingsintheirprofusioncouldbestow。Ididhopethatthatday’sdangerandhonourwouldhavebeenabondtoholdusalltogetherforever。But，alas！that，withotherpleasingvisions，islongsincevanished。
Sir，thisactofsuprememagnanimityhasbeenrepresented，asifithadbeenameasureofanadministration，thathavingnoschemeoftheirown，tookamiddleline，pilferedabitfromonesideandabitfromtheother。Sir，theytookNOmiddlelines。Theydifferedfundamentallyfromtheschemesofbothparties;buttheypreservedtheobjectsofboth。
TheypreservedtheauthorityofGreatBritain。TheymadetheDeclaratoryAct;theyrepealedtheStampAct。TheydidbothFULLY;becausetheDeclaratoryActwaswithoutQUALIFICATION;andtherepealoftheStampActTOTAL。ThistheydidinthesituationIhavedescribed。
POLITICSINTHEPULPIT。
ItisplainthatthemindofthisPOLITICALpreacherwasatthetimebigwithsomeextraordinarydesign;anditisveryprobablethatthethoughtsofhisaudience，whounderstoodhimbetterthanIdo，didallalongrunbeforehiminhisreflection，andinthewholetrainofconsequencestowhichitled。BeforeIreadthatsermon，IreallythoughtIhadlivedinafreecountry;anditwasanerrorIcherished，becauseitgavemeagreaterlikingtothecountryIlivedin。Iwasindeedaware，thatajealous，ever-wakingvigilance，toguardthetreasureofourliberty，notonlyfrominvasion，butfromdecayandcorruption，wasourbestwisdom，andourfirstduty。However，I
consideredthattreasureratherasapossessiontobesecured，thanasaprizetobecontendedfor。IdidnotdiscernhowthepresenttimecametobesoveryfavourabletoallEXERTIONSinthecauseoffreedom。ThepresenttimediffersfromanyotheronlybythecircumstanceofwhatisdoinginFrance。Iftheexampleofthatnationistohaveaninfluenceonthis，Icaneasilyconceivewhysomeoftheirproceedingswhichhaveanunpleasantaspect，andarenotquitereconcilabletohumanity，generosity，goodfaith，andjustice，arepalliatedwithsomuchmilkygood-naturetowardstheactors，andbornwithsomuchheroicfortitudetowardsthesufferers。Itiscertainlynotprudenttodiscredittheauthorityofanexamplewemeantofollow。Butallowingthis，weareledtoaverynaturalquestion：——Whatisthatcauseofliberty，andwhatarethoseexertionsinitsfavour，towhichtheexampleofFranceissosingularlyauspicious？Isourmonarchytobeannihilated，withallthelaws，allthetribunals，andalltheancientcorporationsofthekingdom？Iseveryland-markofthecountrytobedoneawayinfavourofageometricalandarithmeticalconstitution？IstheHouseofLordstobevoteduseless？Isepiscopacytobeabolished？ArethechurchlandstobesoldtoJewsandjobbers;orgiventobribenew-inventedmunicipalrepublicsintoaparticipationinsacrilege？Areallthetaxestobevotedgrievances，andtherevenuereducedtoapatrioticcontribution，orpatrioticpresents？Aresilvershoe-bucklestobesubstitutedintheplaceoftheland-taxandthemalt-tax，forthesupportofthenavalstrengthofthiskingdom？Areallorders，ranks，anddistinctionstobeconfounded，thatoutofuniversalanarchy，joinedtonationalbankruptcy，threeorfourthousanddemocraciesshouldbeformedintoeighty-three，andthattheymayall，bysomesortofunknownattractivepower，beorganizedintoone？Forthisgreatendisthearmytobeseducedfromitsdisciplineanditsfidelity，firstbyeverykindofdebauchery，andthenbytheterribleprecedentofadonativeintheincreaseofpay？Arethecuratestobesecludedfromtheirbishops，byholdingouttothemthedelusivehopeofadoleoutofthespoilsoftheirownorder？ArethecitizensofLondontobedrawnfromtheirallegiancebyfeedingthemattheexpenseoftheirfellow-subjects？Isacompulsorypapercurrencytobesubstitutedintheplaceofthelegalcoinofthiskingdom？