MORALESSENCEMAKESANATION。
Merelocalitydoesnotconstituteabodypolitic。HadCadeandhisganggotpossessionofLondon，theywouldnothavebeenthelordmayor，aldermen，andcommoncouncil。ThebodypoliticofFranceexistedinthemajestyofitsthrone，inthedignityofitsnobility，inthehonourofitsgentry，inthesanctityofitsclergy，inthereverenceofitsmagistracy，intheweightandconsiderationduetoitslandedpropertyintheseveralbailliages，intherespectduetoitsmoveablesubstancerepresentedbythecorporationsofthekingdom。Alltheseparticularmoleculaeunitedformthegreatmassofwhatistrulythebodypoliticinallcountries。Theyaresomanydepositsandreceptaclesofjustice;
becausetheycanonlyexistbyjustice。Nationisamoralessence，notageographicalarrangement，oradenominationofthenomenclator。France，thoughoutofherterritorialpossession，exists;becausethesolepossibleclaimant，Imeantheproprietary，andthegovernmenttowhichtheproprietaryadheres，exists，andclaims。Godforbid，thatifyouwereexpelledfromyourhousebyruffiansandassassins，thatIshouldcallthematerialwalls，doors，andwindowsof——，theancientandhonourablefamilyof。AmItotransfertotheintruders，who，notcontenttoturnyououtnakedtotheworld，wouldrobyouofyourveryname，alltheesteemandrespectIowetoyou？TheregicidesinFrancearenotFrance。Franceisoutofherbounds，butthekingdomisthesame。
PUBLICSPIRIT。
Othergreatstates，havingbeenwithoutanyregular，certaincourseofelevationordecline，wemayhopethattheBritishfortunemayfluctuatealso;becausethepublicmind，whichgreatlyinfluencesthatfortune，mayhaveitschanges。Wearethereforeneverauthorisedtoabandonourcountrytoitsfate，ortoactoradviseasifithadnoresource。Thereisnoreasontoapprehend，becauseordinarymeansthreatentofail，thatnootherscanspringup。Whilstourheartiswhole，itwillfindmeans，ormakethem。Theheartofthecitizenisaperennialspringofenergytothestate。Becausethepulseseemstointermit，wemustnotpresumethatitwillceaseinstantlytobeat。
Thepublicmustneverberegardedasincurable。IrememberinthebeginningofwhathaslatelybeencalledtheSevenYears’War，thataneloquentwriterandingeniousspeculator，Dr。Brown，uponsomereverseswhichhappenedinthebeginningofthatwar，publishedanelaboratephilosophicaldiscoursetoprovethatthedistinguishingfeaturesofthepeopleofEnglandhavebeentotallychanged，andthatafrivolouseffeminacywasbecomethenationalcharacter。Nothingcouldbemorepopularthanthatwork。Itwasthoughtagreatconsolationtous，thelightpeopleofthiscountry(whowereandarelight，butwhowerenotandarenoteffeminate)，thatwehadfoundthecausesofourmisfortunesinourvices。Pythagorascouldnotbemorepleasedwithhisleadingdiscovery。Butwhilstinthatspleneticmoodweamusedourselvesinasour，criticalspeculation，ofwhichwewereourselvestheobjects，andinwhicheverymanlosthisparticularsenseofthepublicdisgraceintheepidemicnatureofthedistemper;whilst，asintheAlps，goitre[“i“circumflex]keptgoitre[“i“acute]incountenance;whilstwewerethusabandoningourselvestoadirectconfessionofourinferioritytoFrance，andwhilstmany，verymany，werereadytoactuponasenseofthatinferiority，afewmonthseffectedatotalchangeinourvariableminds。Weemergedfromthegulfofthatspeculativedespondency，andwerebuoyeduptothehighestpointofpracticalvigour。NeverdidthemasculinespiritofEnglanddisplayitselfwithmoreenergy，noreverdiditsgeniussoarwithaprouderpre-eminenceoverFrance，thanatthetimewhenfrivolityandeffeminacyhadbeenatleasttacitlyacknowledgedastheirnationalcharacterbythegoodpeopleofthiskingdom。
PROGRESSIVEGROWTHOFCHRISTIANSTATES。
WhenIcontemplatetheschemeonwhichFranceisformed，andwhenI
compareitwiththesesystems，withwhichitis，andevermustbe，inconflict，thosethings，whichseemasdefectsinherpolity，aretheverythingswhichmakemetremble。ThestatesoftheChristianworldhavegrownuptotheirpresentmagnitudeinagreatlengthoftime，andbyagreatvarietyofaccidents。Theyhavebeenimprovedtowhatweseethemwithgreaterorlessdegreesoffelicityandskill。Notoneofthemhasbeenformeduponaregularplanorwithanyunityofdesign。Astheirconstitutionsarenotsystematical，theyhavenotbeendirectedtoanyPECULIARend，eminentlydistinguished，andsupersedingeveryother。
Theobjectswhichtheyembraceareofthegreatestpossiblevariety，andhavebecomeinamannerinfinite。Inalltheseoldcountries，thestatehasbeenmadetothepeople，andnotthepeopleconformedtothestate。
Everystatehaspursuednotonlyeverysortofsocialadvantage，butithascultivatedthewelfareofeveryindividual。Hiswants，hiswishes，evenhistastes，havebeenconsulted。Thiscomprehensiveschemevirtuallyproducedadegreeofpersonallibertyinformsthemostadversetoit。Thatlibertywasfound，undermonarchiesstyledabsolute，inadegreeunknowntotheancientcommonwealths。Fromhencethepowersofallourmodernstatesmeet，inalltheirmovements，withsomeobstruction。Itisthereforenowonder，that，whenthesestatesaretobeconsideredasmachinestooperateforsomeonegreatend，thisdissipatedandbalancedforceisnoteasilyconcentrated，ormadetobearwiththewholeforceofthenationupononepoint。
TheBritishstateis，withoutquestion，thatwhichpursuesthegreatestvarietyofends，andistheleastdisposedtosacrificeanyoneofthemtoanother，ortothewhole。Itaimsattakingintheentirecircleofhumandesires，andsecuringforthemtheirfairenjoyment。Ourlegislaturehasbeenevercloselyconnected，initsmostefficientpart，withindividualfeeling，andindividualinterest。Personalliberty，themostlivelyofthesefeelingsandthemostimportantoftheseinterests，whichinotherEuropeancountrieshasratherarisenfromthesystemofmannersandthehabitudesoflife，thanfromthelawsofthestate(inwhichitflourishedmorefromneglectthanattention)，inEngland，hasbeenadirectobjectofgovernment。
OnthisprincipleEnglandwouldbetheweakestpowerinthewholesystem。Fortunately，however，thegreatrichesofthiskingdomarisingfromavarietyofcauses，andthedispositionofthepeople，whichisasgreattospendastoaccumulate，haseasilyaffordedadisposablesurplusthatgivesamightymomentumtothestate。Thisdifficulty，withtheseadvantagestoovercomeit，hascalledforththetalentsoftheEnglishfinanciers，who，bythesurplusofindustrypouredoutbyprodigality，haveoutdoneeverythingwhichhasbeenaccomplishedinothernations。Thepresentministerhasoutdonehispredecessors;and，asaministerofrevenue，isfarabovemypowerofpraise。ButstilltherearecasesinwhichEnglandfeelsmorethanseveralothers(thoughtheyallfeel)theperplexityofanimmensebodyofbalancedadvantages，andofindividualdemands，andofsomeirregularityinthewholemass。
Francediffersessentiallyfromallthosegovernments，whichareformedwithoutsystem，whichexistbyhabit，andwhichareconfusedwiththemultitude，andwiththeperplexityoftheirpursuits。WhatnowstandsasgovernmentinFranceisstruckoutataheat。Thedesigniswicked，immoral，impious，oppressive;butitisspiritedanddaring;itissystematic;itissimpleinitsprinciple;ithasunityandconsistencyinperfection。
PETTYINTERESTS。
Itisundoubtedlythebusinessofministersverymuchtoconsulttheinclinationsofthepeople，buttheyoughttotakegreatcarethattheydonotreceivethatinclinationfromthefewpersonswhomayhappentoapproachthem。Thepettyinterestsofsuchgentlemen，thelowconceptionsofthings，theirfearsarisingfromthedangertowhichtheveryarduousandcriticalsituationofpublicaffairsmayexposetheirplaces;theirapprehensionsfromthehazardstowhichthediscontentsofafewpopularmenatelectionsmayexposetheirseatsinparliament;allthesecausestroubleandconfusetherepresentationswhichtheymaketoministersoftherealtemperofthenation。Ifministers，insteadoffollowingthegreatindicationsoftheconstitution，proceedonsuchreports，theywilltakethewhispersofacabalforthevoiceofthepeople，andthecounselsofimprudenttimidityforthewisdomofanation。
PIUSVII。
ItisnotforhisHolinessweintendthisconsolatorydeclarationofourownweakness，andofthetyrannoustemperofhisgrandenemy。
Thatprincehasknownboththeoneandtheotherfromthebeginning。
TheartistsoftheFrenchrevolutionhadgiventheirveryfirstessaysandsketchesofrobberyanddesolationagainsthisterritories，inafarmorecruel“murderingpiece“thanhadeverenteredintotheimaginationofpainterorpoet。Withoutceremonytheytorefromhischerishingarmsthepossessionswhichheheldforfivehundredyears，undisturbedbyalltheambitionofalltheambitiousmonarchswho，duringthatperiod，havereignedinFrance。
