MINDisanorganicwholemadeupofcooperatingindividualities，insomewhatthesamewaythatthemusicofanorchestraismadeupofdivergentbutrelatedsounds。Noonewouldthinkitnecessaryorreasonabletodividethemusicintotwokinds，thatmadebythewholeandthatofparticularinstruments，andnomorearetheretwokindsofmind，thesocialmindandtheindividualmind。Whenwestudythesocialmindwemerelyfixourattentiononlargeraspectsandrelationsratherthanonthenarroweronesofordinarypsychology。
Theviewthatallmindactstogetherinavitalwholefromwhichtheindividualisneverreallyseparateflowsnaturallyfromourgrowingknowledgeofheredityandsuggestion，whichmakesitincreasinglyclearthateverythoughtwehaveislinkedwiththethoughtofourancestorsandassociates，andthroughthemwiththatofsocietyatlarge。Itisalsotheonlyviewconsistentwith，(4)thegeneralstandpointofmodernscience，whichadmitsnothingisolateinnature。
Theunityofthesocialmindconsistsnotinagreementbutinorganization，inthefactofreciprocalinfluenceorcausationamongitsparts，byvirtueofwhicheverythingthattakesplaceinitisconnectedwitheverythingelse，andsoisanoutcomeofthewhole。Whether，liketheorchestra，itgivesforthharmonymaybeamatterofdispute，butthatitssound，pleasingorotherwise，istheexpressionofavitalcooperation，cannotwellbedeniedCertainlyeverythingthatIsayorthinkisinfluencedbywhatothershavesaidorthought，and，inonewayoranother，sendsoutaninfluenceofitsowninturn。
Thisdifferentiatedunityofmentalorsociallife，presentinthesimplestintercoursebutcapableofinfinitegrowthandadaptation，iswhatImeaninthisworkbysocialorganization。Itwouldbeuseless，Ithink，toattemptamoreelaboratedefinition。Wehaveonlytoopenoureyestoseeorganization;andifwecannotdothatnodefinitionwillhelpus。
Inthesocialmindwemaydistinguish梫eryroughlyofcourse梒onsciousandunconsciousrelations，theunconsciousbeingthoseofwhichwearenotaware，whichforsomereasonescapeournotice。Agreatpartoftheinfluencesatworkuponusareofthischaracter：ourlanguage，ourmechanicalarts，ourgovernmentandotherinstitutions，wederivechieflyfrompeopletowhomwearebutindirectlyandunconsciouslyrelated。Thelargermovementsofsociety梩heprogressanddecadenceofnations，institutionsandraces梙aveseldombeena，(5)matterofconsciousnessuntiltheywerepast。Andalthoughthegrowthofsocialconsciousnessisperhapsthegreatestfactofhistory，ithasstillbutanarrowandfalliblegraspofhumanlife。
Socialconsciousness，orawarenessofsociety，isinseparablefromself-consciousness，becausewecanhardlythinkofourselvesexceptingwithreferencetoasocialgroupofsomesort，orofthegroupexceptwithreferencetoourselves。Thetwothingsgotogether，andwhatwearereallyawareofisamoreorlesscomplexpersonalorsocialwhole，ofwhichnowtheparticular，nowthegeneral，aspectisemphasized。
Ingeneral，then，mostofourreflectiveconsciousness，ofourwide-awakestateofmind，issocialconsciousness，becauseasenseofourrelationtootherpersons，orofotherpersonstooneanother，canhardlyfailtobeapartofit。Selfandsocietyaretwin-born，weknowoneasimmediatelyasweknowtheother，andthenotionofaseparateandindependentegoisanillusion。
Thisview，whichseemstomequitesimpleandinaccordwithcommon-sense，isnottheonemostcommonlyheld，forpsychologistsandevensociologistsarestillmuchinfectedwiththeideathatself-consciousnessisinsomewayprimary，andantecedenttosocialconsciousness，whichmustbederivedbysomereconditeprocessofcombinationorelimination。Iventure，therefore，togivesomefurtherexpositionofit，basedinpartonfirsthandobservationofthegrowthofsocialideasinchildren。