Iswhatremainsoftheplunderedstockofpublicrevenuetobeemployedinthewildprojectofmaintainingtwoarmiestowatchoverandtofightwitheachother？IfthesearetheendsandmeansoftheRevolutionSociety，Iadmittheyarewellassorted;andFrancemayfurnishthemforbothwithprecedentsinpoint。Iseethatyourexampleisheldouttoshameus。Iknowthatwearesupposedadull，sluggishrace，renderedpassivebyfindingoursituationtolerable，andpreventedbyamediocrityoffreedomfromeverattainingtoitsfullperfection。YourleadersinFrancebeganbyaffectingtoadmire，almosttoadore，theBritishconstitution;but，astheyadvanced，theycametolookuponitwithasovereigncontempt。ThefriendsofyourNationalAssemblyamongstushavefullasmeananopinionofwhatwasformerlythoughtthegloryoftheircountry。TheRevolutionSocietyhasdiscoveredthattheEnglishnationisnotfree。Theyareconvincedthattheinequalityinourrepresentationisa“defectinourconstitutionSO
GROSSANDPALPABLE，astomakeitexcellentchieflyinFORMandTHEORY。”
(DiscourseontheLoveofourCountry，3rdeditionpage39。)Thatarepresentationinthelegislatureofakingdomisnotonlythebasisofallconstitutionallibertyinit，butof“ALLLEGITIMATEGOVERNMENT;
thatwithoutitaGOVERNMENTisnothingbutaUSURPATION;“——that“whentherepresentationisPARTIAL，thekingdompossesseslibertyonlyPARTIALLY;andifextremelypartialitgivesonlyaSEMBLANCE;andifnotonlyextremelypartial，butcorruptlychosen，itbecomesaNUISANCE。”Dr。PriceconsidersthisinadequacyofrepresentationasourFUNDAMENTALGRIEVANCE;andthough，astothecorruptionofthissemblanceofrepresentation，hehopesitisnotyetarrivedtoitsfullperfectionofdepravity，hefearsthat“nothingwillbedonetowardsgainingforusthisESSENTIALBLESSING，untilsomeGREATABUSEOFPOWER
againprovokesourresentment，orsomeGREATCALAMITYagainalarmsourfears，orperhapstilltheacquisitionofaPUREANDEQUAL
REPRESENTATIONBYOTHERCOUNTRIES，whilstweareMOCKEDwiththeSHADOW，kindlesourshame。”Tothishesubjoinsanoteinthesewords。“A
representationchosenchieflybythetreasury，andaFEWthousandsoftheDREGSofthepeople，whoaregenerallypaidfortheirvotes。”
Youwillsmilehereattheconsistencyofthosedemocratists，who，whentheyarenotontheirguard，treatthehumblerpartofthecommunitywiththegreatestcontempt，whilst，atthesametime，theypretendtomakethemthedepositoriesofallpower。Itwouldrequirealongdiscoursetopointouttoyouthemanyfallaciesthatlurkinthegeneralityandequivocalnatureoftheterms“inadequaterepresentation。”Ishallonlysayhere，injusticetothatold-fashionedconstitution，underwhichwehavelongprospered，thatourrepresentationhasbeenfoundperfectlyadequatetoallthepurposesforwhicharepresentationofthepeoplecanbedesiredordevised。Idefytheenemiesofourconstitutiontoshowthecontrary。Todetailtheparticularsinwhichitisfoundsowelltopromoteitsends，woulddemandatreatiseonourpracticalconstitution。Istateherethedoctrineoftherevolutionists，onlythatyouandothersmaysee，whatanopinionthesegentlemenentertainoftheconstitutionoftheircountry，andwhytheyseemtothinkthatsomegreatabuseofpower，orsomegreatcalamity，asgivingachancefortheblessingofaconstitutionaccordingtotheirideas，wouldbemuchpalliatedtotheirfeelings;youseeWHYTHEYaresomuchenamouredofyourfairandequalrepresentation，whichbeingonceobtained，thesameeffectsmightfollow。YouseetheyconsiderourHouseofCommonsasonly“asemblance，““aform，““atheory，““ashadow，““amockery，“perhaps“anuisance。”
WILLIAMTHECONQUEROR。