Isittohim，inwhosewrongwehaveinourlatenegotiationcededhisnowunhappycountriesneartheRhone，latelyamongstthemostflourishing(perhapsthemostflourishingfortheirextent)ofallthecountriesuponearth，thatwearetoprovethesincerityofourresolutiontomakepeacewiththerepublicbarbarism？Thatvenerablepotentateandpontiffissunkdeepintothevaleofyears;heishalfdisarmedbyhispeacefulcharacter;hisdominionsaremorethanhalfdisarmedbyapeaceoftwohundredyears，defendedastheywere，notbyforces，butbyreverence;yetinallthesestraits，weseehimdisplay，amidsttherecentruinsandthenewdefacementsofhisplunderedcapital，alongwiththemildanddecoratedpietyofthemodern，allthespiritandmagnanimityofancientRome！Doeshe，who，thoughhimselfunabletodefendthem，noblyrefusedtoreceivepecuniarycompensationsfortheprotectionheowedtohispeopleofAvignon，Carpentras，andtheVenaisin;——doeshewantproofsofourgooddispositiontodeliveroverthatpeoplewithoutanysecurityforthem，oranycompensationtotheirsovereign，tothiscruelenemy？
DoeshewanttobesatisfiedofthesincerityofourhumiliationtoFrance，whohasseenhisfree，fertile，andhappycityandstateofBologna，thecradleofregeneratedlaw，theseatofsciencesandofarts，sohideouslymetamorphosed，whilsthewascryingtoGreatBritainforaid，andofferingtopurchasethataidatanyprice？Isithim，whoseesthatchosenspotofplentyanddelightconvertedintoaJacobinferociousrepublic，dependentonthehomicidesofFrance？Isithim，who，fromthemiraclesofhisbeneficentindustry，hasdoneaworkwhichdefiedthepoweroftheRomanemperors，thoughwithanenthralledworldtolabourforthem;isithim，whohasdrainedandcultivatedthePONTINEMARSHES，thatwearetosatisfyofourcordialspiritofconciliation，withthosewho，intheirequity，arerestoringHollandagaintotheseas，whosemaximspoisonmorethantheexhalationsofthemostdeadlyfens，andwhoturnallthefertilitiesofnatureandofartintoahowlingdesert？Isittohim，thatwearetodemonstratethegoodfaithofoursubmissionstothecannibalrepublic;tohimwhoiscommandedtodeliverintotheirhandsAnconaandCivitaVecchia，seatsofcommerce，raisedbythewiseandliberallaboursandexpensesofthepresentandlatepontiffs;portsnotmorebelongingtotheEcclesiasticalStatethantothecommerceofGreatBritain;thuswrestingfromhishandsthepowerofthekeysofthecentreofItaly，asbeforetheyhadtakenpossessionofthekeysofthenorthernpart，fromthehandsoftheunhappykingofSardinia，thenaturalallyofEngland？，Isittohimwearetoproveourgoodfaithinthepeacewhichwearesolicitingtoreceivefromthehandsofhisandourrobbers，theenemiesofallarts，allsciences，allcivilization，andallcommerce？
EXTINCTIONOFLOCALPATRIOTISM。
Thatdaywas，Ifear，thefataltermofLOCALpatriotism。Onthatday，I
fear，therewasanendofthatnarrowschemeofrelationscalledourcountry，withallitspride，itsprejudices，anditspartialaffections。
Allthelittlequietrivulets，thatwateredanhumble，acontracted，butnotanunfruitfulfield，aretobelostinthewasteexpanse，andboundless，barrenoceanofthehomicidephilanthropyofFrance。Itisnolongeranobjectofterror，theaggrandizementofanewpower，whichteachesasaprofessorthatphilanthropyintheirchair;whilstitpropagatesbyarms，andestablishesbyconquest，thecomprehensivesystemofuniversalfraternity。Inwhatlightisallthisviewedinagreatassembly？Thepartywhichtakestheleadtherehasnolongeranyapprehensions，exceptthosethatarisefromnotbeingadmittedtotheclosestandmostconfidentialconnectionswiththemetropolisofthatfraternity。Thatreigningpartynolongertouchesonitsfavouritesubject，thedisplayofthosehorrors，thatmustattendtheexistenceofapower，withsuchdispositionsandprinciples，seatedintheheartofEurope。Itissatisfiedtofindsomeloose，ambiguousexpressionsinitsformerdeclarations，whichmaysetitfreefromitsprofessionsandengagements。Italwaysspeaksofpeacewiththeregicidesasagreatandanundoubtedblessing;andsuchablessingas，ifobtained，promises，asmuchasanyhumandispositionofthingscanpromise，securityandpermanence。Itholdsoutnothingatalldefinitetowardsthissecurity。
Itonlyseeks，byarestoration，tosomeoftheirformerowners，ofsomefragmentsofthegeneralwreckofEurope，tofindaplausiblepleaforapresentretreatfromanembarrassingposition。Astothefuture，thatpartyiscontenttoleaveit，coveredinanightofthemostpalpableobscurity。Itneveroncehasenteredintoaparticleofdetailofwhatourownsituation，orthatofotherpowers，mustbe，undertheblessingsofthepeaceweseek。Thisdefect，tomypower，Imeantosupply;thatifanypersonsshouldstillcontinuetothinkanattemptatforesightisanypartofthedutyofastatesman，Imaycontributemytrifletothematerialsofhisspeculation。
Astotheotherparty，theminorityofto？day，possiblythemajorityofto-morrow，smallinnumberbutfulloftalentsandeveryspeciesofenergy，which，upontheavowedgroundofbeingmoreacceptabletoFrance，isacandidateforthehelmofthiskingdom，ithasneverchangedfromthebeginning。Ithaspreservedaperennialconsistency。
Thiswouldbeanever-failingsourceoftrueglory，ifspringingfromjustandright;butitistrulydreadfulifitbeanarmofStyx，whichspringsoutoftheprofoundestdepthsofapoisonedsoil。TheFrenchmaximswerebythesegentlemenatnotimecondemned。Ispeakoftheirlanguageinthemostmoderateterms。Therearemanywhothinkthattheyhavegonemuchfurther;thattheyhavealwaysmagnifiedandextolledtheFrenchmaxims;thatnotintheleastdisgustedordiscouragedbythemonstrousevils，whichhaveattendedthesemaximsfromthemomentoftheiradoptionbothathomeandabroad，theystillcontinuetopredict，thatinduetimetheymustproducethegreatestgoodtothepoorhumanrace。Theyobstinatelypersistinstatingthoseevilsasmatterofaccident;asthingswhollycollateraltothesystem。Itisobserved，thatthispartyhasneverspokenofanallyofGreatBritainwiththesmallestdegreeofrespectorregard;onthecontrary，ithasgenerallymentionedthemunderopprobriousappellations，andinsuchtermsofcontemptorexecration，asneverhadbeenheardbefore，becausenosuchwouldhaveformerlybeenpermittedinourpublicassemblies。Themoment，however，thatanyofthosealliesquittedthisobnoxiousconnection，thepartyhasinstantlypassedanactofindemnityandoblivionintheirfavour。Afterthis，nosortofcensureontheirconduct;noimputationontheircharacter！Fromthatmomenttheirpardonwassealedinareverentialandmysterioussilence。Withthegentlemenofthisminority，thereisnoally，fromoneendofEuropetotheother，withwhomweoughtnottobeashamedtoact。ThewholecollegeofthestatesofEuropeisnobetterthanagangoftyrants。Withthemallourconnexionswerebrokenoffatonce。WeoughttohavecultivatedFrance，andFrancealone，fromthemomentofherrevolution。Onthathappychange，allourdreadofthatnationasapowerwastocease。Shebecameinaninstantdeartoouraffections，andonewithourinterests。Allothernationsweoughttohavecommandednottotroublehersacredthroes，whilstinlabourtobringintoahappybirthherabundantlitterofconstitutions。
WALPOLEANDHISPOLICY。
Therehasnotbeeninthiscenturyanyforeignpeaceorwar，initsorigin，thefruitofpopulardesire;exceptthewarthatwasmadewithSpainin1739。SirRobertWalpolewasforcedintothewarbythepeople，whowereinflamedtothismeasurebythemostleadingpoliticians，bythefirstorators，andthegreatestpoets，ofthetime。Forthatwar，Popesunghisdyingnotes。Forthatwar，Johnson，inmoreenergeticstrains，employedthevoiceofhisearlygenius。Forthatwar，Gloverdistinguishedhimselfinthewayinwhichhismusewasthemostnaturalandhappy。Thecrowdreadilyfollowedthepoliticiansinthecryforawar，whichthreatenedlittlebloodshed，andwhichpromisedvictoriesthatwereattendedwithsomethingmoresolidthanglory。AwarwithSpainwasawarofplunder。Inthepresentconflictwithregicide，Mr。
Pitthasnothithertohad，norwill，perhaps，forafewdayshave，manyprizestoholdoutinthelotteryofwar，toattemptthelowerpartofourcharacter。Hecanonlymaintainitbyanappealtothehigher;andtothose，inwhomthathigherpartisthemostpredominant，hemustlookthemostforhissupport。Whilstheholdsoutnoinducementstothewise，norbribestotheavaricious，hemaybeforcedbyavulgarcryintoapeacetentimesmoreruinousthanthemostdisastrouswar。Theweakerheisinthefundofmotiveswhichapplytoouravarice，toourlaziness，andtoourlassitude，ifhemeanstocarrythewartoanyendatall，thestrongerheoughttobeinhisaddressestoourmagnanimityandtoourreason。