Descartesis，Isuppose，thebest-knownexponentofthetraditionalviewregardingtheprimacyofself-conscious-
(6)-ness。Seekinganunquestionablebasisforphilosophy，hethoughtthathefounditintheproposition“Ithink，thereforeIam“(cogito，ergosum)。Thisseemedtohiminevitable，thoughallelsemightbeillusion。“Iobserved，“hesays，“that，whilstIthuswishedtothinkthatallwasfalse，itwasabsolutelynecessarythatI，whothusthought，shouldbesomewhat;andasIobservedthatthistruth，Ithink，henceIam，wassocertainandofsuchevidencethatnogroundofdoubt，howeverextravagant，couldbeallegedbythescepticscapableofshakingit，IconcludedthatImight，withoutscruple，acceptitasthefirstprincipleofthephilosophyofwhichIwasinsearch。”[1]
Fromourpointofviewthisreasoningisunsatisfactoryintwoessentialrespects。Inthefirstplaceitseemstoimplythat“I“-consciousnessisapartofallconsciousness，when，infact，itbelongsonlytoaratheradvancedstageofdevelopment。Intheseconditisone-sidedor“individualistic“inassertingthepersonalor“I“aspecttotheexclusionofthesocialor“we“aspect，whichisequallyoriginalwithit。
Introspectionisessentialtopsychologicalorsocialinsight，buttheintrospectionofDescarteswas，inthisinstance，alimited，almostabnormal，sortofintrospection梩hatofaself-absorbedphilosopherdoinghisbesttoisolatehimselffromotherpeopleandfromallsimpleandnaturalconditionsoflife。Themindintowhichhelookedwasinahighlytechnicalstate，notlikelytogivehimajustviewofhumanconsciousnessingeneral。
(7)
Introspectionisofalargersortinourday。Thereisaworldofthingsinthemindworthlookingat，andthemodernpsychologist，insteadoffixinghisattentionwhollyonanextremeformofspeculativeself-consciousness，putshismindthroughaninfinitevarietyofexperiences，intellectualandemotional，simpleandcomplex，normalandabnormal，sociableandprivate，recordingineachcasewhatheseesinit。Hedoesthisbysubjectingittosuggestionsorincitementsofvariouskinds，whichawakentheactivitieshedesirestostudy。
Inparticularhedoesitlargelybywhatmaybecalledsympatheticintrospection，puttinghimselfintointimatecontactwithvarioussortsofpersonsandallowingthemtoawakeinhimselfalifesimilartotheirown，whichheafterwards，tothebestofhisability，recallsanddescribes。Inthiswayheismoreorlessabletounderstand梐lwaysbyintrospection梒hildren，idiots，criminals，richandpoor，conservativeandradical梐nyphaseofhumannaturenotwhollyalientohisown。
ThisIconceivetobetheprincipalmethodofthesocialpsychologist。
Onethingwhichthisbroaderintrospectionrevealsisthatthe“I“-consciousnessdoesnotexplicitlyappearuntilthechildis，say，abouttwoyearsold，andthatwhenitdoesappearitcomesininseparableconjunctionwiththeconsciousnessofotherpersonsandofthoserelationswhichmakeupasocialgroup。Itisinfactsimplyonephaseofabodyofpersonalthoughtwhichisself-consciousnessinoneaspectandsocialconsciousnessinanother。
(8)
Thementalexperienceofanew-bornchildisprobablyamerestreamofimpressions，whichmayberegardedasbeingindividual，inbeingdifferentiatedfromanyotherstream？orassocial，inbeinganundoubtedproductofinheritanceandsuggestionfromhumanlifeatlarge;
butisnotawareeitherofitselforofsociety。
Verysoon，however，themindbeginstodiscriminatepersonalimpressionsandtobecomebothnaivelyself-consciousandnaivelyconsciousofsociety;thatis，thechildisaware，inanunreflectiveway，ofagroupandofhisownspecialrelationtoit。Hedoesnotsay“I“nordoeshenamehismother，hissisterorhisnurse，buthehasimagesandfeelingsoutofwhichtheseideaswillgrow。Latercomesthemorereflectiveconsciousnesswhichnamesbothhimselfandotherpeople，andbringsafullerperceptionoftherelationswhichconstitutetheunityofthissmallworld。[2]