Thereisnothingmorememorableinhistorythantheactions，fortunes，andcharacterofthisgreatman;whetherweconsiderthegrandeuroftheplansheformed，thecourageandwisdomwithwhichtheywereexecuted，orthesplendourofthatsuccess，which，adorninghisyouth，continuedwithoutthesmallestreservetosupporthisageeventothelastmomentsofhislife。Helivedaboveseventyyears，andreignedwithintenyearsaslongashelived：sixtyoverhisdukedom，abovetwentyoverEngland;bothofwhichheacquiredorkeptbyhisownmagnanimity，withhardlyanyothertitlethanhederivedfromhisarms;sothathemightbereputed，inallrespects，ashappyasthehighestambition，themostfullygratified，canmakeaman。
Thesilentinwardsatisfactionsofdomestichappinessheneitherhadnorsought。Hehadabodysuitedtothecharacterofhismind，erect，firm，large，andactive;whilsttobeactivewasapraise;acountenancestern，andwhichbecamecommand。Magnificentinhisliving，reservedinhisconversation，graveinhiscommondeportment，butrelaxingwithawisefacetiousness，heknewhowtorelievehismindandpreservehisdignity;forheneverforfeitedbyapersonalacquaintancethatesteemhehadacquiredbyhisgreatactions。
Unlearnedinbooks，heformedhisunderstandingbytherigiddisciplineofalargeandcomplicatedexperience。Heknewmenmuch，andthereforegenerallytrustedthembutlittle;butwhenheknewanymantobegood，hereposedinhimanentireconfidence，whichpreventedhisprudencefromdegeneratingintoavice。Hehadvicesinhiscomposition，andgreatones;buttheywerethevicesofagreatmind：ambition，themaladyofeveryextensivegenius;andavarice，themadnessofthewise：onechieflyactuatedhisyouth;theothergovernedhisage。Thevicesofyoungandlightminds，thejoysofwine，andthepleasuresoflove，neverreachedhisaspiringnature。
Thegeneralrunofmenhelookedonwithcontempt，andtreatedwithcrueltywhentheyopposedhim。Norwastherigourofhismindtobesoftenedbutwiththeappearanceofextraordinaryfortitudeinhisenemies，which，byasympathycongenialtohisownvirtues，alwaysexcitedhisadmiration，andinsuredhismercy。Sothattherewereoftenseeninthisoneman，atthesametime，theextremesofasavagecruelty，andagenerosity，thatdoeshonourtohumannature。
Religion，too，seemedtohaveagreatinfluenceonhismindfrompolicy，orfrombettermotives;buthisreligionwasdisplayedintheregularitywithwhichheperformedhisduties，notinthesubmissionheshowedtoitsministers，whichwasnevermorethanwhatgoodgovernmentrequired。Yethischoiceofacounsellorandfavouritewasnot，accordingtothemodeofthetime，outofthatorder，andachoicethatdoeshonourtohismemory。ThiswasLanfranc，amanofgreatlearningforthetimes，andextraordinarypiety。HeowedhiselevationtoWilliam;but，thoughalwaysinviolablyfaithful，heneverwasthetoolorflattererofthepowerwhichraisedhim;andthegreaterfreedomheshowed，thehigherheroseintheconfidenceofhismaster。Bymixingwiththeconcernsofstatehedidnotlosehisreligionandconscience，ormakethemthecoversorinstrumentsofambition;buttemperingthefiercepolicyofanewpowerbythemildlightsofreligion，hebecameablessingtothecountryinwhichhewaspromoted。TheEnglishowedtothevirtueofthisstranger，andtheinfluencehehadontheking，thelittleremainsoflibertytheycontinuedtoenjoy;andatlastsuchadegreeofhisconfidence，asinsomesortcounterbalancedtheseveritiesoftheformerpartofhisreign。
KINGALFRED。