InstatingthatWalpolewasdrivenbyapopularclamourintoameasurenottobejustified，Idonotmeanwhollytoexcusehisconduct。Mytimeofobservationdidnotexactlycoincidewiththatevent：butIreadmuchofthecontroversiesthencarriedon。Severalyearsafterthecontestsofpartieshadceased，thepeoplewereamused，andinadegreewarmed，withthem。Theeventsofthateraseemedthenofmagnitude，whichtherevolutionsofourtimehavereducedtoparochialimportance;andthedebates，whichthenshookthenation，nowappearofnohighermomentthanadiscussioninavestry。WhenIwasveryyoung，ageneralfashiontoldmeIwastoadmiresomeofthewritingsagainstthatminister;alittlemorematuritytaughtmeasmuchtodespisethem。Iobservedonefaultinhisgeneralproceeding。Henevermanfullyputforwardtheentirestrengthofhiscause。Hetemporised，hemanaged，and，adoptingverynearlythesentimentsofhisadversaries，heopposedtheirinferences。This，forapoliticalcommander，isthechoiceofaweakpost。Hisadversarieshadthebetteroftheargument，ashehandledit，notasthereasonandjusticeofhiscauseenabledhimtomanageit。I
saythis，afterhavingseen，andwithsomecareexamined，theoriginaldocumentsconcerningcertainimportanttransactionsofthosetimes。Theyperfectlysatisfiedmeoftheextremeinjusticeofthatwar，andofthefalsehoodofthecolourswhich，tohisownruin，andguidedbyamistakenpolicy，hesufferedtobedaubedoverthatmeasure。Someyearsafter，itwasmyfortunetoconversewithmanyoftheprincipalactorsagainstthatminister，andwiththosewhoprincipallyexcitedthatclamour。Noneofthem，nonotone，didintheleastdefendthemeasure，orattempttojustifytheirconduct。Theycondemneditasfreelyastheywouldhavedoneincommentinguponanyproceedinginhistory，inwhichtheyweretotallyunconcerned。Thusitwillbe。Theywhostirupthepeopletoimproperdesires，whetherofpeaceorwar，willbecondemnedbythemselves。Theywhoweaklyyieldtothemwillbecondemnedbyhistory。
POLITICALPEACE。
Howaquestionofpeacecanbediscussedwithouthavingtheminview，I
cannotimagine。Ifyouorothersseeawayoutofthesedifficulties，I
amhappy。Isee，indeed，afundfromwhenceequivalentswillbeproposed。Iseeit，butIcannotjustnowtouchit。Itisaquestionofhighmoment。ItopensanotherIliadofwoestoEurope。
SuchisthetimeproposedformakingACOMMONPOLITICALPEACE;towhichnoonecircumstanceispropitious。Astothegrandprincipleofthepeace，itisleft，asifbycommonconsent，whollyoutofthequestion。
Viewingthingsinthislight，Ihavefrequentlysunkintoadegreeofdespondencyanddejectionhardlytobedescribed;yetoutoftheprofoundestdepthsofthisdespair，animpulse，whichIhaveinvainendeavouredtoresist，hasurgedmetoraiseonefeeblecryagainstthisunfortunatecoalitionwhichisformedathome，inordertomakeacoalitionwithFrance，subversiveofthewholeancientorderoftheworld。Nodisasterofwar，nocalamityofseason，couldeverstrikemewithhalfthehorrorwhichIfeltfromwhatisintroducedtousbythisjunctionofparties，underthesoothingnameofpeace。Weareapttospeakofalowandpusillanimousspiritastheordinarycausebywhichdubiouswarsterminatedinhumiliatingtreaties。Itisherethedirectcontrary。Iamperfectlyastonishedattheboldnessofcharacter，attheintrepidityofmind，thefirmnessofnerve，inthosewhoareablewithdeliberationtofacetheperilsofJacobinfraternity。
Thisfraternityisindeedsoterribleinitsnature，andinitsmanifestconsequences，thatthereisnowayofquietingourapprehensionsaboutit，butbytotallyputtingitoutofsight，bysubstitutingforit，throughasortofperiphrasis，somethingofanambiguousquality，anddescribingsuchaconnectionunderthetermsof“THEUSUALRELATIONSOF
PEACEANDAMITY。”Bythismeanstheproposedfraternityishustledinthecrowdofthosetreaties，whichimplynochangeinthepubliclawofEurope，andwhichdonotuponsystemaffecttheinteriorconditionofnations。Itisconfoundedwiththoseconventionsinwhichmattersofdisputeamongsovereignpowersarecompromised，bythetakingoffadutymoreorless，bythesurrenderofafrontiertown，oradisputeddistrict，ontheonesideortheother;bypactionsinwhichthepretensionsoffamiliesaresettled(asbyaconveyancer，makingfamilysubstitutionsandsuccessions)，withoutanyalterationsinthelaws，manners，religion，privileges，andcustoms，ofthecities，orterritories，whicharethesubjectofsucharrangements。
Allthisbodyofoldconventions，composingthevastandvoluminouscollectioncalledthecorpsdiplomatique，formsthecodeorstatutelaw，asthemethodisedreasoningsofthegreatpublicistsandjuristsformthedigestandjurisprudenceoftheChristianworld。InthesetreasuresaretobefoundtheUSUALrelationsofpeaceandamityincivilizedEurope;andtheretherelationsofancientFranceweretobefoundamongsttherest。
ThepresentsysteminFranceisnottheancientFrance。ItisnottheancientFrancewithordinaryambitionandordinarymeans。Itisnotanewpowerofanoldkind。Itisanewpowerofanewspecies。WhensuchaquestionableshapeistobeadmittedforthefirsttimeintothebrotherhoodofChristendom，itisnotamerematterofidlecuriositytoconsiderhowfaritisinitsnaturealliablewiththerest，orwhether“therelationsofpeaceandamity“withthisnewstatearelikelytobeofthesamenaturewiththeUSUALrelationsofthestatesofEurope。
PUBLICLOANS。
Itisnever，therefore，wisetoquarrelwiththeinterestedviewsofmen，whilsttheyarecombinedwiththepublicinterestandpromoteit：
itisourbusinesstotietheknot，ifpossible，closer。Resourcesthatarederivedfromextraordinaryvirtues，assuchvirtuesarerare，sotheymustbeunproductive。Itisagoodthingforamoniedmantopledgehispropertyonthewelfareofhiscountry;heshowsthatheplaceshistreasurewherehisheartis;and，revolvinginthiscircle，weknowthat“whereveraman’streasureis，therehisheartwillbealso。”Forthesereasons，andontheseprinciples，Ihavebeensorrytoseetheattemptswhichhavebeenmade，withmoregoodmeaningthanforesightandconsideration，towardsraisingtheannualinterestofthisloanbyprivatecontributions。Whereveraregularrevenueisestablished，therevoluntarycontributioncananswernopurpose，buttodisorderanddisturbitinitscourse。Torecurtosuchaidsis，forsomuch，todissolvethecommunity，andtoreturntoastateofunconnectednature。
Andevenifsuchasupplyshouldbeproductive，inadegreecommensuratetoitsobject，itmustalsobeproductiveofmuchvexation，andmuchoppression。Eitherthecitizens，bytheproposedduties，paytheirproportionaccordingtosomeratemadebypublicauthority，ortheydonot。Ifthelawbewellmade，andthecontributionsfoundedonjustproportions，everythingsuperaddedbysomethingthatisnotasregularaslaw，andasuniforminitsoperation，willbecomemoreorlessoutofproportion。If，onthecontrary，thelawbenotmadeuponpropercalculation，itisadisgracetothepublicwisdom，whichfailsinskilltoassessthecitizeninjustmeasure，andaccordingtohismeans。Butthehandofauthorityisnotalwaysthemostheavyhand。Itisobvious，thatmenmaybeoppressedbymanyways，besidesthosewhichtaketheircoursefromthesupremepowerofthestate。Supposethepaymenttobewhollydiscretionary。Whateverhasitsoriginincaprice，issurenottoimproveinitsprogress，nortoendinreason。Itisimpossibleforeachprivateindividualtohaveanymeasureconformabletotheparticularconditionofeachofhisfellow-citizens，ortothegeneralexigenciesofhiscountry。’Tisarandomshotatbest。
Whenmenproceedinthisirregularmode，thefirstcontributorisapttogrowpeevishwithhisneighbours。Heisbuttoowelldisposedtomeasuretheirmeansbyhisownenvy，andnotbytherealstateoftheirfortunes，whichhecanrarelyknow，andwhichitmayinthembeanactofthegrossestimprudencetoreveal。Hencetheodiumandlassitude，withwhichpeoplewilllookuponaprovisionforthepublic，whichisboughtbydiscordattheexpenseofsocialquiet。Hencethebitterheart-burnings，andthewaroftongues，whichissooftenthepreludetootherwars。Norisiteverycontribution，calledvoluntary，whichisaccordingtothefreewillofthegiver。Afalseshame，orafalseglory，againsthisfeelingsandhisjudgment，maytaxanindividualtothedetrimentofhisfamily，andinwrongofhiscreditors。Apretenceofpublicspiritmaydisablehimfromtheperformanceofhisprivateduties。Itmaydisablehimevenfrompayingthelegitimatecontributionswhichheistofurnishaccordingtotheprescriptofthelaw;butwhatisthemostdangerousofallis，thatmalignantdispositiontowhichthismodeofcontributionevidentlytends，andwhichatlengthleavesthecomparativelyindigenttojudgeofthewealth，andtoprescribetotheopulent，orthosewhomtheyconceivetobesuch，theusetheyaretomakeoftheirfortunes。Fromthenceitisbutonesteptothesubversionofallproperty。
