Itisonthisdarkenedtheatrethatsomeoldwritershaveintroducedthosecharactersandactions，whichhaveaffordedsuchamplemattertopoets，andsomuchperplexitytohistorians。Thisisthefabulousandheroicageofournation。AfterthenaturalandjustrepresentationsoftheRomanscene，thestageisagaincrowdedwithenchanters，giants，andalltheextravagantimagesofthewildestandmostremoteantiquity。NopersonagemakessoconspicuousafigureinthesestoriesasKingArthur;
aprince，whetherofBritishorRomanorigin，whetherbornonthisislandorinArmorica，isuncertain;butitappearsthatheopposedtheSaxonswithremarkablevirtue，andnosmalldegreeofsuccess，whichhasrenderedhimandhisexploitssolargeanargumentofromance，thatbotharealmostdisclaimedbyhistory。LightscarcebeginstodawnuntiltheintroductionofChristianity，which，bringingwithittheuseofletters，andtheartsofcivillife，affordsatonceajusteraccountofthingsandfactsthataremoreworthyofrelation;noristhere，indeed，anyrevolutionsoremarkableintheEnglishstory。
ThebishopsofRomehadforsometimemeditatedtheconversionoftheAnglo-Saxons。PopeGregory，whoissurnamedtheGreat，affectedthatpiousdesignwithanuncommonzeal;andheatlengthfoundacircumstancehighlyfavourabletoitinthemarriageofadaughterofCharibert，akingoftheFranks，tothereiningmonarchofKent。ThisopportunityinducedPopeGregorytocommissionAugustin，amonkofRheims，andamanofdistinguishedpiety，toundertakethisarduousenterprise。
ItwasintheyearofChrist600，and150yearsafterthecomingofthefirstSaxoncoloniesintoEngland，thatEthelbert，kingofKent，receivedintelligenceofthearrivalinhisdominionsofanumberofmeninaforeigngarb，practisingseveralstrangeandunusualceremonies，whodesiredtobeconductedtotheking’spresence，declaringthattheyhadthingstocommunicatetohimandtohispeopleoftheutmostimportancetotheireternalwelfare。ThiswasAugustin，withfortyoftheassociatesofhismission，whonowlandedintheIsleofThanet，thesameplacebywhichtheSaxonshadbeforeentered，whentheyextirpatedChristianity。
MINISTERIALRESPONSIBILITY。
Itisnoexcuseatallforaminister，whoatourdesiretakesameasurecontrarytooursafety，thatitisourownact。Hewhodoesnotstaythehandofsuicide，isguiltyofmurder。Onourpart，Isay，thattobeinstructed，isnottobedegradedorenslaved。Informationisanadvantagetous;andwehavearighttodemandit。Hethatisboundtoactinthedarkcannotbesaidtoactfreely。Whenitappearsevidenttoourgovernorsthatourdesiresandourinterestsareatvariance，theyoughtnottogratifytheformerattheexpenseofthelatter。Statesmenareplacedonaneminence，thattheymayhavealargerhorizonthanwecanpossiblycommand。Theyhaveawholebeforethem，whichwecancontemplateonlyintheparts，andoftenwithoutthenecessaryrelations。Ministersarenotonlyournaturalrulersbutournaturalguides。Reasonclearlyandmanfullydelivered，hasinitselfamightyforce：butreasoninthemouthoflegalauthority，is，Imayfairlysay，irresistible。Iadmitthatreasonofstatewillnot，inmanycircumstances，permitthedisclosureofthetruegroundofapublicproceeding。Inthatcasesilenceismanlyanditiswise。Itisfairtocallfortrustwhentheprincipleofreasonitselfsuspendsitspublicuse。Itakethedistinctiontobethis：Thegroundofaparticularmeasure，makingapartofaplan，itisrarelypropertodivulge;allthebroadergroundsofpolicy，onwhichthegeneralplanistobeadopted，oughtasrarelytobeconcealed。They，whohavenotthewholecausebeforethem，callthempoliticians，callthempeople，callthemwhatyouwill，arenojudges。Thedifficultiesofthecase，aswellasitsfairside，oughttobepresented。Thisoughttobedone;anditisallthatcanbedone。Whenwehaveourtruesituationdistinctlypresentedtous，ifthenweresolve，withablindandheadlongviolence，toresisttheadmonitionsofourfriends，andtocastourselvesintothehandsofourpotentandirreconcilablefoes，then，andnottillthen，theministersstandacquittedbeforeGodandman，forwhatevermaycome。
MONASTICINSTITUTIONSANDTHEIRRESULTS。
Inthechangeofreligion，carewastakentorenderthetransitfromfalsehoodtotruthaslittleviolentaspossible。Thoughthefirstproselyteswerekings，itdoesnotappearthattherewasanypersecution。ItwasapreceptofPopeGregory，underwhoseauspicesthismissionwasconducted，thattheheathentemplesshouldnotbedestroyed，especiallywheretheywerewellbuilt;butthat，firstremovingtheidols，theyshouldbeconsecratedanewbyholierrites，andtobetterpurposes(Bed。Hist。Eccl。l。i。c。30。)，inorderthattheprejudicesofthepeoplemightnotbetoorudelyshockedbyadeclaredprofanationofwhattheyhadsolongheldsacred;andthateverywherebeholdingthesameplaces，towhichtheyhadformerlyresortedforreligiouscomfort，theymightbegraduallyreconciledtothenewdoctrinesandceremonieswhichwerethereintroduced;andasthesacrificesusedinthePaganworshipwerealwaysattendedwithfeasting，andconsequentlywerehighlygratefultothemultitude，thepopeordered，thatoxenshouldasusualbeslaughterednearthechurch，andthepeopleindulgedintheirancientfestivity。(Id。c。eod。)WhateverpopularcustomsofheathenismwerefoundtobeabsolutelynotincompatiblewithChristianitywereretained;
andsomeofthemwerecontinuedtoaverylateperiod。DeerwereatacertainseasonbroughtintoSt。Paul’sChurchinLondon，andlaidonthealtar(Dugdale’sHistoryofSt。Paul’s。);andthiscustomsubsisteduntiltheReformation。Thenamesofsomeofthechurchfestivalswere，withasimilardesign，takenfromthoseoftheheathen，whichhadbeencelebratedatthesametimeoftheyear。Nothingcouldhavebeenmoreprudentthantheseregulations;theywereindeedformedfromaperfectunderstandingofhumannature。
Whilsttheinferiorpeoplewerethusinsensiblyledintoabetterorder，theexampleandcountenanceofthegreatcompletedthework。FortheSaxonkingsandrulingmenembracedreligionwithsosignal，andintheirranksounusual，azeal，thatinmanyinstancestheyevensacrificedtoitsadvancementtheprimeobjectsoftheirambition。
Wulfere，kingoftheWestSaxons，bestowedtheIsleofWightonthekingofSussex，topersuadehimtoembraceChristianity。(Bed。Hist。Eccl。l。
iv。c。13。)Thiszealoperatedinthesamemannerinfavouroftheirinstructors。Thegreatestkingsandconquerorsfrequentlyresignedtheircrowns，andshutthemselvesupinmonasteries。Whenkingsbecamemonks，ahighlustrewasreflecteduponthemonasticstate，andgreatcreditaccruedtothepoweroftheirdoctrine，whichwasabletoproducesuchextraordinaryeffectsuponpersons，overwhomreligionhascommonlytheslightestinfluence。
Thezealofthemissionarieswasalsomuchassistedbytheirsuperiorityintheartsofcivillife。AttheirfirstpreachinginSussex，thatcountrywasreducedtothegreatestdistressfromadrought，whichhadcontinuedforthreeyears。Thebarbarousinhabitants，destituteofanymeanstoalleviatethefamine，inanepidemictransportofdespairfrequentlyunitedfortyandfiftyinabody，andjoiningtheirhands，precipitatedthemselvesfromthecliffs，andwereeitherdrownedordashedtopiecesontherocks。Thoughamaritimepeople，theyknewnothowtofish;andthisignoranceprobablyarosefromaremnantofDruidicalsuperstition，whichhadforbiddentheuseofthatsortofdiet。Inthiscalamity，BishopWilfred，theirfirstpreacher，collectingnets，attheheadofhisattendants，plungedintothesea;andhavingopenedthisgreatresourceoffood，hereconciledthedesperatepeopletolife，andtheirmindstothespiritualcareofthosewhohadshownthemselvessoattentivetotheirtemporalpreservation。(Bed。Hist。
Eccl。l。iv。c。13。)Thesameregardtothewelfareofthepeopleappearedinalltheiractions。TheChristiankingssometimesmadedonationstothechurchoflandsconqueredfromtheirheathenenemies。
Theclergyimmediatelybaptizedandmanumittedtheirnewvassals。Thustheyendearedtoallsortsofmendoctrinesandteachers，whichcouldmitigatetherigorouslawofconquest;andtheyrejoicedtoseereligionandlibertyadvancingwithanequalprogress。Norwerethemonksinthistimeinanythingmoreworthyoftheirpraisethanintheirzealforpersonalfreedom。Inthecanon，whereintheyprovidedagainstthealienationoftheirlands，amongothercharitableexceptionstothisrestraint，theyparticularizethepurchaseofliberty。(Spelm。Concil。
Page329。)Intheirtransactionswiththegreatthesamepointwasalwaysstrenuouslylaboured。Whentheyimposedpenance，theywereremarkablyindulgenttopersonsofthatrank。Buttheyalwaysmadethempurchasetheremissionofcorporalausteritybyactsofbeneficence。
Theyurgedtheirpowerfulpenitentstotheenfranchisementoftheirownslaves，andtotheredemptionofthosewhichbelongedtoothers;theydirectedthemtotherepairofhighways，andtotheconstructionofchurches，bridges，andotherworksofgeneralutility。(InstauretetiamDeiecclesiam;etinstauretviaspublicas，pontibussuperaquasprofundasetsupercaenosasvias;etmanumittatservossuosproprios，etredimatabaliishominibusservossuosadlibertatem——L。Eccl。Edgari14。)Theyextractedthefruitsofvirtueevenfromcrimes，andwheneveragreatmanexpiatedhisprivateoffences，heprovidedinthesameactforthepublichappiness。Themonasterieswerethentheonlybodiescorporateinthekingdom;andifanypersonsweredesiroustoperpetuatetheircharitybyafundforthereliefofthesickorindigent，therewasnootherwaythantoconfidethistrusttosomemonastery。Themonkswerethesolechannel，throughwhichthebountyoftherichcouldpassinanycontinuedstreamtothepoor;andthepeopleturnedtheireyestowardstheminalltheirdistresses。
Wemustobserve，thatthemonksofthattime，especiallythosefromIreland(AidanusFinametColmanusmiraesanctitatisfueruntetparsimoniae。Adeoenimsacerdoteserantilliustemporisabavaritiaimmunes，utnecterritorianisicoactiacciperent——Hen。Hunting。apudDecem。l。iii。page333。Bed。Hist。Eccl。l。iii。c。26。)，whohadaconsiderableshareintheconversionofallthenorthernparts，didnotshowthatrapaciousdesireofriches，whichlongdisgraced，andfinallyruined，theirsuccessors。Notonlydidtheynotseek，butseemedeventoshun，suchdonations。Thispreventedthatalarm，whichmighthavearisenfromanearlyanddeclaredavarice。Atthistimethemostferventandholyanchoritesretiredtoplacesthefurthestthatcouldbefoundfromhumanconcourseandhelp，tothemostdesolateandbarrensituations，whichevenfromtheirhorrorseemedparticularlyadaptedtomenwhohadrenouncedtheworld。Manypersonsfollowedtheminordertopartakeoftheirinstructionsandprayers，ortoformthemselvesupontheirexample。Anopinionoftheirmiraclesaftertheirdeathdrewstillgreaternumbers。Establishmentsweregraduallymade。Themonasticlifewasfrugal，andthegovernmentmoderate。Thesecausesdrewaconstantconcourse。Sanctifieddesertsassumedanewface;themarshesweredrained，andthelandscultivated。Andasthisrevolutionseemedrathertheeffectoftheholinessoftheplacethanofanynaturalcauses，itincreasedtheircredit;andeveryimprovementdrewwithitanewdonation。InthismannerthegreatabbeysofCroylandandGlastonbury，andmanyothers，fromthemostobscurebeginnings，wereadvancedtoadegreeofwealthandsplendourlittlelessthanroyal。Intheserudeages，governmentwasnotyetfixeduponsolidprinciples，andeverythingwasfulloftumultanddistraction。Asthemonasterieswerebettersecuredfromviolencebytheircharacter，thananyotherplacesbylaws，severalgreatmen，andevensovereignprinces，wereobligedtotakerefugeinconvents，who，whenbyamorehappyrevolutionintheirfortunestheywerereinstatedintheirformerdignities，thoughttheycouldnevermakeasufficientreturnforthesafetytheyhadenjoyedunderthesacredhospitalityoftheseroofs。Notcontenttoenrichthemwithamplepossessions，thatothersalsomightpartakeoftheprotectiontheyhadexperienced，theyformallyerectedintoanasylumthosemonasteries，andtheiradjacentterritory。Sothatallthrongedtothatrefuge，whowererenderedunquietbytheircrimes，theirmisfortunes，ortheseverityoftheirlords;andcontenttoliveunderagovernment，towhichtheirmindsweresubject，theyraisedtheimportanceoftheirmastersbytheirnumbers，theirlabour，andaboveall，byaninviolableattachment。