WhenAlfredhadoncemorereunitedthekingdomsofhisancestors，hefoundthewholefaceofthingsinthemostdesperatecondition;therewasnoobservanceoflawandorder;religionhadnoforce;therewasnohonestindustry;themostsqualidpoverty，andthegrossestignorance，hadoverspreadthewholekingdom。Alfredatonceenterprisedthecureofalltheseevils。Toremedythedisordersinthegovernment，herevived，improved，anddigestedalltheSaxoninstitutions;insomuchthatheisgenerallyhonouredasthefounderofourlawsandconstitution。
(Historians，copyingafteroneanother，andexamininglittle，haveattributedtothismonarchtheinstitutionofjuries;aninstitutionwhichcertainlydidneverprevailamongsttheSaxons。TheyhavelikewiseattributedtohimthedistributionofEnglandintoshires，hundreds，andtithings，andofappointingofficersoverthesedivisions。Butitisveryobviousthattheshireswereneversettleduponanyregularplan，noraretheytheresultofanysingledesign。Butthesereports，howeverillimagined，areastrongproofofthehighvenerationinwhichthisexcellentprincehasalwaysbeenheld;asithasbeenthoughtthattheattributingtheseregulationstohimwouldendearthemtothenation。Heprobablysettledtheminsuchanorder，andmadesuchreformationsinhisgovernment，thatsomeoftheinstitutionsthemselves，whichheimproved，havebeenattributedtohim;andindeedtherewasoneworkofhis，whichservestofurnishuswithahigherideaofthepoliticalcapacityofthatgreatmanthananyofthesefictions。Hemadeageneralsurveyandregisterofallthepropertyinthekingdom，whoheldit，andwhatitwasdistinctly;avastworkforanageofignoranceandtimeofconfusion，whichhasbeenneglectedinmorecivilizednationsandsettledtimes。Itwascalledthe“RollofWinton，“andservedasamodelofaworkofthesamekindmadebyWilliamtheConqueror。)Theshirehedividedintohundreds;thehundredsintotithings;everyfreemanwasobligedtobeenteredintosometithing，themembersofwhichweremutuallyboundforeachotherforthepreservationofthepeace，andtheavoidingtheftandrapine。Forsecuringthelibertyofthesubject，heintroducedthemethodofgivingbail，themostcertainfenceagainsttheabusesofpower。Ithasbeenobserved，thatthereignsofweakprincesaretimesfavourabletoliberty;butthewisestandbravestofalltheEnglishprincesisthefatheroftheirfreedom。Thisgreatmanwasevenjealousoftheprivilegesofhissubjects;andashiswholelifewasspentinprotectingthem，hislastwillbreathesthesamespirit，declaring，thathehadlefthispeopleasfreeastheirownthoughts。Henotonlycollectedwithgreatcareacompletebodyoflaws，buthewrotecommentsonthemfortheinstructionofhisjudges，whowereingeneralbythemisfortuneofthetimeignorant;andifhetookcaretocorrecttheirignorance，hewasrigoroustowardstheircorruption。Heinquiredstrictlyintotheirconduct;heheardappealsinperson;heheldhisWittena-Gemotes，orparliaments，frequently，andkepteverypartofhisgovernmentinhealthandvigour。
Norwashelesssolicitousforthedefence，thanhehadshownhimselffortheregulation，ofhiskingdom。Henourishedwithparticularcarethenewnavalstrength，whichhehadestablished;hebuiltfortsandcastlesinthemostimportantposts;hesettledbeaconstospreadanalarmonthearrivalofanenemy;andorderedhismilitiainsuchamanner，thattherewasalwaysagreatpowerinreadinesstomarch，wellappointedandwelldisciplined。Butthatasuitablerevenuemightnotbewantingforthesupportofhisfleetsandfortifications，hegavegreatencouragementtotrade;whichbythepiraciesonthecoasts，andtherapineandinjusticeexercisedbythepeoplewithin，hadlongbecomeastrangertothisisland。