HISTORICALSTRICTURES。
Theauthordoesnotconfinethebenefitoftheregicidelessontokingsalone。Hehasadiffusivebounty。Nobles，andmenofproperty，willlikewisebegreatlyreformed。Theytoowillbeledtoareviewoftheirsocialsituationandduties;“andwillreflect，thattheirlargeallotmentofworldlyadvantagesisfortheaidandbenefitofthewhole。”IsitthenfromthefateofJuignie，archbishopofParis，orofthecardinaldeRochefoucault，andofsomanyothers，whogavetheirfortunes，and，Imaysay，theirverybeings，tothepoor，thatthericharetolearn，thattheir“fortunesarefortheaidandbenefitofthewhole？”Isaynothingoftheliberalpersonsofgreatrankandproperty，layandecclesiastic，menandwomen，towhomwehavehadthehonourandhappinessofaffordinganasylum，——Ipassbythese，lestIshouldneverhavedone，orlestIshouldomitsomeasdeservingasanyImightmention。Whywilltheauthorthensuppose，thatthenoblesandmenofpropertyinFrancehavebeenbanished，confiscated，andmurdered，onaccountofthesavagenessandferocityoftheircharacter，andtheirbeingtaintedwithvicesbeyondthoseofthesameorderanddescriptioninothercountries？Nojudgeofarevolutionarytribunal，withhishandsdippedintheirblood，andhismawgorgedwiththeirproperty，hasyetdaredtoassertwhatthisauthorhasbeenpleased，bywayofamorallesson，toinsinuate。
Theirnobility，andtheirmenofproperty，inamass，hadtheverysamevirtuesandtheverysamevices，andintheverysameproportions，withthesamedescriptionofmeninthisandinothernations。Imustdojusticetosufferinghonour，generosity，andintegrity。Idonotknow，thatanytime，oranycountry，hasfurnishedmoresplendidexamplesofeveryvirtue，domesticandpublic。IdonotenterintothecouncilsofProvidence：but，humanlyspeaking，manyofthesenoblesandmenofproperty，fromwhosedisastrousfateweare，itseems，tolearnageneralsofteningofcharacter，andarevisionofoursocialsituationsandduties，appeartomefullaslittledeservingofthatfate，astheauthor，whoeverheis，canbe。Manyofthem，Iamsure，weresuch，asI
shouldbeproudindeedtobeabletocomparemyselfwith，inknowledge，inintegrity，andineveryothervirtue。Myfeeblenaturemightshrink，thoughtheirsdidnot，fromtheproof;butmyreasonandmyambitiontellme，thatitwouldbeagoodbargaintopurchasetheirmeritswiththeirfate。
Forwhichofhisvicesdidthatgreatmagistrate，D’Espremenil，losehisfortuneandhishead？WhatweretheabominationsofMalesherbes，thatotherexcellentmagistrate，whosesixtyyearsofuniformvirtuewasacknowledged，intheveryactofhismurder，bythejudicialbutchers，whocondemnedhim？Onaccountofwhatmisdemeanorswasherobbedofhisproperty，andslaughteredwithtwogenerationsofhisoffspring;andtheremainsofthethirdrace，witharefinementofcruelty，andlesttheyshouldappeartoreclaimthepropertyforfeitedbythevirtuesoftheirancestor，confoundedinanhospitalwiththethousandsofthoseunhappyfoundlinginfants，whoareabandoned，withoutrelation，andwithoutname，bythewretchednessorbytheprofligacyoftheirparents？
IsthefateofthequeenofFrancetoproducethissofteningofcharacter？Wassheapersonsoveryferociousandcruelas，bytheexampleofherdeath，tofrightenusintocommonhumanity？Istherenowaytoteachtheemperorasofteningofcharacter，andareviewofhissocialsituationandduty，buthisconsent，byaninfamousaccordwithregicide，todriveasecondcoachwiththeAustrianarmsthroughthestreetsofParis，alongwhich，afteraseriesofpreparatoryhorrors，exceedingtheatrocitiesofthebloodyexecutionitself，thegloryoftheimperialracehadbeencarriedtoanignominiousdeath？IsthisalessonofMODERATIONtoadescendantofMariaTheresa，drawnfromthefateofthedaughterofthatincomparablewomanandsovereign？Ifhelearnsthislessonfromsuchanobject，andfromsuchteachers，themanmayremain，butthekingisdeposed。Ifhedoesnotcarryquiteanothermemoryofthattransactionintheinmostrecessesofhisheart，heisunworthytoreign;heisunworthytolive。Inthechronicleofdisgracehewillhavebutthisshorttaletoldofhim，“hewasthefirstemperorofhishousethatembracedaregicide：hewasthelastthatworetheimperialpurple。”——FaramIfromthinkingsoillofthisaugustsovereign，whoisattheheadofthemonarchiesofEurope，andwhoisthetrusteeoftheirdignitiesandhisown。WhatferocityofcharacterdrewonthefateofElizabeth，thesisterofKingLouistheSixteenth？
Forwhichofthevicesofthatpatternofbenevolence，ofpiety，andofallthevirtues，didtheyputhertodeath？Forwhichofhervicesdidtheyputtodeaththemildestofallhumancreatures，theduchessofBiron？Whatwerethecrimesofthosecrowdsofmatronsandvirginsofcondition，whomtheymassacred，withtheirjuriesofblood，inprisonsandonscaffolds？Whatweretheenormitiesoftheinfantking，whomtheycaused，bylingeringtortures，toperishintheirdungeon，andwhom，ifatlasttheydespatchedbypoison，itwasinthatdetestablecrimetheonlyactofmercytheyhaveevershown？
Whatsofteningofcharacteristobehad，whatreviewoftheirsocialsituationsanddutiesistobetaught，bytheseexamples，tokings，tonobles，tomenofproperty，towomen，andtoinfants？Theroyalfamilyperished，becauseitwasroyal。Thenoblesperished，becausetheywerenoble。Themen，women，andchildren，whohadproperty，becausetheyhadpropertytoberobbedof。Thepriestswerepunished，aftertheyhadbeenrobbedoftheirall，notfortheirvices，butfortheirvirtuesandtheirpiety，whichmadethemanhonourtotheirsacredprofession，andtothatnature，ofwhichweoughttobeproud，sincetheybelongtoit。
MyLord，nothingcanbelearnedfromsuchexamples，exceptthedangerofbeingkings，queens，nobles，priests，andchildren，tobebutcheredonaccountoftheirinheritance。Thesearethings，atwhichnotvice，notcrime，notfolly，butwisdom，goodness，learning，justice，probity，beneficence，standaghast。Bytheseexamplesourreasonandourmoralsensearenotenlightened，butconfounded;andthereisnorefugeforastonishedandaffrightedvirtue，butbeingannihilatedinhumilityandsubmission，sinkingintoasilentadorationoftheinscrutabledispensationsofProvidence，andflying，withtremblingwings，fromthisworldofdaringcrimes，andfeeble，pusillanimous，half-bred，bastardjustice，totheasylumofanotherorderofthings，inanunknownform，butinabetterlife。
WhateverthepoliticianorpreacherofSeptemberorofOctobermaythinkofthematter，itisamostcomfortless，disheartening，desolatingexample。Dreadfulistheexampleofruinedinnocenceandvirtue，andthecompletesttriumphofthecompletestvillainy，thatevervexedanddisgracedmankind！Theexampleisruinousineverypointofview，religious，moral，civil，political。ItestablishesthatdreadfulmaximofMachiavel，thatingreataffairsmenarenottobewickedbyhalves。
Thismaximisnotmadeforamiddlesortofbeings，who，becausetheycannotbeangels，oughttothwarttheirambition，andnotendeavourtobecomeinfernalspirits。Itistoowellexemplifiedinthepresenttime，wherethefaultsanderrorsofhumanity，checkedbytheimperfecttimorousvirtues，havebeenoverpoweredbythosewhohavestoppedatnocrime。Itisadreadfulpartoftheexample，thatinfernalmalevolencehashadpiousapologists，whoreadtheirlecturesonfrailtiesinfavourofcrimes;whoabandontheweak，andcourtthefriendshipofthewicked。
Torootoutthesemaxims，andtheexamplesthatsupportthem，isawiseobjectofyearsofwar。Thisisthatwar。Thisisthatmoralwar。ItwassaidbyoldTrivulzio，thatthebattleofMarignanwasthebattleofthegiants，thatalltherestofthemanyhehadseenwerethoseofthecranesandpigmies。Thisistrueoftheobjects，atleast，ofthecontest。Forthegreaterpartofthose，whichwehavehithertocontendedfor，incomparison，werethetoysofchildren。
TheOctoberpoliticianissofullofcharityandgoodnature，thathesupposes，thattheseveryrobbersandmurderersthemselvesareinacourseofmelioration;onwhatgroundIcannotconceive，exceptonthelongpracticeofeverycrime，andbyitscompletesuccess。HeisanOrigenist，andbelievesintheconversionofthedevil。Allthatrunsintheplaceofbloodinhisveinsisnothingbutthemilkofhumankindness。Heisassoftasacurd，though，asapolitician，hemightbesupposedtobemadeofsternerstuff。Hesupposes(tousehisownexpression)“thatthesalutarytruths，whichheinculcates，aremakingtheirwayintotheirbosoms。”Theirbosomisarockofgranite，onwhichfalsehoodhaslongsincebuiltherstronghold。Poortruthhashadahardworkofitwithherlittlepickaxe。Nothingbutgunpowderwilldo。Asaproof，however，oftheprogressofthissapofTruth，hegivesusaconfessiontheyhadmadenotlongbeforehewrote。“Theirfraternity“