Themonasterywasalwaystheplaceofsepultureforthegreatestlordsandkings。Thisaddedtotheothercausesofreverenceasortofsanctity，which，inuniversalopinion，alwaysattendstherepositoriesofthedead;andtheyacquiredalsotherebyamoreparticularprotectionagainstthegreatandpowerful;forwhowouldviolatethetombofhisancestors，orhisown？Itwasnotanunnaturalweaknesstothink，thatsomeadvantagemightbederivedfromlyinginholyplaces，andamongstholypersons：andthissuperstitionwasfomentedwiththegreatestindustryandart。ThemonksofGlastonburyspreadanotion，thatitwasalmostimpossibleanypersonshouldbedamned，whosebodylayintheircemetery。Thismustbeconsideredascominginaidoftheamplestoftheirresources，prayerforthedead。
Buttherewasnopartoftheirpolicy，ofwhatevernature，thatprocuredtothemagreaterorjustercredit，thantheircultivationoflearningandusefularts。ForifthemonkscontributedtothefallofscienceintheRomanempire，itiscertain，thattheintroductionoflearningandcivilityintothisnorthernworldisentirelyowingtotheirlabours。Itistrue，thattheycultivatedlettersonlyinasecondaryway，andassubsidiarytoreligion。ButtheschemeofChristianityissuch，thatitalmostnecessitatesanattentiontomanykindsoflearning。FortheScriptureisbynomeansanirrelativesystemofmoralanddivinetruths;butitstandsconnectedwithsomanyhistories，andwiththelaws，opinions，andmannersofsomanyvarioussortsofpeople，andinsuchdifferenttimes，thatitisaltogetherimpossibletoarrivetoanytolerableknowledgeofit，withouthavingrecoursetomuchexteriorinquiry。Forwhichreasontheprogressofthisreligionhasalwaysbeenmarkedbythatofletters。Thereweretwoothercircumstancesatthistime，thatcontributednolesstotherevivaloflearning。Thesacredwritingshadnotbeentranslatedintoanyvernacularlanguage，andeventheordinaryserviceofthechurchwasstillcontinuedintheLatintongue;all，therefore，whoformedthemselvesfortheministry，andhopedtomakeanyfigureinit，wereinamannerdriventothestudyofthewritersofpoliteantiquity，inordertoqualifythemselvesfortheirmostordinaryfunctions。Bythismeansapractice，liableinitselftogreatobjections，hadaconsiderableshareinpreservingthewrecksofliterature;andwasonemeansofconveyingdowntoourtimesthoseinestimablemonuments，whichotherwise，inthetumultofbarbarousconfusionononehand，anduntaughtpietyontheother，mustinevitablyhaveperished。Thesecondcircumstance，thepilgrimagesofthatage，ifconsideredinitself，wasasliabletoobjectionastheformer;butitprovedofequaladvantagetothecauseofliterature。AprincipalobjectofthesepiousjourneyswasRome，whichcontainedallthelittlethatwasleftinthewesternworld，ofancientlearningandtaste。TheothergreatobjectofthosepilgrimageswasJerusalem;thisledthemintotheGrecianempire，whichstillsubsistedintheEastwithgreatmajestyandpower。HeretheGreekshadnotonlynotdiscontinuedtheancientstudies，buttheyaddedtothestockofartsmanyinventionsofcuriosityandconveniencethatwereunknowntoantiquity。When，afterwards，theSaracensprevailedinthatpartoftheworld，thepilgrimshadalso，bythesamemeans，anopportunityofprofitingfromtheimprovementsofthatlaboriouspeople;andhoweverlittlethemajorityofthesepioustravellersmighthavehadsuchobjectsintheirview，somethingusefulmustunavoidablyhavestucktothem;afewcertainlysawwithmorediscernment，andrenderedtheirtravelsserviceabletotheircountrybyimportingotherthingsbesidesmiraclesandlegends。Thusacommunicationwasopenedbetweenthisremoteislandandcountries，ofwhichitotherwisecouldthenscarcelyhaveheardmentionmade;andpilgrimagesthuspreservedthatintercourseamongstmankind，whichisnowformedbypolitics，commerce，andlearnedcuriosity。Itisnotwhollyunworthyofobservation，thatProvidence，whichstronglyappearstohaveintendedthecontinualintermixtureofmankind，neverleavesthehumanminddestituteofaprincipletoeffectit。Thispurposeissometimescarriedonbyasortofmigratoryinstinct，sometimesbythespiritofconquest;atonetimeavaricedrivesmenfromtheirhomes，atanothertheyareactuatedbyathirstofknowledge;wherenoneofthesecausescanoperate，thesanctityofparticularplacesattractsmenfromthemostdistantquarters。ItwasthismotivewhichsentthousandsinthoseagestoJerusalemandRome;
andnow，inafulltide，impelshalftheworldannuallytoMecca。
Bythosevoyages，theseedsofvariouskindsofknowledgeandimprovementwereatdifferenttimesimportedintoEngland。Theywerecultivatedintheleisureandretirementofmonasteries;otherwisetheycouldnothavebeencultivatedatall：foritwasaltogethernecessarytodrawcertainmenfromthegeneralrudeandfiercesociety，andwhollytosetabarbetweenthemandthebarbarouslifeoftherestoftheworld，inordertofitthemforstudy，andthecultivationofartsandscience。Accordingly，wefindeverywhere，inthefirstinstitutionsforthepropagationofknowledgeamongstanypeople，thatthose，whofollowedit，weresetapartandsecludedfromthemassofthecommunity。
Thegreatecclesiasticalchairofthiskingdom，fornearacentury，wasfilledbyforeigners;theywerenominatedbythepopes，whowereinthatagejustorpoliticenoughtoappointpersonsofameritinsomedegreeadequatetothatimportantcharge。Throughthisseriesofforeignandlearnedprelates，continualaccessionsweremadetotheoriginallyslenderstockofEnglishliterature。ThegreatestandmostvaluableoftheseaccessionswasmadeinthetimeandbythecareofTheodorus，theseventharchbishopofCanterbury。HewasaGreekbybirth;amanofahighambitiousspirit，andofamindmoreliberal，andtalentsbettercultivated，thangenerallyfelltothelotofthewesternprelates。Hefirstintroducedthestudyofhisnativelanguageintothisisland。Hebroughtwithhimanumberofvaluablebooksinmanyfaculties;andamongstthemamagnificentcopyoftheworksofHomer;themostancientandbestofpoets，andthebestchosentoinspireapeople，justinitiatedintoletters，withanardentlove，andwithatruetasteforthesciences。UnderhisinfluenceaschoolwasformedatCanterbury;andthustheothergreatfountainofknowledge，theGreektongue，wasopenedinEnglandintheyearofourLord669。
COMMONLAWANDMAGNACHARTA。
Thecommonlaw，asitthenprevailedinEngland，wasinagreatmeasurecomposedofsomeremnantsoftheoldSaxoncustoms，joinedtothefeudalinstitutionsbroughtinattheNormanconquest。Anditisheretobeobserved，thattheconstitutionsofMagnaChartaarebynomeansarenewalofthelawsofSt。Edward，ortheancientSaxonlaws，asourhistoriansandlaw-writersgenerally，thoughverygroundlessly，assert。
Theybearnoresemblance，inanyparticular，tothelawsofSt。Edward，ortoanyothercollectionoftheseancientinstitutions。Indeed，howshouldthey？TheobjectofMagnaChartaisthecorrectionofthefeudalpolicy，whichwasfirstintroduced，atleastinanyregularform，attheConquest，anddidnotsubsistbeforeit。Itmaybefurtherobserved，thatinthepreambletotheGreatCharteritisstipulated，thatthebaronsshallHOLDtheliberties，theregrantedTOTHEMANDTHEIRHEIRS，fromTHEKINGANDHISHEIRS;whichshows，thatthedoctrineofanunalienabletenurewasalwaysuppermostintheirminds。Theirideaevenoflibertywasnot(ifImayusetheexpression)perfectlyfree;andtheydidnotclaimtopossesstheirprivilegesuponanynaturalprincipleorindependentbottom，but，justastheyheldtheirlands，fromtheking。Thisisworthyofobservation。Bythefeudallawalllandedpropertyis，byafeignedconclusion，supposedtobederived，andthereforetobemediatelyorimmediatelyheld，fromtheCrown。Ifsomeestatesweresoderived，otherswerecertainlyprocuredbythesameoriginaltitleofconquest，bywhichthecrownitselfwasacquired;andthederivationfromthekingcouldinreasononlybeconsideredasafictionoflaw。Butitsconsequentrightsbeingoncesupposed，manyrealchargesandburthensgrewfromafictionmadeonlyforthepreservationofsubordination;andinconsequenceofthis，agreatpowerwasexercisedoverthepersonsandestatesofthetenants。Thefinesonthesuccessiontoanestate，calledinthefeudallanguage“Reliefs，“werenotfixedtoanycertainty;andwerethereforefrequentlymadesoexcessive，thattheymightratherbeconsideredasredemptions，ornewpurchases，thanacknowledgmentsofsuperiorityandtenure。Withrespecttothatmostimportantarticleofmarriage，therewas，intheverynatureofthefeudalholding，agreatrestraintlaiduponit。Itwasofimportancetothelord，thattheperson，whoreceivedthefeud，shouldbesubmissivetohim;hehadthereforearighttointerfereinthemarriageoftheheiress，whoinheritedthefeud。Thisrightwascarriedfurtherthanthenecessityrequired;themaleheirhimselfwasobligedtomarryaccordingtothechoiceofhislord：andevenwidows，whohadmadeonesacrificetothefeudaltyranny，wereneithersufferedtocontinueinthewidowedstate，nortochooseforthemselvesthepartnersoftheirsecondbed。Infact，marriagewaspubliclysetuptosale。Theancientrecordsoftheexchequeraffordmanyinstanceswheresomewomenpurchased，byheavyfines，theprivilegeofasinglelife;somethefreechoiceofahusband;othersthelibertyofrejectingsomepersonparticularlydisagreeable。And，whatmayappearextraordinary，therearenotwantingexamples，whereawomanhasfinedinaconsiderablesum，thatshemightnotbecompelledtomarryacertainman;thesuitorontheotherhandhasoutbidher;andsolelybyofferingmoreforthemarriagethantheheiresscouldtopreventit，hecarriedhispointdirectlyandavowedlyagainstherinclinations。Now，asthekingclaimednorightoverhisimmediatetenants，thattheydidnotexerciseinthesame，orinamoreoppressivemannerovertheirvassals，itishardtoconceiveamoregeneralandcruelgrievancethanthisshamefulmarket，whichsouniversallyoutragedthemostsacredrelationsamongmankind。