Inthemidstofthesevariousandimportantcares，hegaveapeculiarattentiontolearning，whichbytherageofthelatewarshadbeenentirelyextinguishedinhiskingdom。“Veryfewtherewere(saysthismonarch)onthissidetheHumber，thatunderstoodtheirordinaryprayers;orthatwereabletotranslateanyLatinbookintoEnglish;sofew，thatIdonotrememberevenonequalifiedtothesouthwardoftheThameswhenIbeganmyreign。”Tocurethisdeplorableignorance，hewasindefatigableinhisendeavourstobringintoEnglandmenoflearninginallbranchesfromeverypartofEurope;andunboundedinhisliberalitytothem。Heenactedbyalaw，thateverypersonpossessedoftwohidesoflandshouldsendtheirchildrentoschooluntilsixteen。Wiselyconsideringwheretoputastoptohisloveevenoftheliberalarts，whichareonlysuitedtoaliberalcondition，heenterprisedyetagreaterdesignthanthatofformingthegrowinggeneration，——toinstructeventhegrown;enjoiningallhisearldormenandsheriffsimmediatelytoapplythemselvestolearningortoquittheiroffices。Tofacilitatethesegreatpurposes，hemadearegularfoundationofauniversity，whichwithgreatreasonisbelievedtohavebeenatOxford。Whatevertroublehetooktoextendthebenefitsoflearningamongsthissubjects，heshowedtheexamplehimself，andappliedtothecultivationofhismindwithunparalleleddiligenceandsuccess。Hecouldneitherreadnorwriteattwelveyearsold;butheimprovedhistimeinsuchamannerthathebecameoneofthemostknowingmenofhisage，ingeometry，inphilosophy，inarchitecture，andinmusic。Heappliedhimselftotheimprovementofhisnativelanguage;hetranslatedseveralvaluableworksfromLatin，andwroteavastnumberofpoemsintheSaxontonguewithawonderfulfacilityandhappiness。Henotonlyexcelledinthetheoryoftheartsandsciences，butpossessedagreatmechanicalgeniusfortheexecutivepart;heimprovedthemannerofship-building，introducedamorebeautifulandcommodiousarchitecture，andeventaughthiscountrymentheartofmakingbricks，mostofthebuildingshavingbeenofwoodbeforehistime;inaword，hecomprehendedinthegreatnessofhismindthewholeofgovernmentandallitspartsatonce;andwhatismostdifficulttohumanfrailty，wasthesametimesublimeandminute。
Religion，whichinAlfred’sfatherwassoprejudicialtoaffairs，withoutbeinginhimatallinferiorinitszealandfervour，wasofamoreenlargedandnoblekind;farfrombeingaprejudicetohisgovernment，itseemstohavebeentheprinciplethatsupportedhiminsomanyfatigues，andfedlikeanabundantsourcehiscivilandmilitaryvirtues。Tohisreligiousexercisesandstudieshedevotedafullthirdpartofhistime。Itispleasanttotraceageniuseveninitssmallestexertions;inmeasuringandallottinghistimeforthevarietyofbusinesshewasengagedin。Accordingtohissevereandmethodicalcustom，hehadasortofwaxcandles，madeofdifferentcolours，indifferentproportions，accordingtothetimeheallottedtoeachparticularaffair;ashecarriedtheseaboutwithhimwhereverhewent，tomakethemburnevenly，heinventedhornlanthorns。Onecannothelpbeingamazed，thataprince，wholivedinsuchturbulenttimes，whocommandedpersonallyinfifty-fourpitchedbattles，whohadsodisorderedaprovincetoregulate，whowasnotonlyalegislatorbutajudge，andwhowascontinuallysuperintendinghisarmies，hisnavies，thetrafficofhiskingdom，hisrevenues，andtheconductofallhisofficers，couldhavebestowedsomuchofhistimeonreligiousexercisesandspeculativeknowledge;buttheexertionofallhisfacultiesandvirtuesseemedtohavegivenamutualstrengthtoallofthem。Thusallhistoriansspeakofthisprince，whosewholehistorywasonepanegyric;
andwhateverdarkspotsofhumanfrailtymayhaveadheredtosuchacharacter，theyareentirelyhidinthesplendourofhismanyshiningqualitiesandgrandvirtues，thatthrowagloryovertheobscureperiodinwhichhelived，andwhichisfornootherreasonworthyofourknowledge。
DRUIDS。