Andsoontothemostelaboratephasesofself-consciousnessandsocialconsciousness，tothemetaphysicianponderingtheEgo，orthesociologistmeditatingontheSocialOrganism。Selfandsocietygotogether，asphases，(9)ofacommonwhole。IamawareofthesocialgroupsinwhichIliveasimmediatelyandauthenticallyasIamawareofmyself;
andDescartesmighthavesaid“Wethink，“cogitamus，onasgoodgroundsashesaidcogito。
But，itmaybesaid，thisveryconsciousnessthatyouareconsideringisafteralllocatedinaparticularperson，andsoareallsimilarconsciousnesses，sothatwhatwesee，ifwetakeanobjectiveviewofthematter，ismerelyanaggregateofindividuals，howeversocialthoseindividualsmaybe。Common-sense，mostpeoplethink，assuresusthattheseparatepersonistheprimaryfactoflife。
Ifso，isitnotbecausecommon-sensehasbeentrainedbycustomtolookatoneaspectofthingsandnotanother？Common-sense，moderatelyinformed，assuresusthattheindividualhashisbeingonlyaspartofawhole。Whatdoesnotcomebyhereditycomesbycommunicationandintercourse;andthemorecloselywelookthemoreapparentitisthatseparatenessisanillusionoftheeyeandcommunitytheinnertruth。“
Socialorganism，“usingtheterminnoabstrusesensebutmerelytomeanavitalunityinhumanlife，isafactasobvioustoenlightenedcommon-senseasindividuality。
Idonotquestionthattheindividualisadifferentiatedcentreofpsychicallife，havingaworldofhisownintowhichnootherindividualcanfullyenter;livinginastreamofthoughtinwhichthereisnothingquitelikethatinanyotherstream，neitherhis“I，“norhis“you，“norhis“we，“norevenanymaterialobject;all，probably，astheyexistforhim，havesomethinguniqueaboutthem。Butthisuniquenessisnomoreapparentandverifiablethanthefact——notatallinconsistentwithit梩hatheis，(10)inthefullestsensememberofawhole，appearingsuchnotonlytoscientificobservationbutalsotohisownuntrainedconsciousness。
Thereisthennomysteryaboutsocialconsciousness。Theviewthatthereissomethingreconditeaboutitandthatitmustbedugforwithmetaphysicsanddrawnforthfromthedepthsofspeculation，springsfromafailuretograspadequatelythesocialnatureofallhigherconsciousness。
Whatweneedinthisconnectionisonlyabetterseeingandunderstandingofratherordinaryandfamiliarfacts。
Wemayviewsocialconsciousnesseitherinaparticularmindorasacooperativeactivityofmanyminds。ThesocialideasthatIhavearecloselyconnectedwiththosethatotherpeoplehave，andactandreactuponthemtoformawhole。Thisgivesuspublicconsciousness，ortouscamorefamiliarterm，publicopinion，inthebroadsenseofagroupstateofmindwhichismoreorlessdistinctlyawareofitself。BythislastphraseImeansuchamutualunderstandingofoneanother’spointsofviewonthepartoftheindividualsorgroupsconcernedasnaturallyresultsfromdiscussion。Therearealldegreesofthisawarenessinthevariousindividuals。Generallyspeaking，itneverembracesthewholeinallitscomplexity，butalmostalwayssomeoftherelationsthatenterintothewhole。Themoreintimatethecommunicationofagroupthemorecomplete，themorethoroughlyknittogetherintoalivingwhole，isitspublicconsciousness。
Inacongenialfamilylife，forexample，theremaybeapublicconsciousnesswhichbringsalltheimportant，(11)thoughtsandfeelingsofthemembersintosuchalivingandcooperativewhole。Inthemindofeachmember，also，thissamethingexistsasasocialconsciousnessembracingavividsenseofthepersonaltraitsandmodesofthoughtandfeelingoftheothermembers。And，finally，quiteinseparablefromallthis，iseachone’sconsciousnessofhimself，whichislargelyadirectreflectionoftheideasabouthimselfheattributestotheothers，andisdirectlyorindirectlyaltogetheraproductofsociallife。Thusallconsciousnesshangstogether，andthedistinctionsarechieflybasedonpointofview。