Butthetyrannyoverwomenwasnotoverwiththemarriage。Asthekingseizedintohishandstheestateofeverydeceasedtenantinordertosecurehisrelief，thewidowwasdrivenoftenbyaheavycompositiontopurchasetheadmissiontoherdower，intowhichitshouldseemshecouldnotenterwithouttheking’sconsent。
Alltheseweremarksofarealandgrievousservitude。TheGreatCharterwasmadenottodestroytheroot，buttocutshorttheovergrownbranches，ofthefeudalservice;first，inmoderating，andinreducingtoacertainty，thereliefs，whichtheking’stenantspaidonsucceedingtotheirestateaccordingtotheirrank;andsecondly，intakingoffsomeoftheburthens，whichhadbeenlaidonmarriage，whethercompulsoryorrestrictive，andtherebypreventingthatshamefulmarket，whichhadbeenmadeinthepersonsofheirs，andthemostsacredthingsamongstmankind。
TherewereotherprovisionsmadeintheGreatCharter，thatwentdeeperthanthefeudaltenure，andaffectedthewholebodyofthecivilgovernment。Agreatpartoftheking’srevenuethenconsistedinthefinesandamercements，whichwereimposedinhiscourts。Afinewaspaidthereforlibertytocommence，ortoconcludeasuit。Thepunishmentofoffencesbyfinewasdiscretionary;andthisdiscretionarypowerhadbeenverymuchabused。ButbyMagnaChartathingsweresoordered，thatadelinquentmightbepunished，butnotruined，byafineoramercement，becausethedegreeofhisoffence，andtherankheheld，weretobetakenintoconsideration。Hisfreehold，hismerchandise，andthoseinstruments，bywhichheobtainedhislivelihood，weremadesacredfromsuchimpositions。Amoregrandreformwasmadewithregardtotheadministrationofjustice。Thekingsinthosedaysseldomresidedlonginoneplace，andtheircourtsfollowedtheirpersons。Thiserraticjusticemusthavebeenproductiveofinfiniteinconveniencetothelitigants。Itwasnowprovided，thatcivilsuits，calledCOMMONPLEAS，shouldbefixedtosomecertainplace。Thusonebranchofjurisdictionwasseparatedfromtheking’scourt，anddetachedfromhisperson。Theyhadnotyetcometothatmaturityofjurisprudenceastothinkthismightbemadetoextendtocriminallawalso;andthatthelatterwasanobjectofstillgreaterimportance。Buteventheformermaybeconsideredasagreatrevolution。Atribunal，acreatureofmerelaw，independentofpersonalpower，wasestablished，andthisseparationofaking’sauthorityfromhispersonwasamatterofvastconsequencetowardsintroducingideasoffreedom，andconfirmingthesacrednessandmajestyoflaws。
Butthegrandarticle，andthatwhichcementedallthepartsofthefabricofliberty，wasthis：“thatnofreemanshallbetakenorimprisoned，ordisseized，oroutlawed，orbanished，orinanywisedestroyed，butbyjudgmentofhispeers。”
Thereisanotherarticleofnearlyasmuchconsequenceastheformer，consideringthestateofthenationatthattime，bywhichitisprovided，thatthebaronsshallgranttotheirtenantsthesamelibertieswhichtheyhadstipulatedforthemselves。Thispreventedthekingdomfromdegeneratingintotheworstimaginablegovernment，afeudalaristocracy。TheEnglishbaronswerenotintheconditionofthosegreatprinces，whohadmadetheFrenchmonarchysolowintheprecedingcentury;orlikethose，whoreducedtheimperialpowertoaname。TheyhadbeenbroughttomoderateboundsbythepolicyofthefirstandsecondHenrys，andwerenotinaconditiontosetupforpettysovereignsbyanusurpationequallydetrimentaltotheCrownandthepeople。Theywereabletoactonlyinconfederacy;andthiscommoncausemadeitnecessarytoconsultthecommongood，andtostudypopularitybytheequityoftheirproceedings。Thiswasaveryhappycircumstancestothegrowingliberty。
EUROPEANDTHENORMANINVASION。
Beforetheperiodofwhichwearegoingtotreat，EnglandwaslittleknownorconsideredinEurope。Theirsituation，theirdomesticcalamities，andtheirignorance，circumscribedtheviewsandpoliticsoftheEnglishwithintheboundsoftheirownisland。ButtheNormanconquerorthrewdownallthesebarriers。TheEnglishlaws，manners，andmaxims，weresuddenlychanged;thescenewasenlarged;andthecommunicationwiththerestofEuropebeingthusopened，hasbeenpreservedeversinceinacontinuedseriesofwarsandnegotiations。
Thatwemaythereforeentermorefullyintothematterswhichliebeforeus，itisnecessarythatweunderstandthestateoftheneighbouringcontinentatthetimewhenthisislandfirstcametobeinterestedinitsaffairs。
Thenorthernnations，whohadoverruntheRomanempire，wereatfirstratheractuatedbyavaricethanambition，andweremoreintentuponplunderthanconquest;theywerecarriedbeyondtheiroriginalpurposes，whentheybegantoformregulargovernments，forwhichtheyhadbeenpreparedbynojustideasoflegislation。Foralongtime，therefore，therewaslittleoforderintheiraffairs，orforesightintheirdesigns。TheGoths，theBurgundians，theFranks，theVandals，theSuevi，aftertheyhadprevailedovertheRomanempire，byturnsprevailedovereachotherincontinualwars，whichwerecarriedonuponnoprinciplesofadeterminatepolicy，enteredintouponmotivesofbrutalityandcaprice，andendedasfortuneandrudeviolencechancedtoprevail。
Tumult，anarchy，confusion，overspreadthefaceofEurope;andanobscurityrestsuponthetransactionsofthattime，whichsuffersustodiscovernothingbutitsextremebarbarity。
Beforethiscloudcouldbedispersed，theSaracens，anotherbodyofbarbariansfromthesouth，animatedbyafurynotunlikethat，whichgavestrengthtothenorthernirruptions，butheightenedbyenthusiasm，andregulatedbysubordinationanduniformpolicy，begantocarrytheirarms，theirmanners，andreligionintoeverypartoftheuniverse。Spainwasentirelyoverwhelmedbythetorrentoftheirarmies;Italy，andtheislands，wereharassedbytheirfleets，andallEuropealarmedbytheirvigorousandfrequententerprises。Italy，whohadsolongsatthemistressoftheworld，wasbyturnstheslaveofallnations。ThepossessionofthatfinecountrywashotlydisputedbetweentheGreekemperorandtheLombards，anditsufferedinfinitelybythatcontention。
Germany，theparentofsomanynations，wasexhaustedbytheswarmsshehadsentabroad。However，inthemidstofthischaostherewereprinciplesatwork，whichreducedthingstoacertainform，andgraduallyunfoldedasystem，inwhichthechiefmoversandmainspringswerethepapalandtheimperialpowers;theaggrandisementordiminutionofwhichhavebeenthedriftofalmostallthepolitics，intrigues，andwars，whichhaveemployedanddistractedEuropetothisday。
FromRomethewholewesternworldhadreceiveditsChristianity。Shewastheasylumofwhatlearninghadescapedthegeneraldesolation;andeveninherruinsshepreservedsomethingofthemajestyofherancientgreatness。Ontheseaccountsshehadarespectandaweight，whichincreasedeverydayamongstasimplereligiouspeople，wholookedbutalittlewayintotheconsequencesoftheiractions。Therudenessoftheworldwasveryfavourablefortheestablishmentofanempireofopinion。
Themoderationwithwhichthepopesatfirstexertedthisempire，madeitsgrowthunfeltuntilitcouldnolongerbeopposed。Andthepolicyoflaterpopes，buildingonthepietyofthefirst，continuallyincreasedit;andtheymadeuseofeveryinstrumentbutthatofforce。Theyemployedequallythevirtuesandthecrimesofthegreat;theyfavouredthelustofkingsforabsoluteauthority，andthedesireofsubjectsforliberty;theyprovokedwar，andmediatedpeace;andtookadvantageofeveryturninthemindsofmen，whetherofapublicorprivatenature，toextendtheirinfluence，andpushtheirpowerfromecclesiasticaltocivil;fromsubjectiontoindependency;fromindependencytoempire。
FrancehadmanyadvantagesovertheotherpartsofEurope。TheSaracenshadnopermanentsuccessinthatcountry。Thesamehand，whichexpelledthoseinvaders，deposedthelastofaraceofheavyanddegenerateprinces，morelikeeasternmonarchsthanGermanleaders，andwhohadneithertheforcetorepeltheenemiesoftheirkingdom，nortoasserttheirownsovereignty。Thisusurpationplacedonthethroneprincesofanothercharacter;princes，whowereobligedtosupplytheirwantoftitlebythevigouroftheiradministration。TheFrenchmonarchhadneedofsomegreatandrespectedauthoritytothrowaveiloverhisusurpation，andtosanctifyhisnewly-acquiredpowerbythosenamesandappearances，whicharenecessarytomakeitrespectabletothepeople。
Ontheotherhand，thepope，whohatedtheGrecianempire，andequallyfearedthesuccessoftheLombards，sawwithjoythisnewstarariseinthenorth，andgaveitthesanctionofhisauthority。Presentlyafterhecalledittohisassistance。PepinpassedtheAlps，relievedthepope，andinvestedhimwiththedominionofalargecountryinthebestpartofItaly。
Charlemagnepursuedthecoursewhichwasmarkedoutforhim，andputanendtotheLombardkingdom，weakenedbythepolicyofhisfather，andtheenmityofthepopes，whoneverwillinglysawastrongpowerinItaly。Thenhereceivedfromthehandofthepopetheimperialcrown，sanctifiedbytheauthorityoftheHolySee，andwithitthetitleofemperoroftheRomans;anamevenerablefromthefameoftheoldempire，andwhichwassupposedtocarrygreatandunknownprerogatives;andthustheempireroseagainoutofitsruinsintheWest;andwhatisremarkable，bymeansofoneofthosenationswhichhadhelpedtodestroyit。IfwetakeintheconquestsofCharlemagne，itwasalsoverynearasextensiveasformerly;thoughitsconstitutionwasaltogetherdifferent，asbeingentirelyonthenorthernmodelofgovernment。
FromCharlemagnethepopereceivedinreturnanenlargementandaconfirmationofhisnewterritory。Thusthepapalandimperialpowersmutuallygavebirthtoeachother。Theycontinuedforsomeages，and，insomemeasure，stillcontinuecloselyconnected，withavarietyofpretensionsuponeachother，andontherestofEurope。ThoughtheimperialpowerhaditsorigininFrance，itwassoondividedintotwobranches，theGallicandtheGerman。Thelatteralonesupportedthetitleofempire;butthepowerbeingweakenedbythisdivision，thepapalpretensionshadthegreaterweight。Thepope，becausehefirstrevivedtheimperialdignity，claimedarightofdisposingofit，oratleastofgivingvaliditytotheelectionoftheemperor。Theemperor，ontheotherhand，rememberingtherightsofthosesovereigns，whosetitlehebore，andhowlatelythepower，whichinsultedhimwithsuchdemands，hadarisenfromthebountyofhispredecessors，claimedthesameprivilegesintheelectionofapope。Theclaimsofbothweresomewhatplausible;andtheyweresupported，theonebyforceofarms，andtheotherbyecclesiasticalinfluence，powerswhichinthosedayswereverynearlybalanced。Italywasthetheatreuponwhichthisprizewasdisputed。Ineverycitythepartiesinfavourofeachoftheopponentswerenotfarfromanequalityintheirnumbersandstrength。Whilstthesepartiesdisagreedinthechoiceofamaster，bycontendingforachoiceintheirsubjection，theygrewimperceptiblyintofreedom，andpassedthroughthemediumoffactionandanarchyintoregularcommonwealths。ThusarosetherepublicsofVenice，ofGenoa，ofFlorence，Sienna，andPisa，andseveralothers。Thesecities，establishedinthisfreedom，turnedthefrugalandingeniousspiritcontractedinsuchcommunitiestonavigationandtraffic;andpursuingthemwithskillandvigour，whilstcommercewasneglectedanddespisedbytherusticgentryofthemartialgovernments，theygrewtoaconsiderabledegreeofwealth，power，andcivility。