TheDruidsaresaidtobeveryexpertinastronomy，ingeography，andinallpartsofmathematicalknowledge。Andauthorsspeak，inaveryexaggeratedstrain，oftheirexcellenceinthese，andinmanyothersciences。SomeelementalknowledgeIsupposetheyhad;butIcanscarcelybepersuadedthattheirlearningwaseitherdeeporextensive。
InallcountrieswhereDruidismwasprofessed，theyouthweregenerallyinstructedbythatorder;andyetwastherelittleeitherinthemannersofthepeople，intheirwayoflife，ortheirworksofart，thatdemonstratesprofoundscience，orparticularlymathematicalskill。
Britain，wheretheirdisciplinewasinitshighestperfection，andwhichwasthereforeresortedtobythepeopleofGaul，asanoracleinDruidicalquestions，wasmorebarbarousinallotherrespectsthanGaulitself，orthananyothercountrythenknowninEurope。Thosepilesofrudemagnificence，StonehengeandAbury，areinvainproducedinproofoftheirmathematicalabilities。Thesevaststructureshavenothingwhichcanbeadmired，butthegreatnessofthework;andtheyarenottheonlyinstancesofthegreatthings，whichthemerelabourofmanyhandsunited，andperseveringintheirpurpose，mayaccomplishwithverylittlehelpfrommechanics。Thismaybeevincedbytheimmensebuildings，andthelowstateofthesciences，amongtheoriginalPeruvians。TheDruidswereeminent，aboveallthephilosophiclawgiversofantiquity，fortheircareinimpressingthedoctrineofthesoul’simmortalityonthemindsoftheirpeople，asanoperativeandleadingprinciple。Thisdoctrinewasinculcatedontheschemeoftransmigration，whichsomeimaginethemtohavederivedfromPythagoras。Butitisbynomeansnecessarytoresorttoanyparticularteacherforanopinionwhichowesitsbirthtotheweakstrugglesofunenlightenedreason，andtomistakesnaturaltothehumanmind。Theideaofthesoul’simmortalityisindeedancient，universal，andinamannerinherentinournature;
butitisnoteasyforarudepeopletoconceiveanyothermodeofexistencethanonesimilartowhattheyhadexperiencedinlife;noranyotherworldasthesceneofsuchanexistence，butthisweinhabit，beyondtheboundsofwhichthemindextendsitselfwithgreatdifficulty。Admiration，indeed，wasabletoexalttoheavenafewselectedheroes;itdidnotseemabsurd，thatthose，whointheirmortalstatehaddistinguishedthemselvesassuperiorandoverrulingspirits，shouldafterdeathascendtothatsphere，whichinfluencesandgovernseverythingbelow;orthattheproperabodeofbeings，atoncesoillustriousandpermanent，shouldbeinthatpartofnature，inwhichtheyhadalwaysobservedthegreatestsplendourandtheleastmutation。
Butonordinaryoccasionsitwasnaturalsomeshouldimagine，thatthedeadretiredintoaremotecountry，separatedfromthelivingbyseasormountains。Itwasnatural，thatsomeshouldfollowtheirimaginationwithasimplicitystillpurer，andpursuethesoulsofmennofurtherthanthesepulchres，inwhichtheirbodieshadbeendeposited;whilstothersofdeeperpenetration，observingthatbodies，wornoutbyage，ordestroyedbyaccidents，stillaffordedthematerialsforgeneratingnewones，concludedlikewise，thatasoulbeingdislodgeddidnotwhollyperish，butwasdestined，byasimilarrevolutioninnature，toactagain，andtoanimatesomeotherbody。Thislastprinciplegaverisetothedoctrineoftransmigration;butwemustnotpresumeofcourse，thatwhereitprevaileditnecessarilyexcludedtheotheropinions;foritisnotremotefromtheusualprocedureofthehumanmind，blending，inobscurematters，imaginationandreasoningtogether，touniteideasthemostinconsistent。