Theunityofpublicopinion，likeallvitalunity，isonenotofagreementbutoforganization，ofinteractionandmutualinfluence。
Itistruethatacertainunderlyinglikenessofnatureisnecessaryinorderthatmindsmayinfluenceoneanotherandsocooperateinformingavitalwhole，butidentity，eveninthesimplestprocess，isunnecessaryandprobablyimpossible。TheconsciousnessoftheAmericanHouseofRepresentatives，forexample，isbynomeanslimitedtothecommonviews，ifthereareany，sharedbyitsmembers，butembracesthewholeconsciousnessofeverymembersofarasthisdealswiththeactivityoftheHouse。Itwouldbeapoorconceptionofthewholewhichleftouttheopposition，orevenonedissentientindividual。Thatallmindsaredifferentisacondition，notanobstacle，totheunitythatconsistsinadifferentiatedandcooperativelife。
Hereisanotherillustrationofwhatismeantbyindividualandcollectiveaspectsofsocialconsciousness。Someofuspossessagoodmanybooksrelatingtosocialquestionsoftheday。Eachofthesebooks，consideredby，(12)itself，istheexpressionofaparticularsocialconsciousness;theauthorhascleareduphisideasaswellashecanandprintedthem。Butalibraryofsuchbooksexpressessocialconsciousnessinalargersense;itspeaksfortheepoch。Andcertainlynoonewhoreadsthebookswilldoubtthattheyformawhole，whatevertheirdifferences。
Theradicalandthereactionistareclearlypartofthesamegeneralsituation。
Thereare，then，atleastthreeaspectsofconsciousnesswhichwemayusefullydistinguish：self-consciousness，orwhatIthinkofmyself;socialconsciousness(initsindividualaspect)，orwhatIthinkofotherpeople;andpublicconsciousness，oracollectiveviewoftheforegoingasorganizedinacommunicatinggroup。Andallthreearephasesofasinglewhole。
Endnotes，DiscourseonMethod，partiv。6，Thereismuchinterestandsignificanceinthematterofchildren’sfirstlearningtheuseof“I“andotherself-words梛usthowtheylearnthemandwhattheymeanbythem。Somediscussionofthematter，basedonobservationoftwochildren，willbefoundinHumanNatureandtheSocialOrder;andmorerecentlyIhavepublishedapaperinthePsychologicalReview(November，1908)calledAStudyoftheEarlyUseofSelf-WordsbyaChild。“I“seemstomeanprimarilytheassertionofwillinasocialmediumofwhichthechildisconsciousandofwhichhis“I“isaninseparablepart。Itisthusasocialideaand，asstatedinthetext，arisesbydifferentiationofavaguebodyofpersonalthoughtwhichisself-consciousnessinonephaseandsocialconsciousnessinanother。Ithasnonecessaryreferencetothebody。，CharlesHortonCooley：SocialOrganization：Chapter2：SocialandIndividual，AspectsofMind(Continued)，CHAPTERII
SOCIALANDINDIVIDUALASPECTSOFMIND——(CONTINUED)，MORALASPECTOFTHEORGANICVIEW——ITIMPLIESTHATREFORM
SHOULDBEBASEDONSYMPATHY——USESOFPRAISEANDBLAME——RESPOSIBILITY
BROADENEDBUTNOTLOST——MORALVALUEOFALARGERVIEW——ORGANICMORALITY
CALLSFORKNOWLEDGE——NATUREOFSOCIALORGANIZATION
Sofarasthemoralaspectisconcerned，itshouldbetheresultofthisorganicviewofmindtomakethewholeteachingandpracticeofrighteousnessmorerationalandeffectualbybringingitclosertofact。Amoralviewwhichdoesnotseetheindividualinlivingunitywithsocialwholesisunrealandapttoleadtoimpracticalresults。