TheDanes，whointhislattertimepreservedthespiritandthenumbersoftheancientGothicpeople，hadseatedthemselvesinEngland，intheLowCountries，andinNormandy。TheypassedfromthencetothesouthernpartofEurope，andinthisromanticagegaveriseinSicilyandNaplestoanewkingdom，andanewlineofprinces。
AllthekingdomsonthecontinentofEuropeweregovernednearlyinthesameform;fromwhencearoseagreatsimilitudeinthemannersoftheirinhabitants。Thefeodaldisciplineextendeditselfeverywhere，andinfluencedtheconductofthecourts，andthemannersofthepeople，withitsownirregularmartialspirit。Subjects，underthecomplicatedlawsofavariousandrigorousservitude，exercisedalltheprerogativesofsovereignpower。Theydistributedjustice，theymadewarandpeaceatpleasure。Thesovereign，withgreatpretensions，hadbutlittlepower;
hewasonlyagreaterlordamonggreatlords，whoprofitedofthedifferencesofhispeers;thereforenosteadyplancouldbewellpursued，eitherinwarorpeace。Thisdayaprinceseemedirresistibleattheheadofhisnumerousvassals，becausetheirdutyobligedthemtowar，andtheyperformedthisdutywithpleasure。Thenextdaysawthisformidablepowervanishlikeadream，becausethisfierceundisciplinedpeoplehadnopatience，andthetimeofthefeudalservicewascontainedwithinverynarrowlimits。Itwasthereforeeasytofindanumberofpersonsatalltimesreadytofollowanystandard，butitwashardtocompleteaconsiderabledesign，whichrequiredaregularandcontinuedmovement。Thisenterprisingdispositioninthegentrywasverygeneral，becausetheyhadlittleoccupationorpleasurebutinwar;andthegreatestrewardsdidthenattendpersonalvalourandprowess。Allthatprofessedarms，becameinsomesortonanequality。Aknightwasthepeerofaking;andmenhadbeenusedtoseethebraveryofprivatepersonsopeningaroadtothatdignity。Thetemerityofadventurerswasmuchjustifiedbytheillorderofeverystate，whichleftitapreytoalmostanywhoshouldattackitwithsufficientvigour。Thus，littlecheckedbyanysuperiorpower，fulloffire，impetuosity，andignorance，theylongedtosignalizethemselveswhereveranhonourabledangercalledthem;andwhereverthatinvited，theydidnotweighverydeliberatelytheprobabilityofsuccess。Theknowledgeofthisgeneraldispositioninthemindsofmenwillnaturallyremoveagreatdealofourwonderatseeinganattempt，foundedonsuchslenderappearancesofright，andsupportedbyapowersolittleproportionedtotheundertakingasthatofWilliam，sowarmlyembracedandsogenerallyfollowed，notonlybyhisownsubjects，butbyalltheneighbouringpotentates。ThecountsofAnjou，Bretagne，Ponthieu，Boulogne，andPoictou，sovereignprinces;
adventurersfromeveryquarterofFrance，theNetherlands，andtheremotestpartsofGermany，layingasidetheirjealousiesandenmitiestooneanother，aswellastoWilliam，ranwithaninconceivableardourintothisenterprise;captivatedwiththesplendouroftheobject，whichobliteratedallthoughtsoftheuncertaintyoftheevent。Williamkeptupthisfervourbypromisesoflargeterritoriestoallhisalliesandassociatesinthecountrytobereducedbytheirunitedefforts。Butafterallitbecameequallynecessarytoreconciletohisenterprisethethreegreatpowers，ofwhomwehavejustspoken，whosedispositionmusthavehadthemostinfluenceonhisaffairs。
HisfeudallordthekingofFrancewasboundbyhismostobviousintereststoopposethefurtheraggrandisementofonealreadytoopotentforavassal;butthekingofFrancewasthenaminor;andBaldwin，earlofFlanders，whosedaughterWilliamhadmarried，wasregentofthekingdom。ThiscircumstancerenderedtheremonstranceoftheFrenchcouncilagainsthisdesignofnoeffect;indeedtheoppositionofthecouncilitselfwasfaint;theideaofhavingakingundervassalagetotheircrownmighthavedazzledthemoresuperficialcourtiers;whilstthose，whothoughtmoredeeply，wereunwillingtodiscourageanenterprise，whichtheybelievedwouldprobablyendintheruinoftheundertaker。Theemperorwasinhisminority，aswellasthekingofFrance;butbywhatartsthedukeprevailedupontheimperialcounciltodeclareinhisfavour，whetherornobyanideaofcreatingabalancetothepowerofFrance，ifwecanimaginethatanysuchideathensubsisted，isaltogetheruncertain;butitiscertain，thatheobtainedleaveforthevassalsoftheempiretoengageinhisservice，andthathemadeuseofthispermission。Thepope’sconsentwasobtainedwithstilllessdifficulty。Williamhadshownhimselfinmanyinstancesafriendtothechurch，andafavoureroftheclergy。OnthisoccasionhepromisedtoimprovethosehappybeginningsinproportiontothemeansheshouldacquirebythefavouroftheHolySee。ItissaidthatheevenproposedtoholdhisnewkingdomasafieffromRome。Thepope，therefore，enteredheartilyintohisinterests;heexcommunicatedallthosethatshouldopposehisenterprise，andsenthim，asameansofensuringsuccess，aconsecratedbanner。
ANCIENTINHABITANTSOFBRITAIN。
ThatBritainwasfirstpeopledfromGaul，weareassuredbythebestproofs：proximityofsituation，andresemblanceinlanguageandmanners。Ofthetimeinwhichthiseventhappened，wemustbecontentedtoremaininignorance，forwehavenomonuments。Butwemayconcludethatitwasaveryancientsettlement，sincetheCarthaginiansfoundthisislandinhabitedwhentheytradedhitherfortin;asthePhoenicians，whosetrackstheyfollowedinthiscommerce，aresaidtohavedonelongbeforethem。Itistrue，thatwhenweconsidertheshortintervalbetweentheuniversaldelugeandthatperiod，andcompareitwiththefirstsettlementofmenatsuchadistancefromthiscorneroftheworld，itmayseemnoteasytoreconcilesuchaclaimtoantiquitywiththeonlyauthenticaccountwehaveoftheoriginandprogressofmankind;especiallyasinthoseearlyagesthewholefaceofnaturewasextremelyrudeanduncultivated;whenthelinksofcommerce，eveninthecountriesfirstsettled，werefewandweak;navigationimperfect;geographyunknown;
andthehardshipsoftravellingexcessive。Butthespiritofmigration，ofwhichwehavenowonlysomefaintideas，wasthenstronganduniversal;anditfullycompensatedallthesedisadvantages。Manywritersindeedimagine，thatthesemigrations，socommonintheprimitivetimes，werecausedbytheprodigiousincreaseofpeoplebeyondwhattheirseveralterritoriescouldmaintain。Butthisopinion，farfrombeingsupported，israthercontradictedbythegeneralappearanceofthingsinthatearlytime，whenineverycountryvasttractsoflandweresufferedtoliealmostuselessinmorassesandforests。Norisit，indeed，morecountenancedbytheancientmodesoflife，nowayfavourabletopopulation。Iapprehendthatthesefirstsettledcountries，sofarfrombeingoverstockedwithinhabitants，wereratherthinlypeopled;andthatthesamecauses，whichoccasionedthatthinness，occasionedalsothosefrequentmigrations，whichmakesolargeapartofthefirsthistoryofalmostallnations。Forintheseagesmensubsistedchieflybypasturageorhunting。Theseareoccupationswhichspreadthepeoplewithoutmultiplyingtheminproportion;theyteachthemanextensiveknowledgeofthecountry，theycarrythemfrequentlyandfarfromtheirhomes，andweakenthosetieswhichmightattachthemtoanyparticularhabitation。
Itwasinagreatdegreefromthismanneroflife，thatmankindbecamescatteredintheearliesttimesoverthewholeglobe。Buttheirpeacefuloccupationsdidnotcontributesomuchtothatend，astheirwars，whichwerenotthelessfrequentandviolentbecausethepeoplewerefew，andtheinterestsforwhichtheycontendedofbutsmallimportance。Ancienthistoryhasfurnisheduswithmanyinstancesofwholenations，expelledbyinvasion，fallinginuponothers，whichtheyhaveentirelyoverwhelmed;moreirresistibleintheirdefeatandruinthanintheirfullestprosperity。Therightsofwarwerethenexercisedwithgreatinhumanity。Acrueldeath，oraservitudescarcelylesscruel，wasthecertainfateofallconqueredpeople;theterrorofwhichhurriedmenfromhabitationstowhichtheywerebutlittleattached，toseeksecurityandreposeunderanyclimate，thathoweverinotherrespectsundesirable，mightaffordthemrefugefromthefuryoftheirenemies。
Thusthebleakandbarrenregionsofthenorth，notbeingpeopledbychoice，werepeopledasearly，inallprobability，asmanyofthemilderandmoreinvitingclimatesofthesouthernworld，andthus，byawonderfuldispositionoftheDivineProvidence，alifeofhunting，whichdoesnotcontributetoincrease，andwar，whichisthegreatinstrumentinthedestructionofmen，werethetwoprincipalcausesoftheirbeingspreadsoearlyandsouniversallyoverthewholeearth。FromwhatisverycommonlyknownofthestateofNorthAmerica，itneednotbesaid，howoften，andtowhatdistance，severalofthenationsonthatcontinentareusedtomigrate;who，thoughthinlyscattered，occupyanimmenseextentofcountry。Norarethecausesofitlessobvious——theirhuntinglife，andtheirinhumanwars。
Suchmigrations，sometimesbychoice，morefrequentlyfromnecessity，werecommonintheancientworld。Frequentnecessitiesintroducedafashion，whichsubsistedaftertheoriginalcauses。Forhowcouldithappen，butfromsomeuniversallyestablishedpublicprejudice，whichalwaysoverrulesandstiflestheprivatesenseofmen，thatawholenationshoulddeliberatelythinkitawisemeasuretoquittheircountryinabody，thattheymightobtaininaforeignlandasettlement，whichmustwhollydependuponthechanceofwar？Yetthisresolutionwastaken，andactuallypursuedbytheentirenationoftheHelvetii，asitisminutelyrelatedbyCaesar。Themethodofreasoningwhichledthemtoit，mustappeartousatthisdayutterlyinconceivable;theywerefarfrombeingcompelledtothisextraordinarymigrationbyanywantofsubsistenceathome;foritappearsthattheyraisedwithoutdifficultyasmuchcorninoneyearassupportedthemfortwo;theycouldnotcomplainofthebarrennessofsuchasoil。
Thisspiritofmigration，whichgrewoutoftheancientmannersandnecessities，andsometimesoperatedlikeablindinstinct，suchasactuatesbirdsofpassage，isverysufficienttoaccountfortheearlyhabitationoftheremotestpartsoftheearth;andinsomesortalsojustifiesthatclaimwhichhasbeensofondlymadebyalmostallnationstogreatantiquity。Gaul，fromwhenceBritainwasoriginallypeopled，consistedofthreenations;theBelgaetowardsthenorth;theCeltaeinthemiddlecountries;andtheAquitanitothesouth。Britainappearstohavereceiveditspeopleonlyfromthetwoformer。FromtheCeltaewerederivedthemostancienttribesoftheBritons，ofwhichthemostconsiderablewerecalledBrigantes。TheBelgae，whodidnotevensettleinGauluntilafterBritainhadbeenpeopledbycoloniesfromtheformer，forciblydrovetheBrigantesintotheinlandcountries，andpossessedthegreatestpartofthecoast，especiallytothesouthandwest。Theselatter，astheyenteredtheislandinamoreimprovedage，broughtwiththemtheknowledgeandpracticeofagriculture，whichhoweveronlyprevailedintheirowncountries;theBrigantesstillcontinuedtheirancientwayoflifebypasturageandhunting。Inthisrespectalonetheydiffered;sothatwhatweshallsayintreatingoftheirmannersisequallyapplicabletoboth。AndthoughtheBritonswerefurtherdividedintoaninnumerablemultitudeoflessertribesandnations，yetallbeingthebranchesofthesetwostocks，itisnottoourpurposetoconsiderthemmoreminutely。