WhenHomerrepresentstheghostsofhisheroesappearingatthesacrificesofUlysses，hesupposesthemenduedwithlife，sensation，andacapacityofmoving，buthehasjoinedtothesepowersoflivingexistenceuncomeliness，wantofstrength，wantofdistinction，thecharacteristicsofadeadcarcass。Thisiswhatthemindisapttodo;itisveryapttoconfoundtheideasofthesurvivingsoulandthedeadbody。Thevulgarhavealways，andstilldoconfoundtheseveryirreconcilableideas。Theylaythesceneofapparitionsinchurchyards;theyhabittheghostinashroud;anditappearsinalltheghastlypalenessofacorpse。Acontradictionofthiskindhasgivenrisetoadoubt，whethertheDruidsdidinrealityholdthedoctrineoftransmigration。Thereispositivetestimony，thattheydidholdit。
Thereisalsotestimonyaspositive，thattheyburied，orburnedwiththedead，utensils，arms，slaves，andwhatevermightbejudgedusefultothem，asiftheyweretoberemovedintoaseparatestate。Theymighthaveheldboththeseopinions;andweoughtnottobesurprisedtofinderrorinconsistent。
SAXONCONQUESTANDCONVERSION。
ButwhateverwastheconditionoftheotherpartsofEurope，itisgenerallyagreedthatthestateofBritainwastheworstofall。Somewritershaveasserted，thatexceptthosewhotookrefugeinthemountainsofWalesandCornwall，orfledintoArmorica，theBritishracewas，inamanner，destroyed。Whatisextraordinary，wefindEnglandinaverytolerablestateofpopulationinlessthantwocenturiesafterthefirstinvasionoftheSaxons;anditishardtoimagineeitherthetransplantation，ortheincrease，ofthatsinglepeopletohavebeen，insoshortatime，sufficientforthesettlementofsogreatanextentofcountry。OthersspeakoftheBritons，notasextirpated，butasreducedtoastateofslavery;andherethesewritersfixtheoriginofpersonalandpredialservitudeinEngland。
IshalllayfairlybeforethereaderallIhavebeenabletodiscoverconcerningtheexistenceorconditionofthisunhappypeople。ThattheyweremuchmorebrokenandreducedthananyothernationwhichhadfallenundertheGermanpower，Ithinkmaybeinferredfromtwoconsiderations：
first，thatinallotherpartsofEuropetheancientlanguagesubsistedaftertheconquest，andatlengthincorporatedwiththatoftheconquerors;whereasinEngland，theSaxonlanguagereceivedlittleornotincturefromtheWelsh;anditseems，evenamongthelowestpeople，tohavecontinuedadialectofpureTeutonictothetimeinwhichitwasitselfblendedwiththeNorman。Secondly，thatonthecontinent，theChristianreligion，afterthenorthernirruptions，notonlyremained，butflourished。Itwasveryearlyanduniversallyadoptedbytherulingpeople。InEnglanditwassoentirelyextinguished，that，whenAugustinundertookhismission，itdoesnotappearthatamongalltheSaxonstherewasasinglepersonprofessingChristianity。ThesuddenextinctionoftheancientreligionandlanguageappearssufficienttoshowthatBritainmusthavesufferedmorethananyoftheneighbouringnationsonthecontinent。Butitmustnotbeconcealed，thattherearelikewiseproofs，thattheBritishrace，thoughmuchdiminished，wasnotwhollyextirpated;andthatthosewhoremained，werenotmerelyasBritonsreducedtoservitude;fortheyarementionedasexistinginsomeoftheearlierSaxonlaws。IntheselawstheyareallowedacompensationonthefootingofthemeanerkindofEnglish;andtheyareevenpermitted，aswellastheEnglish，toemergeoutofthatlowrankintoamoreliberalcondition。Thisisdegradation，butnotslavery。(LegesInae32deCambricohomineagrumpossidente。Id。54。)Theaffairsofthatwholeperiodare，however，coveredwithanobscuritynottobedissipated。TheBritonshadlittleleisureorabilitytowriteajustaccountofawarbywhichtheywereruined;andtheAnglo-Saxons，whosucceededthem，attentiveonlytoarms，wereuntiltheirconversion，ignorantoftheuseofletters。