(aswaslatelystatedbythemselvesinasolemnreport)“hasbeenthebrotherhoodofCainandAbel，andtheyhaveorganizednothingbutBankruptcyandFamine。”Averyhonestconfession，truly;andmuchinthespiritoftheiroracle，Rousseau。Yet，whatisstillmoremarvellousthantheconfession，thisistheveryfraternitytowhichourauthorgivesussuchanobliginginvitationtoaccede。Thereis，indeed，avacancyinthefraternalcorps;abrotherandapartneriswanted。Ifweplease，wemayfilluptheplaceofthebutcheredAbel;and，whilstwewaitthedestinyofthedepartedbrother，wemayenjoytheadvantagesofthepartnership，byentering，withoutdelay，intoashopofready-madebankruptcyandfamine。Thesearethedouceurs，bywhichweareinvitedtoregicidefraternityandfriendship。Butstillourauthorconsiderstheconfessionasaproof，that“truthismakingitswayintotheirbosoms。”No！Itisnotmakingitswayintotheirbosoms。Ithasforceditswayintotheirmouths！Theevilspirit，bywhichtheyarepossessed，thoughessentiallyaliar，isforced，bythetorturesofconscience，toconfessthetruth：toconfessenoughfortheircondemnation，butnotfortheiramendment。Shakspeareveryaptlyexpressesthiskindofconfession，devoidofrepentance，fromthemouthofausurper，amurderer，andaregicide——
“Weareourselvescompelled，Eventotheteethandforeheadofourfaults，Togiveinevidence。”
Whenceistheiramendment？Why，theauthorwrites，that，ontheirmurderousinsurrectionarysystem，theirownlivesarenotsureforanhour;norhastheirpoweragreaterstability。True。Theyareconvincedofit;andaccordinglythewretcheshavedonealltheycantopreservetheirlives，andtosecuretheirpower;butnotonestephavetheytakentoamendtheone，ortomakeamorejustuseoftheother。
CONSTITUTIONNOTTHEPEOPLE’SSLAVE。
ThereisonetopicuponwhichIhopeIshallbeexcusedingoingalittlebeyondmydesign。Thefactions，nowsobusyamongstus，inordertodivestmenofalllovefortheircountry，andtoremovefromtheirmindsalldutywithregardtothestate，endeavourtopropagateanopinion，thatthePEOPLE，informingtheircommonwealth，havebynomeanspartedwiththeirpoweroverit。Thisisanimpregnablecitadel，towhichthesegentlemenretreatwhenevertheyarepushedbythebatteryoflawsandusages，andpositiveconventions。Indeed，itissuchandofsogreatforce，thatalltheyhavedone，indefendingtheiroutworks，issomuchtimeandlabourthrownaway。Discussanyoftheirschemes——theiransweris——ItistheactofthePEOPLE，andthatissufficient。ArewetodenytoaMAJORITYofthepeopletherightofalteringeventhewholeframeoftheirsociety，ifsuchshouldbetheirpleasure？Theymaychangeit，saythey，fromamonarchytoarepublicto？day，andto-morrowbackagainfromarepublictoamonarchy，andsobackwardandforwardasoftenastheylike。Theyaremastersofthecommonwealth;becauseinsubstancetheyarethemselvesthecommonwealth。TheFrenchrevolution，saythey，wastheactofthemajorityofthepeople;andifthemajorityofanyotherpeople，thepeopleofEnglandforinstance，wishtomakethesamechange，theyhavethesameright。Justthesame，undoubtedly。
Thatis，noneatall。Neitherthefewnorthemanyhavearighttoactmerelybytheirwill，inanymatterconnectedwithduty，trust，engagement，orobligation。Theconstitutionofacountrybeingoncesettleduponsomecompact，tacitorexpressed，thereisnopowerexistingofforcetoalterit，withoutthebreachofthecovenant，ortheconsentofalltheparties。Suchisthenatureofacontract。Andthevotesofamajorityofthepeople，whatevertheirinfamousflatterersmayteachinordertocorrupttheirminds，cannotalterthemoralanymorethantheycanalterthephysicalessenceofthings。Thepeoplearenottobetaughttothinklightlyoftheirengagementstotheirgovernors;elsetheyteachgovernorstothinklightlyoftheirengagementstowardsthem。Inthatkindofgameintheendthepeoplearesuretobelosers。Toflatterthemintoacontemptoffaith，truth，andjustice，istoruinthem;forinthesevirtuesconsisttheirwholesafety。Toflatteranyman，oranypartofmankind，inanydescription，byasserting，thatinengagementsheortheyarefreewhilstanyotherhumancreatureisbound，isultimatelytovesttheruleofmoralityinthepleasureofthosewhooughttoberigidlysubmittedtoit;tosubjectthesovereignreasonoftheworldtothecapricesofweakandgiddymen。
But，asnooneofusmencandispensewithpublicorprivatefaith，orwithanyothertieofmoralobligation，soneithercananynumberofus。
Thenumberengagedincrimes，insteadofturningthemintolaudableacts，onlyaugmentsthequantityandintensityoftheguilt。Iamwellawarethatmenlovetohearoftheirpower，buthaveanextremedisrelishtobetoldoftheirduty。Thisisofcourse，becauseeverydutyisalimitationofsomepower。Indeedarbitrarypowerissomuchtothedepravedtasteofthevulgar，ofthevulgarofeverydescription，thatalmostallthedissensions，whichlaceratethecommonwealth，arenotconcerningthemannerinwhichitistobeexercised，butconcerningthehandsinwhichitistobeplaced。Somewheretheyareresolvedtohaveit。Whethertheydesireittobevestedinthemanyorthefew，dependswithmostmenuponthechancewhichtheyimaginetheythemselvesmayhaveofpartakingintheexerciseofthatarbitrarysway，intheonemodeorintheother。
Itisnotnecessarytoteachmentothirstafterpower。Butitisveryexpedientthatbymoralinstruction，theyshouldbetaught，andbytheircivilconstitutionstheyshouldbecompelled，toputmanyrestrictionsupontheimmoderateexerciseofit，andtheinordinatedesire。Thebestmethodofobtainingthesetwogreatpointsformstheimportant，butatthesametimethedifficult，problemtothetruestatesman。Hethinksoftheplaceinwhichpoliticalpoweristobelodged，withnootherattention，thanasitmayrenderthemoreorthelesspracticable，itssalutaryrestraint，anditsprudentdirection。Forthisreasonnolegislator，atanyperiodoftheworld，haswillinglyplacedtheseatofactivepowerinthehandsofthemultitude：becausethereitadmitsofnocontrolnoregulation，nosteadydirectionwhatsoever。Thepeoplearethenaturalcontrolonauthority;buttoexerciseandtocontroltogetheriscontradictoryandimpossible。
Astheexorbitantexerciseofpowercannot，underpopularsway，beeffectuallyrestrained，theothergreatobjectofpoliticalarrangement，themeansofabatinganexcessivedesireofit，isinsuchastatestillworseprovidedfor。Thedemocraticcommonwealthisthefoodfulnurseofambition。Undertheotherformsitmeetswithmanyrestraints。Whenever，instateswhichhavehadademocraticbasis，thelegislatorshaveendeavouredtoputrestraintsuponambition，theirmethodswereasviolent，asintheendtheywereineffectual：asviolentindeedasanythemostjealousdespotismcouldinvent。Theostracismcouldnotverylongsaveitself，andmuchlessthestatewhichitwasmeanttoguard，fromtheattemptsofambition，oneofthenatural，inbred，incurabledistempersofapowerfuldemocracy。
MODERN“LIGHTS。”
Greatlightstheysayarelatelyobtainedintheworld;andMr。Burke，insteadofshroudinghimselfinexplodedignorance，oughttohavetakenadvantageoftheblazeofilluminationwhichhasbeenspreadabouthim。
Itmaybeso。Theenthusiastsofthistime，itseems，liketheirpredecessorsinanotherfactionoffanaticism，dealinlights——Hudibraspleasantlysaystothem，they，“HaveLIGHTS，wherebettereyesareblind，Aspigsaresaidtoseethewind。”
TheauthoroftheReflectionshasHEARDagreatdealconcerningthemodernlights;buthehasnotyethadthegoodfortunetoSEEmuchofthem。Hehasreadmorethanhecanjustifytoanythingbutthespiritofcuriosity，oftheworksoftheseilluminatorsoftheworld。Hehaslearnednothingfromthefargreaternumberofthem，thanafullcertaintyoftheirshallowness，levity，pride，petulance，presumption，andignorance。Wheretheoldauthorswhomhehasread，andtheoldmenwhomhehasconversedwith，havelefthiminthedark，heisinthedarkstill。Ifothers，however，haveobtainedanyofthisextraordinarylight，theywilluseittoguidethemintheirresearchesandtheirconduct。Ihaveonlytowish，thatthenationmaybeashappyandasprosperousundertheinfluenceofthenewlight，asithasbeeninthesobershadeoftheoldobscurity。
REPUBLICSINTHEABSTRACT。
Inthesamedebate，Mr。BurkewasrepresentedbyMr。FoxasarguinginamannerwhichimpliedthattheBritishconstitutioncouldnotbedefended，butbyabusingallrepublicsancientandmodern。Hesaidnothingtogivetheleastgroundforsuchacensure。Heneverabusedallrepublics。Hehasneverprofessedhimselfafriendoranenemytorepublicsortomonarchiesintheabstract。Hethoughtthatthecircumstancesandhabitsofeverycountry，whichitisalwaysperilousandproductiveofthegreatestcalamitiestoforce，aretodecideupontheformofitsgovernment。Thereisnothinginhisnature，histemper，orhisfaculties，whichshouldmakehimanenemytoanyrepublicmodernorancient。Farfromit。Hehasstudiedtheformandspiritofrepublicsveryearlyinlife;hehasstudiedthemwithgreatattention;andwithamindundisturbedbyaffectionorprejudice。Heisindeedconvincedthatthescienceofgovernmentwouldbepoorlycultivatedwithoutthatstudy。