BritainwasinthetimeofJuliusCaesar，whatitisatthisdayinclimateandnaturaladvantages，temperate，andreasonablyfertile。Butdestituteofallthoseimprovements，whichinasuccessionofagesithasreceivedfromingenuity，fromcommerce，fromrichesandluxury，itthenworeaveryroughandsavageappearance。Thecountry，forestormarsh;thehabitations，cottages;thecities，hiding-placesinwoods;
thepeople，naked，oronlycoveredwithskins;theirsoleemployment，pasturageandhunting。Theypaintedtheirbodiesforornamentorterror，byacustomgeneralamongallsavagenations;whobeingpassionatelyfondofshowandfinery，andhavingnoobjectbuttheirnakedbodiesonwhichtoexercisethisdisposition，haveinalltimespaintedorcuttheirskins，accordingtotheirideasofornament。Theyshavedthebeardonthechin;thatontheupperlipwassufferedtoremain，andgrowtoanextraordinarylength，tofavourthemartialappearance，inwhichtheyplacedtheirglory。TheywereintheirnaturaltempernotunliketheGauls;impatient，fiery，inconstant，ostentatious，boastful，fondofnovelty;andlikeallbarbarians，fierce，treacherous，andcruel。Theirarmswereshortjavelins，smallshieldsofaslighttexture，andgreatcuttingswordswithabluntpoint，aftertheGaulishfashion。
Theirchiefswenttobattleinchariots，notunartfullycontrived，norunskilfullymanaged。Icannothelpthinkingitsomethingextraordinary，andnoteasilytobeaccountedfor，thattheBritonsshouldhavebeensoexpertinthefabricofthosechariots，whentheyseemutterlyignorantinallothermechanicarts：butthusitisdeliveredtous。Theyhadalsohorse，thoughofnogreatreputationintheirarmies。Theirfootwaswithoutheavyarmour;itwasnofirmbody;norinstructedtopreservetheirranks，tomaketheirevolutions，ortoobeytheircommanders;butintoleratinghardships，indexterityofformingambuscades(theartmilitaryofsavages)，theyaresaidtohaveexcelled。Anaturalferocity，andanimpetuousonset，stoodthemintheplaceofdiscipline。
PUBLICPROSECUTIONS。
Publicprosecutionsarebecomelittlebetterthanschoolsfortreason;ofnousebuttoimprovethedexterityofcriminalsinthemysteryofevasion;ortoshowwithwhatcompleteimpunitymenmayconspireagainstthecommonwealth;withwhatsafetyassassinsmayattemptitsawfulhead。Everythingissecure，exceptwhatthelawshavemadesacred;everythingistamenessandlanguorthatisnotfuryandfaction。Whilstthedistempersofarelaxedfibreprognosticateandprepareallthemorbidforceofconvulsioninthebodyofthestate，thesteadinessofthephysicianisoverpoweredbytheveryaspectofthedisease。Thedoctoroftheconstitution，pretendingtounderratewhatheisnotabletocontendwith，shrinksfromhisownoperation。Hedoubtsandquestionsthesalutarybutcriticalterrorsofthecauteryandtheknife。Hetakesapoorcreditevenfromhisdefeat，andcoversimpotenceunderthemaskoflenity。Hepraisesthemoderationofthelaws，as，inhishands，heseesthembaffledanddespised。Isallthis，becauseinourdaythestatutesofthekingdomarenotengrossedinasfirmacharacter，andimprintedinasblackandlegibleatypeasever？No！thelawisaclear，butitisadeadletter。Deadandputrid，itisinsufficienttosavethestate，butpotenttoinfectandtokill。Livinglaw，fullofreason，andofequityandjustice(asitis，oritshouldnotexist)，oughttobesevereandawfultoo;orthewordsofmenace，whetherwrittenontheparchmentrollofEngland，orcutintothebrazentabletofRome，willexcitenothingbutcontempt。Howcomesit，thatinallthestateprosecutionsofmagnitude，fromtheRevolutiontowithinthesetwoorthreeyears，theCrownhasscarcelyeverretireddisgracedanddefeatedfromitscourts？Whencethisalarmingchange？Byaconnectioneasilyfelt，andnotimpossibletobetracedtoitscause，allthepartsofthestatehavetheircorrespondenceandconsent。
Theywhobowtotheenemyabroad，willnotbeofpowertosubduetheconspiratorathome。Itisimpossiblenottoobserve，that，inproportionasweapproximatetothepoisonousjawsofanarchy，thefascinationgrowsirresistible。Inproportionasweareattractedtowardsthefocusofillegality，irreligion，anddesperateenterprise，allthevenomousandblightinginsectsofthestateareawakenedintolife。Thepromiseoftheyearisblasted，andshrivelledandburnedupbeforethem。Ourmostsalutaryandmostbeautifulinstitutionsyieldnothingbutdustandsmut;theharvestofourlawisnomorethanstubble。Itisinthenatureoftheseeruptivediseasesinthestatetosinkinbyfits，andre-appear。Butthefuelofthemaladyremains;andinmyopinionisnotinthesmallestdegreemitigatedinitsmalignity，thoughitwaitsthefavourablemomentofafreercommunicationwiththesourceofregicidetoexertandtoincreaseitsforce。
Isitthatthepeoplearechanged，thatthecommonwealthcannotbeprotectedbyitslaws？Ihardlythinkit。Onthecontrary，Iconceivethatthesethingshappenbecausemenarenotchanged，butremainalwayswhattheyalwayswere;theyremainwhatthebulkofusevermustbe，whenabandonedtoourvulgarpropensities，withoutguide，leader，orcontrol;thatis，madetobefullofablindelevationinprosperity;todespiseuntrieddangers;tobeoverpoweredwithunexpectedreverses;tofindnoclueinalabyrinthofdifficulties，togetoutofapresentinconveniencewithanyriskoffutureruin;tofollowandtobowtofortune;toadmiresuccessfulthoughwickedenterprise，andtoimitatewhatweadmire;tocontemnthegovernmentwhichannouncesdangerfromsacrilegeandregicide，whilsttheyareonlyintheirinfancyandtheirstruggle，butwhichfindsnothingthatcanalarmintheiradultstate，andinthepowerandtriumphofthosedestructiveprinciples。Inamasswecannotbelefttoourselves。Wemusthaveleaders。Ifnonewillundertaketoleadusright，weshallfindguideswhowillcontrivetoconductustoshameandruin。
TRUENATUREOFAJACOBINWAR。
Astome，Iwasalwayssteadilyofopinion，thatthisdisorderwasnotinitsnatureintermittent。Iconceivedthatthecontest，oncebegun，couldnotbelaiddownagain，toberesumedatourdiscretion;butthatourfirststrugglewiththisevilwouldalsobeourlast。Ineverthoughtwecouldmakepeacewiththesystem;becauseitwasnotforthesakeofanobjectwepursuedinrivalrywitheachother，butwiththesystemitself，thatwewereatwar。AsIunderstoodthematter，wewereatwarnotwithitsconduct，butwithitsexistence;convincedthatitsexistenceanditshostilitywerethesame。
Thefactionisnotlocalorterritorial。Itisageneralevil。Whereitleastappearsinaction，itisstillfulloflife。Initssleepitrecruitsitsstrength，andpreparesitsexertion。Itsspiritliesdeepinthecorruptionofourcommonnature。Thesocialorderwhichrestrainsit，feedsit。ItexistsineverycountryinEurope;andamongallordersofmenineverycountry，wholookuptoFranceastoacommonhead。Thecentreisthere。ThecircumferenceistheworldofEuropewherevertheraceofEuropemaybesettled。Everywhereelsethefactionismilitant;
inFranceitistriumphant。InFranceisthebankofdeposit，andthebankofcirculation，ofalltheperniciousprinciplesthatareformingineverystate。Itwillbeafollyscarcelydeservingofpity，andtoomischievousforcontempt，tothinkofrestrainingitinanyothercountrywhilstitispredominantthere。War，insteadofbeingthecauseofitsforce，hassuspendeditsoperation。Ithasgivenareprieve，atleast，totheChristianworld。ThetruenatureofaJacobinwar，inthebeginning，was，bymostoftheChristianpowers，felt，acknowledged，andeveninthemostprecisemannerdeclared。Inthejointmanifesto，publishedbytheemperorandthekingofPrussia，onthe4thofAugust，1792，itisexpressedintheclearestterms，andonprincipleswhichcouldnotfail，iftheyhadadheredtothem，ofclassingthosemonarchswiththefirstbenefactorsofmankind。Thismanifestowaspublished，astheythemselvesexpressit，“tolayopentothepresentgeneration，aswellastoposterity，theirmotives，theirintentions，andtheDISINTERESTEDNESSoftheirpersonalviews;takinguparmsforthepurposeofpreservingsocialandpoliticalorderamongstallcivilizednations，andtosecuretoEACHstateitsreligion，happiness，independence，territories，andrealconstitution。”——“Onthisground，theyhopedthatallempiresandallstateswouldbeunanimous;andbecomingthefirmguardiansofthehappinessofmankind，thattheycouldnotfailtounitetheireffortstorescueanumerousnationfromitsownfury，topreserveEuropefromthereturnofbarbarism，andtheuniversefromthesubversionandanarchywithwhichitwasthreatened。”Thewholeofthatnobleperformanceoughttobereadatthefirstmeetingofanycongress，whichmayassembleforthepurposeofpacification。Inthatpeace“thesepowersexpresslyrenounceallviewsofpersonalaggrandisement，“andconfinethemselvestoobjectsworthyofsogenerous，soheroic，andsoperfectlywiseandpoliticanenterprise。Itwastotheprinciplesofthisconfederation，andtonoother，thatwewishedoursovereignandourcountrytoaccede，asapartofthecommonwealthofEurope。Totheseprinciples，withsometriflingexceptionsandlimitations，theydidfullyaccede。(SeeDeclaration，Whitehall，October29，1793。)Andallourfriendswhotookofficeaccededtotheministry(whetherwiselyornot)，asIalwaysunderstoodthematter，onthefaithandontheprinciplesofthatdeclaration。
Aslongasthesepowersflatteredthemselvesthatthemenaceofforcewouldproducetheeffectofforce，theyactedonthosedeclarations：butwhentheirmenacesfailedofsuccess，theireffortstookanewdirection。Itdidnotappeartothemthatvirtueandheroismoughttobepurchasedbymillionsofrix-dollars。Itisadreadfultruth，butitisatruththatcannotbeconcealed;inability，indexterity，inthedistinctnessoftheirviews，theJacobinsareoursuperiors。Theysawthethingrightfromtheverybeginning。Whateverwerethefirstmotivestothewaramongpoliticians，theysawthatinitsspirit，andforitsobjects，itwasaCIVILWAR;andassuchtheypursuedit。Itisawarbetweenthepartisansoftheancient，civil，moral，andpoliticalorderofEurope，againstasectoffanaticalandambitiousatheistswhichmeanstochangethemall。ItisnotFranceextendingaforeignempireoverothernations：itisasectaimingatuniversalempire，andbeginningwiththeconquestofFrance。TheleadersofthatsectsecuredtheCENTREOFEUROPE;andthatsecured，theyknew，thatwhatevermightbetheeventofbattlesandsieges，theirCAUSEwasvictorious。Whetheritsterritoryhadalittlemoreoralittlelesspeeledfromitssurface，orwhetheranislandortwowasdetachedfromitscommerce，tothemwasoflittlemoment。TheconquestofFrancewasagloriousacquisition。Thatoncewelllaidasabasisofempire，opportunitiesnevercouldbewantingtoregainortoreplacewhathadbeenlost，anddreadfullytoavengethemselvesonthefactionoftheiradversaries。
TheysawitwasaCIVILWAR。ItwastheirbusinesstopersuadetheiradversariesthatitoughttobeaFOREIGNwar。TheJacobinseverywheresetupacryagainstthenewcrusade;andtheyintriguedwitheffectinthecabinet，inthefield，andineveryprivatesocietyinEurope。Theirtaskwasnotdifficult。Theconditionofprinces，andsometimesoffirstministerstoo，istobepitied。Thecreaturesofthedesk，andthecreaturesoffavour，hadnorelishfortheprinciplesofthemanifestoes。Theypromisednogovernments，noregiments，norevenuesfromwhenceemolumentsmightarisebyperquisiteorbygrant。Intruth，thetribeofvulgarpoliticiansarethelowestofourspecies。Thereisnotradesovileandmechanicalasgovernmentintheirhands。Virtueisnottheirhabit。Theyareoutofthemselvesinanycourseofconductrecommendedonlybyconscienceandglory。Alarge，liberal，andprospectiveviewoftheinterestsofstatespasseswiththemforromance;andtheprinciplesthatrecommendit，forthewanderingsofadisorderedimagination。Thecalculatorscomputethemoutoftheirsenses。Thejestersandbuffoonsshamethemoutofeverythinggrandandelevated。Littlenessinobjectandinmeans，tothemappearssoundnessandsobriety。Theythinkthereisnothingworthpursuit，butthatwhichtheycanhandle;whichtheycanmeasurewithatwo-footrule;whichtheycantellupontenfingers。
WithouttheprinciplesoftheJacobins，perhapswithoutanyprinciplesatall，theyplayedthegameofthatfaction。Therewasabeatenroadbeforethem。ThepowersofEuropewerearmed;Francehadalwaysappeareddangerous;thewarwaseasilydivertedfromFranceasafaction，toFranceasastate。Theprinceswereeasilytaughttoslidebackintotheirold，habitualcourseofpolitics。TheywereeasilyledtoconsidertheflamesthatwereconsumingFrance，notasawarningtoprotecttheirownbuildings(whichwerewithoutanyparty-wall，andlinkedbyacontignationintotheedificeofFrance)，butasahappyoccasionforpillagingthegoods，andforcarryingoffthematerials，oftheirneighbour’shouse。Theirprovidentfearswerechangedintoavaricioushopes。Theycarriedontheirnewdesignswithoutseemingtoabandontheprinciplesoftheiroldpolicy。Theypretendedtoseek，ortheyflatteredthemselvesthattheysought，intheaccessionofnewfortresses，andnewterritories，aDEFENSIVEsecurity。Butthesecuritywantedwasagainstakindofpower，whichwasnotsotrulydangerousinitsfortressesnorinitsterritories，asinitsspiritanditsprinciples。Theyaimed，orpretendedtoaim，atDEFENDINGthemselvesagainstadangerfromwhichtherecanbenosecurityinanyDEFENSIVE
plan。Ifarmiesandfortresseswereadefenceagainstjacobinism，LouistheSixteenthwouldthisdayreignapowerfulmonarchoverahappypeople。
Thiserrorobligedthem，evenintheiroffensiveoperations，toadoptaplanofwar，againstthesuccessofwhichtherewassomethinglittleshortofmathematicaldemonstration。Theyrefusedtotakeanystepwhichmightstrikeattheheartofaffairs。Theyseemedunwillingtowoundtheenemyinanyvitalpart。Theyactedthroughthewhole，asiftheyreallywishedtheconservationoftheJacobinpower，aswhatmightbemorefavourablethanthelawfulgovernmenttotheattainmentofthepettyobjectstheylookedfor。Theyalwayskeptonthecircumference;andthewiderandremoterthecirclewas，themoreeagerlytheychoseitastheirsphereofactioninthiscentrifugalwar。Theplantheypursued，initsnaturedemandedgreatlengthoftime。Initsexecution，they，whowentthenearestwaytowork，wereobligedtocoveranincredibleextentofcountry。Itlefttotheenemyeverymeansofdestroyingthisextendedlineofweakness。Illsuccessinanypartwassuretodefeattheeffectofthewhole。ThisistrueofAustria。ItisstillmoretrueofEngland。
Onthisfalseplan，evengoodfortune，byfurtherweakeningthevictor，puthimbutthefurtherofffromhisobject。
Aslongastherewasanyappearanceofsuccess，thespiritofaggrandisement，andconsequentlythespiritofmutualjealousy，seizeduponallthecoalescedpowers。SomesoughtanaccessionofterritoryattheexpenseofFrance，someattheexpenseofeachother，someattheexpenseofthirdparties;andwhenthevicissitudeofdisastertookitsturn，theyfoundcommondistressatreacherousbondoffaithandfriendship。Thegreatestskillconductingthegreatestmilitaryapparatushasbeenemployed;butithasbeenworsethanuselesslyemployed，throughthefalsepolicyofthewar。Theoperationsofthefieldsufferedbytheerrorsofthecabinet。Ifthesamespiritcontinueswhenpeaceismade，thepeacewillfixandperpetuatealltheerrorsofthewar;becauseitwillbemadeuponthesamefalseprinciple。Whathasbeenlostinthefield，inthefieldmayberegained。Anarrangementofpeaceinitsnatureisapermanentsettlement;itistheeffectofcounselanddeliberation，andnotoffortuitousevents。Ifbuiltuponabasisfundamentallyerroneous，itcanonlyberetrievedbysomeofthoseunforeseendispensations，whichtheall-wisebutmysteriousGovernoroftheworldsometimesinterposes，tosnatchnationsfromruin。Itwouldnotbepiouserror，butmadandimpiouspresumption，foranyonetotrustinanunknownorderofdispensations，indefianceoftherulesofprudence，whichareformedupontheknownmarchoftheordinaryprovidenceofGod。
NATIONALDIGNITY。
NationaldignityinalltreatiesIdoadmitisanimportantconsideration。Theyhavegivenusausefulhintonthatsubject：butdignity，hitherto，hasbelongedtothemodeofproceeding，nottothematterofatreaty。Neverbeforehasitbeenmentionedasthestandardforratingtheconditionsofpeace;no，neverbythemostviolentofconquerors。Indemnificationiscapableofsomeestimate：dignityhasnostandard。ItisimpossibletoguesswhatacquisitionsprideandambitionmaythinkfitfortheirDIGNITY。
PRINCIPLESOFGOVERNMENTNOTABSOLUTE，BUTRELATIVE。
Ireprobatenoformofgovernmentmerelyuponabstractprinciples。Theremaybesituationsinwhichthepurelydemocraticformwillbecomenecessary。Theremaybesome(veryfew，andveryparticularlycircumstanced)whereitwouldbeclearlydesirable。ThisIdonottaketobethecaseofFrance，orofanyothergreatcountry。Untilnow，wehaveseennoexamplesofconsiderabledemocracies。Theancientswerebetteracquaintedwiththem。Notbeingwhollyunreadintheauthors，whohadseenthemostofthoseconstitutions，andwhobestunderstoodthem，Icannothelpconcurringwiththeiropinion，thatanabsolutedemocracy，nomorethanabsolutemonarchy，istobereckonedamongthelegitimateformsofgovernment。Theythinkitratherthecorruptionanddegeneracy，thanthesoundconstitutionofarepublic。IfIrecollectrightly，Aristotleobserves，thatademocracyhasmanystrikingpointsofresemblancewithatyranny。(WhenIwrotethis，Iquotedfrommemory，aftermanyyearshadelapsedfrommyreadingthepassage。Alearnedfriendhasfoundit，anditisasfollows：——
Toethostoauto，kaiamphodespotikatonBeltionon，kaitapsephismata，osperekeitaepitagmatakaiodemagogoskaiokolax，oiautoikaianalogoikaimalistaekateroiparekateroisischuousin，oimenkolakesparaturannois，oidedemagogoiparatoisdemoistoistoioutois——
“Theethicalcharacteristhesame;bothexercisedespotismoverthebetterclassofcitizens;anddecreesareintheone，whatordinancesandarretsareintheother：thedemagoguetoo，andthecourtfavourite，arenotunfrequentlythesameidenticalmen，andalwaysbearacloseanalogy;andthesehavetheprincipalpower，eachintheirrespectiveformsofgovernment，favouriteswiththeabsolutemonarch，anddemagogueswithapeoplesuchasIhavedescribed。”——Arist。Politic。
lib。iv。cap4。)
OfthisIamcertain，thatinademocracy，themajorityofthecitizensiscapableofexercisingthemostcrueloppressionsupontheminority，wheneverstrongdivisionsprevailinthatkindofpolity，astheyoftenmust;andthatoppressionoftheminoritywillextendtofargreaternumbers，andwillbecarriedonwithmuchgreaterfury，thancanalmosteverbeapprehendedfromthedominionofasinglesceptre。Insuchapopularpersecution，individualsufferersareinamuchmoredeplorableconditionthaninanyother。Underacruelprincetheyhavethebalmycompassionofmankindtoassuagethesmartoftheirwounds;theyhavetheplauditsofthepeopletoanimatetheirgenerousconstancyundertheirsufferings：butthosewhoaresubjectedtowrongundermultitudes，aredeprivedofallexternalconsolation。Theyseemdesertedbymankind，overpoweredbyaconspiracyoftheirwholespecies。Butadmittingdemocracynottohavethatinevitabletendencytopartytyranny，whichI
supposeittohave，andadmittingittopossessasmuchgoodinitwhenunmixed，asIamsureitpossesseswhencompoundedwithotherforms;
doesmonarchy，onitspart，containnothingatalltorecommendit？IdonotoftenquoteBolingbroke，norhavehisworksingeneralleftanypermanentimpressiononmymind。Heisapresumptuousandasuperficialwriter。Buthehasoneobservation，which，inmyopinion，isnotwithoutdepthandsolidity。Hesays，thatheprefersamonarchytoothergovernments，becauseyoucanbetteringraftanydescriptionofrepubliconamonarchy，thananythingofmonarchyupontherepublicanforms。I
thinkhimperfectlyintheright。Thefactissohistorically;anditagreeswellwiththespeculation。
Iknowhoweasyatopicitistodwellonthefaultsofdepartedgreatness。Byarevolutioninthestate，thefawningsycophantofyesterdayisconvertedintotheausterecriticofthepresenthour。Butsteady，independentminds，whentheyhaveanobjectofsoseriousaconcerntomankindasgovernmentundertheircontemplation，willdisdaintoassumethepartofsatiristsanddeclaimers。Theywilljudgeofhumaninstitutionsastheydoofhumancharacters。Theywillsortoutthegoodfromtheevil，whichismixedinmortalinstitutions，asitisinmortalmen。
DECLARATIONOF1793。
Itisnotdifficulttodiscernwhatsortofhumanityourgovernmentistolearnfromthesesyrensingers。Ourgovernmentalso，Iadmitwithsomereason，asasteptowardstheproposedfraternity，isrequiredtoabjuretheunjusthatredwhichitbearstothisbody，ofhonourandvirtue。IthankGodIamneitheraministernoraleaderofopposition。
IprotestIcannotdowhattheydesire。IcouldnotdoitifIwereundertheguillotine;orastheyingeniouslyandpleasantlyexpressit，“lookingoutofthelittlenationalwindow。”EvenatthatopeningI
couldreceivenoneoftheirlight。Iamfortifiedagainstallsuchaffectionsbythedeclarationofthegovernment，whichImustyetconsideraslawful，madeonthe29thofOctober，1793，andstillringinginmyears。
(“Intheirplacehassucceededasystemdestructiveofallpublicorder，maintainedbyproscriptions，exiles，andconfiscationswithoutnumber;
byarbitraryimprisonment;bymassacreswhichcannotberememberedwithouthorror;andatlengthbytheexecrablemurderofajustandbeneficentsovereign，andoftheillustriousprincess，who，withanunshakenfirmness，hassharedallthemisfortunesofherroyalconsort，hisprotractedsufferings，hiscruelcaptivity，andignominiousdeath。”