Buttheresultinhismindfromthatinvestigationhasbeen，andis，thatneitherEnglandnorFrance，withoutinfinitedetrimenttothem，aswellintheeventasintheexperiment，couldbebroughtintoarepublicanform;butthateverythingrepublicanwhichcanbeintroducedwithsafetyintoeitherofthem，mustbebuiltuponamonarchy;builtuponareal，notanominal，monarchy，ASITSESSENTIALBASIS;thatallsuchinstitutions，whetheraristocraticordemocratic，mustoriginatefromthecrown，andinalltheirproceedingsmustrefertoit;thatbytheenergyofthatmainspringalonethoserepublicanpartsmustbesetinaction，andfromthencemustderivetheirwholelegaleffect(asamongstustheyactuallydo)，orthewholewillfallintoconfusion。
Theserepublicanmembershavenootherpointbutthecrowninwhichtheycanpossiblyunite。
ThisistheopinionexpressedinMr。Burke’sbook。Hehasnevervariedinthatopinionsincehecametoyearsofdiscretion。Butsurely，ifitanytimeofhislifehehadentertainedothernotions(whichhoweverhehasneverheldorprofessedtohold)，thehorriblecalamitiesbroughtuponagreatpeople，bythewildattempttoforcetheircountryintoarepublic，mightbemorethansufficienttoundeceivehisunderstanding，andtofreeitforeverfromsuchdestructivefancies。Heiscertain，thatmany，eveninFrance，havebeenmadesickoftheirtheoriesbytheirverysuccessinrealizingthem。
ANENGLISHMONARCH。
Heisarealking，andnotanexecutiveofficer。Ifhewillnottroublehimselfwithcontemptibledetails，norwishtodegradehimselfbybecomingapartyinlittlesquabbles，Iamfarfromsure，thatakingofGreatBritain，inwhateverconcernshimasaking，orindeedasarationalman，whocombineshispublicinterestwithhispersonalsatisfaction，doesnotpossessamorereal，solid，extensivepower，thanthekingofFrancewaspossessedofbeforethismiserablerevolution。
ThedirectpowerofthekingofEnglandisconsiderable。Hisindirect，andfarmorecertainpower，isgreatindeed。Hestandsinneedofnothingtowardsdignity;ofnothingtowardssplendour;ofnothingtowardsauthority;ofnothingatalltowardsconsiderationabroad。WhenwasitthatakingofEnglandwantedwherewithaltomakehimrespected，courted，orperhapsevenfeared，ineverystateofEurope？
PHYSIOGNOMY。
ThePHYSIOGNOMYhasaconsiderableshareinbeauty，especiallyinthatofourownspecies。Themannersgiveacertaindeterminationtothecountenance;which，beingobservedtocorrespondprettyregularlywiththem，iscapableofjoiningtheeffectofcertainagreeablequalitiesofthemindtothoseofthebody。Sothattoformafinishedhumanbeauty，andtogiveititsfullinfluence，thefacemustbeexpressiveofsuchgentleandamiablequalities，ascorrespondwiththesoftness，smoothness，anddelicacyoftheoutwardform。
THEEYE。
IhavehithertopurposelyomittedtospeakoftheEYE，whichhassogreatashareinthebeautyoftheanimalcreation，asitdidnotfallsoeasilyundertheforegoingheads，thoughinfactitisreducibletothesameprinciples。Ithinkthen，thatthebeautyoftheeyeconsists，first，initsCLEARNESS;whatCOLOUREDeyeshallpleasemost，dependsagooddealonparticularfancies;butnonearepleasedwithaneyewhosewater(tousethatterm)isdullandmuddy。Wearepleasedwiththeeyeinthisview，ontheprincipleuponwhichwelikediamonds，clearwater，glass，andsuch-liketransparentsubstances。Secondly，themotionoftheeyecontributestoitsbeauty，bycontinuallyshiftingitsdirection;
butaslowandlanguidmotionismorebeautifulthanabriskone;thelatterisenlivening;theformerlovely。Thirdly，withregardtotheunionoftheeyewiththeneighbouringparts，itistoholdthesamerulethatisgivenofotherbeautifulones;itisnottomakeastrongdeviationfromthelineoftheneighbouringparts;nortovergeintoanyexactgeometricalfigure。Besidesallthis，theeyeaffects，asitisexpressiveofsomequalitiesofthemind，anditsprincipalpowergenerallyarisesfromthis;sothatwhatwehavejustsaidofthephysiognomyisapplicablehere。
ABOLITIONANDUSEOFPARLIAMENTS。
Accordingtotheirinvariablecourse，theframersofyourconstitutionhavebegunwiththeouterabolitionoftheparliaments。Thesevenerablebodies，liketherestoftheoldgovernment，stoodinneedofreform，eventhoughthereshouldbenochangemadeinthemonarchy。Theyrequiredseveralmorealterationstoadaptthemtothesystemofafreeconstitution。Buttheyhadparticularsintheirconstitution，andthosenotafew，whichdeservedapprobationfromthewise。Theypossessedonefundamentalexcellence，——theywereindependent。Themostdoubtfulcircumstanceattendantontheiroffice，thatofitsbeingvendible，contributedhowevertothisindependencyofcharacter。Theyheldforlife。Indeedtheymaybesaidtohaveheldbyinheritance。Appointedbythemonarch，theywereconsideredasnearlyoutofhispower。Themostdeterminedexertionsofthatauthorityagainstthemonlyshowedtheirradicalindependence。Theycomposedpermanentbodiespolitic，constitutedtoresistarbitraryinnovation;andfromthatcorporateconstitution，andfrommostoftheirforms，theywerewellcalculatedtoaffordbothcertaintyandstabilitytothelaws。Theyhadbeenasafeasylumtosecuretheselaws，inalltherevolutionsofhumourandopinion。Theyhadsavedthatsacreddepositofthecountryduringthereignsofarbitraryprinces，andthestrugglesofarbitraryfactions。
Theykeptalivethememoryandrecordoftheconstitution。Theywerethegreatsecuritytoprivateproperty;whichmightbesaid(whenpersonallibertyhadnoexistence)tobe，infact，aswellguardedinFranceasinanyothercountry。Whateverissupremeinastate，oughttohave，asmuchaspossible，itsjudicialauthoritysoconstitutedasnotonlynottodependuponit，butinsomesorttobalanceit。Itoughttogiveasecuritytoitsjusticeagainstitspower。Itoughttomakeitsjudicature，asitwere，somethingexteriortothestate。Theseparliamentshadfurnished，notthebestcertainly，butsomeconsiderablecorrectivetotheexcessesandvicesofthemonarchy。Suchanindependentjudicaturewastentimesmorenecessarywhenademocracybecametheabsolutepowerofthecountry。Inthatconstitution，elective，temporary，localjudges，suchasyouhavecontrived，exercisingtheirdependentfunctionsinanarrowsociety，mustbetheworstofalltribunals。Inthemitwillbevaintolookforanyappearanceofjusticetowardsstrangers，towardstheobnoxiousrich，towardstheminorityofroutedparties，towardsallthosewhointheelectionhavesupportedunsuccessfulcandidates。Itwillbeimpossibletokeepthenewtribunalsclearoftheworstspiritoffaction。Allcontrivancesbyballotweknowexperimentallytobevainandchildishtopreventadiscoveryofinclinations。Wheretheymaythebestanswerthepurposesofconcealment，theyanswertoproducesuspicion;andthisisastillmoremischievouscauseofpartiality。
Iftheparliamentshadbeenpreserved，insteadofbeingdissolvedatsoruinousachangetothenation，theymighthaveservedinthisnewcommonwealth，perhapsnotpreciselythesame(Idonotmeananexactparallel)，butnearlythesame，purposesasthecourtandsenateofAreopagusdidinAthens;thatis，asoneofthebalancesandcorrectivestotheevilsofalightandunjustdemocracy。Everyoneknowsthatthistribunalwasthegreatstayofthatstate;everyoneknowswithwhatacareitwasupheld，andwithwhatareligiousaweitwasconsecrated。
Theparliamentswerenotwhollyfreefromfaction，Iadmit;butthisevilwasexteriorandaccidental，andnotsomuchtheviceoftheirconstitutionitself，asitmustbeinyournewcontrivanceofsexennialelectivejudicatories。SeveralEnglishcommendtheabolitionoftheoldtribunals，assupposingthattheydeterminedeverythingbybriberyandcorruption。Buttheyhavestoodthetestofmonarchicandrepublicanscrutiny。Thecourtwaswelldisposedtoprovecorruptiononthosebodieswhentheyweredissolvedin1771——Thosewhohaveagaindissolvedthemwouldhavedonethesameiftheycould——butbothinquisitionshavingfailed，Iconclude，thatgrosspecuniarycorruptionmusthavebeenratherrareamongstthem。
Itwouldhavebeenprudent，alongwiththeparliaments，topreservetheirancientpowerofregistering，andofremonstratingatleast，uponallthedecreesoftheNationalAssembly，astheydiduponthosewhichpassedinthetimeofthemonarchy。Itwouldbeameansofsquaringtheoccasionaldecreesofademocracytosomeprinciplesofgeneraljurisprudence。Theviceoftheancientdemocracies，andonecauseoftheirruin，was，thattheyruled，asyoudo，byoccasionaldecrees，——psephismata。Thispracticesoonbrokeinuponthetenorandconsistencyofthelaws;itabatedtherespectofthepeopletowardsthem;andtotallydestroyedthemintheend。
Yourvestingthepowerofremonstrance，which，inthetimeofthemonarchy，existedintheparliamentofParis，inyourprincipalexecutiveofficer，whom，inspiteofcommonsense，youpersevereincallingking，istheheightofabsurdity。Yououghtnevertosufferremonstrancefromhimwhoistoexecute。Thisistounderstandneithercounselnorexecution;neitherauthoritynorobedience。Thepersonwhomyoucallking，oughtnottohavethispower，orheoughttohavemore。
CROMWELLANDHISCONTRASTS。
Cromwell，whenheattemptedtolegalizehispower，andtosettlehisconqueredcountryinastateoforder，didnotlookfordispensersofjusticeintheinstrumentsofhisusurpation。Quitethecontrary。Hesoughtout，withgreatsolicitudeandselection，andevenfromthepartymostoppositetohisdesigns，menofweightanddecorumofcharacter;
menunstainedwiththeviolenceofthetimes，andwithhandsnotfouledwithconfiscationandsacrilege：forhechoseanHALEforhischiefjustice，thoughheabsolutelyrefusedtotakehiscivicoaths，ortomakeanyacknowledgmentwhatsoeverofthelegalityofhisgovernment。
Cromwelltoldthisgreatlawyer，thatsincehedidnotapprovehistitle，allherequiredofhimwas，toadminister，inamanneragreeabletohispuresentimentsandunspottedcharacter，thatjusticewithoutwhichhumansocietycannotsubsist：thatitwasnothisparticulargovernment，butcivilorderitself，which，asajudge，hewishedhimtosupport。Cromwellknewhowtoseparatetheinstitutionsexpedienttohisusurpationfromtheadministrationofthepublicjusticeofhiscountry。
ForCromwellwasamaninwhomambitionhadnotwhollysuppressed，butonlysuspended，thesentimentsofreligion，andthelove(asfarasitcouldconsistwithhisdesigns)offairandhonourablereputation。
Accordingly，weareindebtedtothisactofhisforthepreservationofourlaws，whichsomesenselessassertorsoftherightsofmenwerethenonthepointofentirelyerasing，asrelicsoffeudalityandbarbarism。
Besides，hegaveintheappointmentofthatman，tothatage，andtoallposterity，themostbrilliantexampleofsincereandferventpiety，exactjustice，andprofoundjurisprudence。(SeeBurnet’sLifeofHale。)
ButthesearenotthethingsinwhichyourphilosophicusurperschoosetofollowCromwell。
Onewouldthink，thatafteranhonestandnecessaryrevolution(iftheyhadamindthattheirsshouldpassforsuch)yourmasterswouldhaveimitatedthevirtuouspolicyofthosewhohavebeenattheheadofrevolutionsofthatgloriouscharacter。Burnettellsus，thatnothingtendedtoreconciletheEnglishnationtothegovernmentofKingWilliamsomuchasthecarehetooktofillthevacantbishopricswithmenwhohadattractedthepublicesteembytheirlearning，eloquence，andpiety，and，aboveall，bytheirknownmoderationinthestate。Withyou，inyourpurifyingrevolution，whomhaveyouchosentoregulatethechurch？
Mr。Mirabeauisafinespeaker——andafinewriter，——andafine——averyfineman;——butreallynothinggavemoresurprisetoeverybodyhere，thantofindhimthesupremeheadofyourecclesiasticalaffairs。Therestisofcourse。YourAssemblyaddressesamanifestotoFrance，inwhichtheytellthepeople，withaninsultingirony，thattheyhavebroughtthechurchtoitsprimitivecondition。Inonerespecttheirdeclarationisundoubtedlytrue;fortheyhavebroughtittoastateofpovertyandpersecution。Whatcanbehopedforafterthis？Havenotmen(iftheydeservethename)，underthisnewhopeandheadofthechurch，beenmadebishopsfornoothermeritthanhavingactedasinstrumentsofatheists;
fornoothermeritthanhavingthrownthechildren’sbreadtodogs;andinordertogorgethewholegangofusurers，pedlars，anditinerantJew-discountersatthecornersofstreets，starvedthepooroftheirChristianflocks，andtheirownbrotherpastors？Havenotsuchmenbeenmadebishopstoadministerintemples，inwhich(ifthepatrioticdonationshavenotalreadystrippedthemoftheirvessels)thechurchwardensoughttotakesecurityforthealtar-plate，andnotsomuchastotrustthechaliceintheirsacrilegioushands，solongasJewshaveassignatsonecclesiasticplunder，toexchangeforthesilverstolenfromchurches？
DELICACY。
Anairofrobustnessandstrengthisveryprejudicialtobeauty。AnappearanceofDELICACY，andevenoffragility，isalmostessentialtoit。Whoeverexaminesthevegetableoranimalcreationwillfindthisobservationtobefoundedinnature。Itisnottheoak，theash，ortheelm，oranyoftherobusttreesoftheforest，whichweconsiderasbeautiful;theyareawfulandmajestic;theirinspireasortofreverence。Itisthedelicatemyrtle，itistheorange，itisthealmond，itisthejasmine，itisthevine，whichwelookonasvegetablebeauties。Itisthefloweryspecies，soremarkableforitsweaknessandmomentaryduration，thatgivesustheliveliestideaofbeautyandelegance。Amonganimals，thegreyhoundismorebeautifulthanthemastiff;andthedelicacyofagennet，abarb，oranArabianhorse，ismuchmoreamiablethanthestrengthandstabilityofsomehorsesofwarorcarriage。Ineedheresaylittleofthefairsex，whereIbelievethepointwillbeeasilyallowedme。Thebeautyofwomenisconsiderablyowingtotheirweaknessordelicacy，andisevenenhancedbytheirtimidity，aqualityofmindanalogoustoit。I
wouldnotherebeunderstoodtosay，thatweaknessbetrayingverybadhealthhasanyshareinbeauty;buttheilleffectofthisisnotbecauseitisweakness，butbecausetheillstateofhealth，whichproducessuchweakness，alterstheotherconditionsofbeauty;thepartsinsuchacasecollapse;thebrightcolour，——thelumenpurpureumjuventae，isgone;andthefinevariationislostinwrinkles，suddenbreaks，andrightlines。
CONFISCATIONANDCURRENCY。
Astotheoperationofthefirst(theconfiscationandpapercurrency)
merelyasacement，Icannotdenythatthese，theonedependingontheother，mayforsometimecomposesomesortofcement，iftheirmadnessandfollyinthemanagement，andinthetemperingofthepartstogether，doesnotproducearepulsionintheveryoutset。Butallowingtotheschemesomecoherenceandsomeduration，itappearstome，thatif，afterawhile，theconfiscationshouldnotbefoundsufficienttosupportthepapercoinage(asIammorallycertainitwillnot)，then，insteadofcementing，itwilladdinfinitelytothedissociation，distraction，andconfusionoftheseconfederaterepublics，bothwithrelationtoeachother，andtotheseveralpartswithinthemselves。Butiftheconfiscationshouldsofarsucceedastosinkthepapercurrency，thecementisgonewiththecirculation。Inthemeantimeitsbindingforcewillbeveryuncertain，anditwillstraitenorrelaxwitheveryvariationinthecreditofthepaper。
Onethingonlyiscertaininthisscheme，whichisaneffectseeminglycollateral，butdirect，Ihavenodoubt，inthemindsofthosewhoconductthisbusiness，thatis，itseffectinproducinganOLIGARCHYineveryoneoftherepublics。Apapercirculation，notfoundedonanyrealmoneydepositedorengagedfor，amountingalreadytofour-and-fortymillionsofEnglishmoney，andthiscurrencybyforcesubstitutedintheplaceofthecoinofthekingdom，becomingtherebythesubstanceofitsrevenue，aswellasthemediumofallitscommercialandcivilintercourse，mustputthewholeofwhatpower，authority，andinfluence，isleft，inanyformwhatsoeveritmayassume，intothehandsofthemanagersandconductorsofthiscirculation。
InEnglandwefeeltheinfluenceofthebank;thoughitisonlythecentreofavoluntarydealing。Heknowslittleindeedoftheinfluenceofmoneyuponmankind，whodoesnotseetheforceofthemanagementofamoniedconcern，whichissomuchmoreextensive，andinitsnaturesomuchmoredependingonthemanagersthananyofours。Butthisisnotmerelyamoneyconcern。Thereisanothermemberinthesysteminseparablyconnectedwiththismoneymanagement。Itconsistsinthemeansofdrawingoutatdiscretionportionsoftheconfiscatedlandsforsale;andcarryingonaprocessofcontinualtransmutationofpaperintoland，andoflandintopaper。Whenwefollowthisprocessinitseffects，wemayconceivesomethingoftheintensityoftheforcewithwhichthissystemmustoperate。Bythismeansthespiritofmoney-jobbingandspeculationgoesintothemassoflanditself，andincorporateswithit。Bythiskindofoperation，thatspeciesofpropertybecomes(asitwere)volatilized;itassumesanunnaturalandmonstrousactivity，andtherebythrowsintothehandsoftheseveralmanagers，principalandsubordinate，Parisianandprovincial，alltherepresentativeofmoney，andperhapsafulltenthpartofallthelandinFrance，whichhasnowacquiredtheworstandmostperniciouspartoftheevilofapapercirculation，——thegreatestpossibleuncertaintyinitsvalue。TheyhavereversedtheLatoniankindnesstothelandedpropertyofDelos。Theyhavesenttheirstobeblownabout，likethelightfragmentsofawreck，orasetlittoracircum。