They(theallies)havehadtoencounteractsofaggressionwithoutpretext，openviolationofalltreaties，unprovokeddeclarationsofwar;
inaword，whatevercorruption，intrigue，orviolence，couldeffectforthepurpose，openlyavowed，ofsubvertingalltheinstitutionsofsociety，andofextendingoverallthenationsofEuropethatconfusion，whichhasproducedthemiseryofFrance。”——“ThisstateofthingscannotexistinFrancewithoutinvolvingallthesurroundingpowersinonecommondanger，withoutgivingthemtheright，withoutimposingituponthemasaduty，tostoptheprogressofanevil，whichexistsonlybythesuccessiveviolationofalllawandallproperty，andwhichattacksthefundamentalprinciplesbywhichmankindisunitedinthebondsofcivilsociety。”——“Thekingwouldimposenoneotherthanequitableandmoderateconditions，notsuchastheexpense，therisks，andthesacrificesofthewarmightjustify;butsuchashismajestythinkshimselfundertheindispensablenecessityofrequiring，withaviewtotheseconsiderations，andstillmoretothatofhisownsecurityandofthefuturetranquillityofEurope。Hismajestydesiresnothingmoresincerelythanthustoterminateawar，whichheinvainendeavouredtoavoid，andallthecalamitiesofwhich，asnowexperiencedbyFrance，aretobeattributedonlytotheambition，theperfidy，andtheviolenceofthose，whosecrimeshaveinvolvedtheirowncountryinmisery，anddisgracedallcivilizednations。”——“Thekingpromises，onhispart，thesuspensionofhostilities，friendship，and(asfarasthecourseofeventswillallow，ofwhichthewillofmancannotdispose)securityandprotectiontoallthosewho，bydeclaringforamonarchicalformofgovernment，shallshakeofftheyokeofsanguinaryanarchy;ofthatanarchywhichhasbrokenallthemostsacredbondsofsociety，dissolvedalltherelationsofcivillife，violatedeveryright，confoundedeveryduty;whichusesthenameoflibertytoexercisethemostcrueltyranny，toannihilateallproperty，toseizeonallpossessions：whichfoundsitspoweronthepretendedconsentofthepeople，anditselfcarriesfireandswordthroughextensiveprovincesforhavingdemandedtheirlaws，theirreligion，andtheirLAWFULSOVEREIGN。”
Declarationsentbyhismajesty’scommandtothecommandersofhismajesty’sfleetsandarmiesemployedagainstFrance，andtohismajesty’sministersemployedatforeigncourts。)
Thisdeclarationwastransmittednotonlytoourcommandersbyseaandland，buttoourministersineverycourtofEurope。Itisthemosteloquentandhighly-finishedinthestyle，themostjudiciousinthechoiceoftopics，themostorderlyinthearrangement，andthemostrichinthecolouring，withoutemployingthesmallestdegreeofexaggeration，ofanystatepaperthathaseveryetappeared。Anancientwriter，Plutarch，Ithinkitis，quotessomeversesontheeloquenceofPericles，whoiscalled“theonlyoratorthatleftstingsinthemindsofhishearers。”Likehis，theeloquenceofthedeclaration，notcontradicting，butenforcingsentimentsofthetruesthumanity，hasleftstingsthathavepenetratedmorethanskin-deepintomymind;andnevercantheybeextractedbyallthesurgeryofmurder，nevercanthethrobbingstheyhavecreatedbeassuagedbyalltheemolientcataplasmsofrobberyandconfiscation。ICANNOTlovetherepublic。
MORALDIET。
Todietamanintoweaknessandlanguor，afterwardstogivehimthegreaterstrength，hasmoreoftheempiricthantherationalphysician。
Itistruethatsomepersonshavebeenkickedintocourage;andthisisnobadhinttogivetothosewhoaretooforwardandliberalinbestowinginsultsandoutragesontheirpassivecompanions。Butsuchacoursedoesnotatfirstviewappearawell-chosendisciplinetoformmentoanicesenseofhonour，oraquickresentmentofinjuries。Alonghabitofhumiliationdoesnotseemaverygoodpreparativetomanlyandvigoroussentiment。Itmaynotleave，perhaps，enoughofenergyinthemindfairlytodiscernwhataregoodtermsorwhatarenot。Menlowanddispiritedmayregardthosetermsasnotatallamiss，whichinanotherstateofmindtheywouldthinkintolerable：iftheygrowpeevishinthisstateofmind，theymayberoused，notagainsttheenemywhomtheyhavebeentaughttofear，butagainsttheministry，whoaremorewithintheirreach，andwhohaverefusedconditionsthatarenotunreasonable，frompowerthattheyhavebeentaughttoconsiderasirresistible。
KINGWILLIAM’SPOLICY。
Hismajestydiddetermine;anddidtakeandpursuehisresolution。Inallthetotteringimbecilityofanewgovernment，andwithparliamenttotallyunmanageable，hepersevered。Heperseveredtoexpelthefearsofhispeoplebyhisfortitude——tosteadytheirficklenessbyhisconstancy——toexpandtheirnarrowprudencebyhisenlargedwisdom——tosinktheirfactioustemperinhispublicspirit。Inspiteofhispeopleheresolvedtomakethemgreatandglorious;tomakeEngland，inclinedtoshrinkintohernarrowself，thearbitressofEurope，thetutelaryangelofthehumanrace。Inspiteoftheministers，whostaggeredundertheweightthathismindimposedupontheirs，unsupportedastheyfeltthemselvesbythepopularspirit，heinfusedintothemhisownsoul，herenewedinthemtheirancientheart，heralliedtheminthesamecause。
Itrequiredsometimetoaccomplishthiswork。Thepeoplewerefirstgained，andthroughthemtheirdistractedrepresentatives。UndertheinfluenceofKingWilliam，Hollandhadrejectedtheallurementsofeveryseduction，andhadresistedtheterrorsofeverymenace。WithHannibalathergates，shehadnoblyandmagnanimouslyrefusedallseparatetreaty，oranythingwhichmightforamomentappeartodivideheraffectionorherinterest，oreventodistinguishherinidentityfromEngland。Havingsettledthegreatpointoftheconsolidation(whichhehopedwouldbeeternal)ofthecountriesmadeforacommoninterest，andcommonsentiment，theking，inhismessagetobothhouses，callstheirattentiontotheaffairsoftheSTATES-GENERAL。TheHouseofLordswasperfectlysound，andentirelyimpressedwiththewisdomanddignityoftheking’sproceedings。Inanswertothemessage，whichyouwillobservewasnarrowedtoasinglepoint(thedangeroftheStates-General)，aftertheusualprofessionsofzealforhisservice，thelordsopenedthemselvesatlarge。Theygofarbeyondthedemandsofthemessage。Theyexpressthemselvesasfollows：“WetakethisoccasionFURTHERtoassureyourmajesty，thatwearesensibleoftheGREATANDIMMINENTDANGERTO
WHICHTHESTATES-GENERALAREEXPOSED。ANDWEPERFECTLYAGREEWITHTHEM
INBELIEVINGTHATTHEIRSAFETYANDOURSARESOINSEPARABLYUNITED，THAT
WHATSOEVERISRUINTOTHEONEMUSTBEFATALTOTHEOTHER。
“WehumblydesireyourmajestywillbepleasedNOTONLYtomadegoodallthearticlesofanyFORMERtreatiestotheStates-General，butthatyouwillenterintoastrictleague，offensiveanddefensive，withthem，FOR
THEIRCOMMONPRESERVATION;ANDTHATYOUWILLINVITEINTOITALLPRINCES
ANDSTATESWHOARECONCERNEDINTHEPRESENTVISIBLEDANGER，ARISINGFROM
THEUNIONOFFRANCEANDSPAIN。
“Andwefurtherdesireyourmajesty，thatyouwillbepleasedtoenterintosuchallianceswiththeEMPERORasyourmajestyshallthinkfit，pursuanttotheendsofthetreatyof1689;towardsallwhichweassureyourmajestyofourheartyandsincereassistance;notdoubting，butwheneveryourmajestyshallbeobligedtobeengagedforthedefenceofyourallies，ANDSECURINGTHELIBERTYANDQUIETOFEUROPE，AlmightyGodwillprotectyoursacredpersoninsorighteousacause。Andthattheunanimity，wealth，andcourage，ofyoursubjectswillcarryyourmajestywithhonourandsuccessTHROUGHALLTHEDIFFICULTIESOFAJUSTWAR。”
TheHouseofCommonswasmorereserved;thelatepopulardispositionwasstillinagreatdegreeprevalentintherepresentative，afterithadbeenmadetochangeintheconstituentbody。TheprincipleofthegrandalliancewasnotdirectlyrecognisedintheresolutionoftheCommons，northewarannounced，thoughtheywerewellawarethealliancewasformedforthewar。However，compelledbythereturningsenseofthepeople，theywentsofarastofixthethreegreatimmovablepillarsofthesafetyandgreatnessofEngland，astheywerethen，astheyarenow，andastheymusteverbetotheendoftime。TheyassertedingeneraltermsthenecessityofsupportingHolland，ofkeepingunitedwithourallies，andmaintainingthelibertyofEurope;thoughtheyrestrictedtheirvotetothesuccoursstipulatedbyactualtreaty。Butnowtheywerefairlyembarked，theywereobligedtogowiththecourseofthevessel;andthewholenation，splitbeforeintoahundredadversefactions，withakingatitsheadevidentlydecliningtohistomb，thewholenation，lords，commons，andpeople，proceededasonebody，informedbyonesoul。UndertheBritishunion，theunionofEuropewasconsolidated;anditlongheldtogetherwithadegreeofcohesion，firmness，andfidelity，notknownbeforeorsinceinanypoliticalcombinationofthatextent。
Justasthelasthandwasgiventothisimmenseandcomplicatedmachine，themasterworkmandied：buttheworkwasformedontruemechanicalprinciples，anditwasastrulywrought。Itwentbytheimpulseithadreceivedfromthefirstmover。Themanwasdead;butthegrandalliancesurvivedinwhichKingWilliamlivedandreigned。Thatheartlessanddispiritedpeople，whomLordSomershadrepresentedabouttwoyearsbeforeasdeadinenergyandoperation，continuedthatwartowhichitwassupposedtheywereunequalinmind，andinmeans，fornearlythirteenyears。ForwhathaveIenteredintoallthisdetail？TowhatpurposehaveIrecalledyourviewtotheendofthelastcentury？IthasbeendonetoshowthattheBritishnationwasthenagreatpeople——topointouthowandbywhatmeanstheycametobeexaltedabovethevulgarlevel，andtotakethatleadwhichtheyassumedamongmankind。Toqualifyusforthatpre-eminence，wehadthenahighmindandaconstancyunconquerable;weweretheninspiredwithnoflashypassions，butsuchasweredurableaswellaswarm，suchascorrespondedtothegreatinterestswehadatstake。Thisforceofcharacterwasinspired，asallsuchspiritmusteverbe，fromabove。Governmentgavetheimpulse。Aswellmaywefancy，thatofitselftheseawillswell，andthatwithoutwindsthebillowswillinsulttheadverseshore，asthatthegrossmassofthepeoplewillbemoved，andelevated，andcontinuebyasteadyandpermanentdirectiontobearupononepoint，withouttheinfluenceofsuperiorauthority，orsuperiormind。
Thisimpulseought，inmyopinion，tohavebeengiveninthiswar;anditoughttohavebeencontinuedtoitateveryinstant。Itismade，ifeverwarwasmade，totouchallthegreatspringsofactioninthehumanbreast。Itoughtnottohavebeenawarofapology。Theministerhad，inthisconflict，wherewithaltogloryinsuccess;tobeconsoledinadversity;toholdhighhisprincipleinallfortunes。Ifitwerenotgivenhimtosupportthefallingedifice，heoughttoburyhimselfundertheruinsofthecivilizedworld。AlltheartofGreece，andalltheprideandpowerofeasternmonarchs，neverheapedupontheirashessograndamonument。
DISTEMPEROFREMEDY。