Thenewdealers，beingallhabituallyadventurers，andwithoutanyfixedhabitsorlocalpredilections，willpurchasetojoboutagain，asthemarketofpaper，orofmoney，orofland，shallpresentanadvantage。
Forthoughaholybishopthinksthatagriculturewillderivegreatadvantagefromthe“ENLIGHTENED“usurerswhoaretopurchasethechurchconfiscations，I，whoamnotagood，butanoldfarmer，withgreathumilitybegleavetotellhislatelordship，thatusuryisnottutorofagriculture;andiftheword“enlightened“beunderstoodaccordingtothenewdictionary，asitalwaysisinyournewschools，Icannotconceivehowaman’snotbelievinginGodcanteachhimtocultivatetheearthwiththeleastofanyadditionalskillorencouragement。“Diisimmortalibussero，“saidanoldRoman，whenheheldonehandleoftheplough，whilstDeathheldtheother。ThoughyouweretojoininthecommissionallthedirectorsofthetwoacademiestothedirectorsoftheCaissed’Escompte，anoldexperiencedpeasantisworththemall。I
havegotmoreinformationuponacuriousandinterestingbranchofhusbandry，inoneshortconversationwithanoldCarthusianmonk，thanI
havederivedfromalltheBankdirectorsthatIhaveeverconversedwith。However，thereisnocauseforapprehensionfromthemeddlingofmoney-dealerswithruraleconomy。Thesegentlemenaretoowiseintheirgeneration。Atfirst，perhaps，theirtenderandsusceptibleimaginationsmaybecaptivatedwiththeinnocentandunprofitabledelightsofapastorallife;butinalittletimetheywillfindthatagricultureisatrademuchmorelaborious，andmuchlesslucrative，thanthatwhichtheyhadleft。Aftermakingitspanegyric，theywillturntheirbacksonitliketheirgreatprecursorandprototype。Theymay，likehim，beginbysinging“Beatusille“——butwhatwillbetheend？
“HaecubilocutusfoeneratorAlphius，JamjamfuturusrusticusOmnemrelegitIdibuspecuniam;
QuaeritCalendisponere。”
TheywillcultivatetheCaissed’Eglise，underthesacredauspicesofthisprelate，withmuchmoreprofitthanitsvineyardsanditscorn-fields。Theywillemploytheirtalentsaccordingtotheirhabitsandtheirinterests。Theywillnotfollowtheploughwhilsttheycandirecttreasuries，andgovernprovinces。
Yourlegislators，ineverythingnew，aretheveryfirstwhohavefoundedacommonwealthupongaming，andinfusedthisspiritintoit，asitsvitalbreath。ThegreatobjectinthesepoliticsistometamorphoseFrancefromagreatkingdomintoonegreatplay-table：toturnitsinhabitantsintoanationofgamesters;tomakespeculationasextensiveaslife;tomixitwithallitsconcerns;andtodivertthewholeofthehopesandfearsofthepeoplefromtheirusualchannelsintotheimpulses，passions，andsuperstitionsofthosewholiveonchances。Theyloudlyproclaimtheiropinion，thatthistheirpresentsystemofarepubliccannotpossiblyexistwithoutthiskindofgamingfund;andthattheverythreadofitslifeisspunoutofthestapleofthesespeculations。Theoldgaminginfundswasmischievousenoughundoubtedly;butitwassoonlytoindividuals。EvenwhenithaditsgreatestextentintheMississippiandSouthSea，itaffectedbutfew，comparatively;whereitextendsfurther，asinlotteries，thespirithasbutasingleobject。Butwherethelaw，whichinmostcircumstancesforbids，andinnonecountenances，gaming，isitselfdebauched，soastoreverseitsnatureandpolicy，andexpresslytoforcethesubjecttothisdestructivetable，bybringingthespiritandsymbolsofgamingintotheminutestmatters，andengagingeverybodyinit，andineverything，amoredreadfulepidemicdistemperofthatkindisspreadthanyethasappearedintheworld。Withyouamancanneitherearnnorbuyhisdinnerwithoutaspeculation。Whathereceivesinthemorningwillnothavethesamevalueatnight。Whatheiscompelledtotakeaspayforanolddebtwillnotbereceivedasthesamewhenhecomestopayadebtcontractedbyhimself;norwillitbethesamewhenbypromptpaymenthewouldavoidcontractinganydebtatall。Industrymustwitheraway。Economymustbedrivenfromyourcountry。Carefulprovisionwillhavenoexistence。Whowilllabourwithoutknowingtheamountofhispay？Whowillstudytoincreasewhatnonecanestimate？Whowillaccumulate，whenhedoesnotknowthevalueofwhathesaves？Ifyouabstractitfromitsusesingaming，toaccumulateyourpaperwealth，wouldbenottheprovidenceofaman，butthedistemperedinstinctofajackdaw。
“OMNIPOTENCEOFCHURCHPLUNDER。”
Theirfanaticalconfidenceintheomnipotenceofchurchplunderhasinducedthesephilosopherstooverlookallcareofthepublicestate，justasthedreamofthephilosopher’sstoneinducesdupes，underthemoreplausibledelusionofthehermeticart，toneglectallrationalmeansofimprovingtheirfortunes。Withthesephilosophicfinanciers，thisuniversalmedicinemadeofchurchmummyistocurealltheevilsofthestate。Thesegentlemen，perhaps，donotbelieveagreatdealinthemiraclesofpiety;butitcannotbequestioned，thattheyhaveanundoubtingfaithintheprodigiesofsacrilege。Isthereadebtwhichpressesthem？——Issueassignats。Arecompensationstobemade，oramaintenancedecreedtothosewhomtheyhaverobbedoftheirfreeholdintheiroffice，orexpelledfromtheirprofession？——Assignats。Isafleettobefittedout？——Assignats。Ifsixteenmillionssterlingoftheseassignats，forcedonthepeople，leavethewantsofthestateasurgentasever——issue，saysone，thirtymillionssterlingofassignats——saysanother，issuefourscoremillionsmoreofassignats。Theonlydifferenceamongtheirfinancialfactionsisonthegreaterorthelesserquantityofassignatstobeimposedonthepublicsufferance。Theyareallprofessorsofassignats。Eventhose，whosenaturalgoodsenseandknowledgeofcommerce，notobliteratedbyphilosophy，furnishdecisiveargumentsagainstthisdelusionconcludetheirargumentsbyproposingtheemissionofassignats。Isupposetheymusttalkofassignats，asnootherlanguagewouldbeunderstood。Allexperienceoftheirinefficacydoesnotintheleastdiscouragethem。Aretheoldassignatsdepreciatedatmarket？Whatistheremedy？Issuenewassignats——Maissimaladiaopiniatria，nonvultsegarire，quidillifacere？assignare——posteaassignare;ensuitaassignare。Thewordisatriflealtered。TheLatinofyourpresentdoctorsmaybebetterthanthatofyouroldcomedy;theirwisdomandthevarietyoftheirresourcesarethesame。Theyhavenotmorenotesintheirsongthanthecuckoo;though，farfromthesoftnessofthatharbingerofsummerandplenty，theirvoiceisasharshandasominousasthatoftheraven。
UGLINESS。
Itmay，perhaps，appearlikeasortofrepetitionofwhatwehavebeforesaid，toinsisthereuponthenatureofUGLINESS;asIimagineittobeinallrespectstheoppositetothosequalitieswhichwehavelaiddownfortheconstituentsofbeauty。Butthoughuglinessbetheoppositetobeauty，itisnottheoppositetoproportionandfitness。Foritispossiblethatathingmaybeveryuglywithanyproportions，andwithaperfectfitnesstoanyuses。UglinessIimaginelikewisetobeconsistentenoughwithanideaofthesublime。ButIwouldbynomeansinsinuatethatuglinessofitselfisasublimeidea，unlessunitedwithsuchqualitiesasexciteastrongterror。
GRACE。
GRACEFULNESSisanideanotverydifferentfrombeauty;itconsistsinmuchthesamethings。GracefulnessisanideabelongingtoPOSTUREandMOTION。Inboththese，tobegraceful，itisrequisitethattherebenoappearanceofdifficulty;thereisrequiredasmallinflectionofthebody;andacomposureofthepartsinsuchamanner，asnottoencumbereachother，nottoappeardividedbysharpandsuddenangles。Inthisease，thisroundness，thisdelicacyofattitudeandmotion，itisthatallthemagicofgraceconsists，andwhatiscalleditsjenesaisquoi;
aswillbeobvioustoanyobserver，whoconsidersattentivelytheVenusdeMedicis，theAntinous，oranystatuegenerallyallowedtobegracefulinahighdegree。
ELEGANCEANDSPECIOUSNESS。
Whenanybodyiscomposedofpartssmoothandpolished，withoutpressinguponeachother，withoutshowinganyruggednessorconfusion，andatthesametimeaffectingsomeREGULARSHAPE，IcallitELEGANT。Itiscloselyalliedtothebeautiful，differingfromitonlyinthisREGULARITY;
which，however，asitmakesaverymaterialdifferenceintheaffectionproduced，mayverywellconstituteanotherspecies。UnderthisheadI
rankthosedelicateandregularworksofart，thatimitatenodeterminateobjectinnature，aselegantbuildings，andpiecesoffurniture。Whenanyobjectpartakesoftheabove-mentionedqualities，areofthoseofbeautifulbodies，andiswithalofgreatdimensions，itisfullasremotefromtheideaofmerebeauty：IcallitFINEorSPECIOUS。