Thisdistemperofremedy，grownhabitual，relaxesandwearsout，byavulgarandprostituteduse，thespringofthatspiritwhichistobeexertedongreatoccasions。ItwasinthemostpatientperiodofRomanservitudethatthemesoftyrannicidemadetheordinaryexerciseofboysatschool——cumperimitsaevosclassisnumerosatyrannos。Intheordinarystateofthings，itproducesinacountrylikeourstheworsteffects，evenonthecauseofthatlibertywhichitabuseswiththedissolutenessofanextravagantspeculation。Almostallthehigh-bredrepublicansofmytimehave，afterashortspace，becomethemostdecided，thorough-pacedcourtiers;theysoonleftthebusinessofatedious，moderate，butpracticalresistance，tothoseofuswhom，intheprideandintoxicationoftheirtheories，theyhaveslightedasnotmuchbetterthanTories。Hypocrisy，ofcourse，delightsinthemostsublimespeculations;for，neverintendingtogobeyondspeculation，itcostsnothingtohaveitmagnificent。Butevenincaseswhereratherlevitythanfraudwastobesuspectedintheserantingspeculations，theissuehasbeenmuchthesame。Theseprofessors，findingtheirextremeprinciplesnotapplicabletocaseswhichcallonlyforaqualified，or，asImaysay，civil，andlegalresistance，insuchcasesemploynoresistanceatall。Itiswiththemawarorarevolution，oritisnothing。Findingtheirschemesofpoliticsnotadaptedtothestateoftheworldinwhichtheylive，theyoftencometothinklightlyofallpublicprinciple;andareready，ontheirpart，toabandonforaverytrivialinterestwhattheyfindofverytrivialvalue。Someindeedareofmoresteadyandperseveringnatures;buttheseareeagerpoliticiansoutofparliament，whohavelittletotemptthemtoabandontheirfavouriteprojects。TheyhavesomechangeintheChurchorState，orboth，constantlyintheirview。Whenthatisthecase，theyarealwaysbadcitizens，andperfectlyunsureconnections。For，consideringtheirspeculativedesignsasofinfinitevalue，andtheactualarrangementofthestateasofnoestimation，theyareatbestindifferentaboutit。
Theyseenomeritinthegood，andnofaultintheviciousmanagementofpublicaffairs;theyratherrejoiceinthelatter，asmorepropitioustorevolution。Theyseenomeritordemeritinanyman，oranyaction，oranypoliticalprinciple，anyfurtherthanastheymayforwardorretardtheirdesignofchange：theythereforetakeup，oneday，themostviolentandstretchedprerogative，andanothertimethewildestdemocraticideasoffreedom，andpassfromtheonetotheotherwithoutanysortofregardtocause，toperson，ortoparty。
WARANDWILLOFTHEPEOPLE。
Inmattersofstate，aconstitutionalcompetencetoactisinmanycasesthesmallestpartofthequestion。Withoutdisputing(GodforbidI
shoulddispute)thesolecompetenceofthekingandtheparliament，eachinitsprovince，todecideonwarandpeace，Iventuretosay，nowarCANbelongcarriedonagainstthewillofthepeople。Thiswar，inparticular，cannotbecarriedonunlesstheyareenthusiasticallyinfavourofit。Acquiescencewillnotdo。Theremustbezeal。Universalzealinsuchacause，andatsuchatimeasthisis，cannotbelookedfor;neitherisitnecessary。Zealinthelargerpartcarriestheforceofthewhole。Withoutthis，nogovernment，certainlynotourgovernment，iscapableofagreatwar。Noneoftheancientregulargovernmentshavewherewithaltofightabroadwithaforeignfoe，andathometoovercomerepining，reluctance，andchicane。Itmustbesomeportentousthing，likeregicideFrance，thatcanexhibitsuchaprodigy。Yetevenshe，themotherofmonsters，moreprolificthanthecountryofoldcalledFeraxmonstrorum，showssymptomsofbeingalmosteffetealready;andshewillbeso，unlessthefallowofapeacecomestorecruitherfertility。Butwhatevermayberepresentedconcerningthemeannessofthepopularspirit，I，forone，donotthinksodesperatelyoftheBritishnation。
Ourminds，asIsaid，arelight，buttheyarenotdepraved。Wearedreadfullyopentodelusionandtodejection;butwearecapableofbeinganimatedandundeceived。
Itcannotbeconcealed：weareadividedpeople。Butindivisions，whereapartistobetaken，wearetomakeamusterofourstrength。Ihaveoftenendeavouredtocomputeandtoclassthosewho，inanypoliticalview，aretobecalledthepeople。Withoutdoingsomethingofthissortwemustproceedabsurdly。Weshouldnotbemuchwiser，ifwepretendedtoverygreataccuracyinourestimate;butIthink，inthecalculationIhavemade，theerrorcannotbeverymaterial。InEnglandandScotland，Icomputethatthoseofadultage，notdeclininginlife，oftolerableleisureforsuchdiscussions，andofsomemeansofinformation，moreorless，andwhoareabovemenialdependence(orwhatvirtuallyissuch)，mayamounttoaboutfourhundredthousand。Thereissuchathingasanaturalrepresentativeofthepeople。Thisbodyisthatrepresentative;
andonthisbody，morethanonthelegalconstituent，theartificialrepresentativedepends。ThisistheBritishpublic;anditisapublicverynumerous。Therest，whenfeeble，aretheobjectsofprotection;
whenstrong，themeansofforce。Theywhoaffecttoconsiderthatpartofusinanyotherlight，insultwhiletheycajoleus;theydonotwantusforcounsellorsindeliberation，buttolistusassoldiersforbattle。
Ofthesefourhundredthousandpoliticalcitizens，Ilookuponone-fifth，orabouteightythousand，tobepureJacobins;utterlyincapableofamendment;objectsofeternalvigilance，and，whentheybreakout，oflegalconstraint。Onthese，noreason，noargument，noexample，novenerableauthority，canhavetheslightestinfluence。Theydesireachange;andtheywillhaveitiftheycan。IftheycannothaveitbyEnglishcabal，theywillmakenosortofscrupleofhavingitbythecabalofFrance，intowhichalreadytheyarevirtuallyincorporated。
ItisonlytheirassuredandconfidentexpectationoftheadvantagesofFrenchfraternity，andtheapproachingblessingsofregicideintercourse，thatskinsovertheirmischievousdispositionswithamomentaryquiet。Thisminorityisgreatandformidable。IdonotknowwhetherifIaimedatthetotaloverthrowofakingdom，Ishouldwishtobeencumberedwithalargerbodyofpartisans。Theyaremoreeasilydisciplinedanddirectedthanifthenumberweregreater。These，bytheirspiritofintrigue，andbytheirrestlessagitatingactivity，areofaforcefarsuperiortotheirnumbers;and，iftimesgrewtheleastcritical，havethemeansofdebauchingorintimidatingmanyofthosewhoarenowsound，aswellasofaddingtotheirforcelargebodiesofthemorepassivepartofthenation。Thisminorityisnumerousenoughtomakeamightycryforpeace，orforwar，orforanyobjecttheyareledvehementlytodesire。Bypassingfromplacetoplacewithavelocityincredible，anddiversifyingtheircharacteranddescription，theyarecapableofmimickingthegeneralvoice。Wemustnotalwaysjudgeofthegeneralityoftheopinionbythenoiseoftheacclamation。
FALSEPOLICYINOURFRENCHWAR。
Wehaveneverputforthhalfthestrengthwhichwehaveexertedinordinarywars。Inthefatalbattleswhichhavedrenchedthecontinentwithblood，andshakenthesystemofEuropetopieces，wehaveneverhadanyconsiderablearmyofamagnitudetobecomparedtotheleastofthosebywhich，informertimes，wesogloriouslyassertedourplaceasprotectors，notoppressors，attheheadofthegreatcommonwealthofEurope。Wehavenevermanfullymetthedangerinfront：andwhentheenemy，resigningtousournaturaldominionoftheocean，andabandoningthedefenceofhisdistantpossessionstotheinfernalenergyofthedestroyingprincipleswhichhehadplantedthereforthesubversionoftheneighbouringcolonies，droveforth，byonesweepinglawofunprecedenteddespotism，hisarmedmultitudesoneveryside，tooverwhelmthecountriesandstateswhichhadforcenturiesstoodthefirmbarriersagainsttheambitionofFrance;wedrewbackthearmofourmilitaryforce，whichhadneverbeenmorethanhalfraisedtoopposehim。Fromthattimewehavebeencombatingonlywiththeotherarmofournavalpower;therightarmofEnglandIadmit;butwhichstruckalmostunresistedwithblowsthatcouldneverreachtheheartofthehostilemischief。Fromthattime，withoutasingleefforttoregainthoseoutworks，whichevertillnowwesostrenuouslymaintained，asthestrongfrontierofourowndignityandsafety，nolessthanthelibertiesofEurope;withbutonefeebleattempttosuccourthosebrave，faithful，andnumerousallies，whom，forthefirsttimesincethedaysofourEdwardsandHenrys，wenowhaveinthebosomofFranceitself;wehavebeenintrenching，andfortifying，andgarrisoningourselvesathome：wehavebeenredoublingsecurityonsecurity，toprotectourselvesfrominvasion，whichhasnowbecometousaseriousobjectofalarmandterror。Alas！thefewofuswhohaveprotractedlifeinanymeasureneartotheextremelimitsofourshortperiod，havebeencondemnedtoseestrangethings;newsystemsofpolicy，newprinciples，andnotonlynewmen，butwhatmightappearanewspeciesofmen。Ibelievethatanypersonwhowasofagetotakeapartinpublicaffairsfortyyearsago(iftheintermediatespaceoftimewereexpungedfromhismemory)wouldhardlycredithissenses，whenheshouldhearfromthehighestauthority，thatanarmyoftwohundredthousandmenwaskeptupinthisisland，andthatintheneighbouringislandtherewereatleastfourscorethousandmore。Butwhenhehadrecoveredfromhissurpriseonbeingtoldofthisarmy，whichhasnotitsparallel，whatmustbehisastonishmenttobetoldagain，thatthismightyforcewaskeptupforthemerepurposeofaninertandpassivedefence，andthatinitsfargreaterpart，itwasdisabledbyitsconstitutionandveryessencefromdefendingusagainstanenemybyanyonepreventivestroke，oranyoneoperationofactivehostility？Whatmusthisreflectionsbeonlearningfurther，thatafleetoffivehundredmenofwar，thebestappointed，andtothefullasablycommandedasanythiscountryeverhaduponthesea，wasforthegreaterpartemployedincarryingonthesamesystemofunenterprisingdefence？，whatmustbethesentimentsandfeelingsofonewhorememberstheformerenergyofEngland，whenheisgiventounderstandthatthesetwoislands，withtheirextensiveandeverywherevulnerablecoast，shouldbeconsideredasagarrisonedsea-town;whatwouldsuchaman，whatwouldanymanthink，ifthegarrisonofsostrangeafortressshouldbesuch，andsofeeblycommanded，asnevertomakeasally;andthat，contrarytoallwhichhashithertobeenseeninwar，aninfinitelyinferiorarmy，withtheshatteredrelicsofanalmostannihilatednavy，illfoundandillmanned，maywithsafetybesiegethissuperiorgarrison，and，withouthazardingthelifeofaman，ruintheplace，merelybythemenacesandfalseappearancesofanattack？Indeed，indeed，mydearfriend，Ilookuponthismatterofourdefensivesystemasmuchthemostimportantofallconsiderationsatthismoment。Ithasoppressedmewithmanyanxiousthoughts，which，morethananybodilydistemper，havesunkmetotheconditioninwhichyouknowthatIam。ShoulditpleaseProvidencetorestoretomeeventhelateweakremainsofmystrength，Iproposetomakethismatterthesubjectofaparticulardiscussion。Ionlymeanheretoargue，thatthemodeofconductingthewaronourpart，beitgoodorbad，haspreventedeventhecommonhavocofwarinourpopulation，andespeciallyamongthatclasswhosedutyandprivilegeofsuperiorityitistoleadthewayamidsttheperilsandslaughterofthefieldofbattle。