Havenotthemoralphilosophiesofthepastmissedtheirmark，ingreatpart，bysettingbeforetheindividualabsolutestandardsofbehavior，withoutaffordinghimanexplanationforhisbackwardnessoraprogrammeforhisgradualadvance？Anddidnotthisspringfromnotdiscerningclearlythatthemorallifewasasocialorganism，inwhicheveryindividualorgroupofindividualshaditsownspecialpossibilitiesandlimitations~Ingeneralsuchsystems，paganandChristian，havesaid，“Allofusoughttobesoandso，butsinceveryfewofusare，thisisevidentlyabadworld。”Andtheyhavehadnolarge，well-organized，slow-but-sureplanformakingitbetter。Impracticablestandardshavethesameilleffectasunenforciblelaw;theyaccustomustoseparatetheoryfrompracticeandmakeachasmbetweentheindividualandthemoralideal。
(14)
Thepresentwayofthinkingtendstocloseupthischasmandbringbothpersonsandidealsintomoreintelligiblerelationstoreallife。Thesinsorvirtuesoftheindividual？itseems？areneverfortuitousordisconnected;theyhavealwaysahistoryandcollateralsupport，andareinfactmoreorlesspleasingphasesofastruggling，aspiringwhole。
Theidealsarealsopartsofthewhole;statesofbeing，achievedmomentarilybythoseinfrontandtreasuredfortheanimationandsolaceofall。Andthemethodofrighteousnessistounderstandaswellasmaybetheworkingofthiswholeandofallitsparts，andtoformandpursuepracticableidealsbasedonthisunderstanding。Itisalwaystobetakenforgrantedthatthereisnorealbreakwithhistoryandenvironment。Eachindividualmayberequiredtoputforthasteadfastendeavortomakehimselfandhissurroundingsbetter，butnottoachieveastandardunconnectedwithhisactualstate。Andthesameprincipleappliestospecialgroupsofallsorts，includingnations，races，andreligions;theirprogressmustbealonganaturallineofimprovementsuggestedbywhattheyare。Wearethuscomingundertheswayofthatrelativespirit，ofwhich，saysWalterPater，“
theethicalresultisadelicateandtenderjusticeinthecriticismofhumanlife。”[1]
Accordingtothis，realreformmustbesympathetic;thatis，itmustbegin，notwithdenunciation梩houghthatmayhaveitsuses梑utwithanintimateappreciationofthingsastheyare，andshouldproceedinaspiritoppositetothatinwhichwehavecommonlyattackedsuchques，(15)-tionsasthesuppressionofintemperanceandtheconversionoftheheathen。
Humannature，itappears，isverymuchthesameinthosewereckonsinnersasinourselves。Goodandevilarealwaysintimatelybounduptogether;nosortofmenarechieflygivenovertoconsciousbadness;
andtoabusemenorgroupsinthelargeisunjustandgenerallyfutile。
Asarulethepracticalmethodistostudycloselyandkindlytheactualsituation，withthepeopleinvolvedinit;thengraduallyandcarefullytoworkouttheevilfromthemixturebysubstitutinggoodforit。Nomatterhowmeanorhideousaman’slifeis，thefirstthingistounderstandhim;
tomakeoutjusthowitisthatourcommonhumannaturehascometoworkoutinthisway。Thismethodcallsforpatience，insight，firmness，andconfidenceinmen，leavinglittleroomforthedenunciatoryegotismofacertainkindofreformers。Itismoreandmorecomingtobeusedindealingwithintemperance，crime，greed，andinfactallthosemattersinwhichwetrytomakeourselvesandourneighborsbetter。Inoticethatthemosteffectualleadersofphilanthropyhavealmostceasedfromdenunciation。
Tacitlyassumingthatthereareexcusesforeverything，they“shunthenegativeside“andspendtheirenergyinbuildinguptheaffirmative。
Thissortofmoralitydoesnot，however，dispensewithpraiseandblame，whicharebasedonthenecessityofupholdinghigheridealsbyexample，anddiscreditinglowerones。Allsuchdistinctionsgettheirmeaningfromtheirrelationtoanupward-strivinggenerallife，whereinconspicuousmenserveassymbolsthroughwhichthehigher，(16)structuremaybeeithersupportedorundermined。
Wemusthaveheroes，andperhapsvillains(thoughitisbetternottothinkmuchaboutthelatter)，eventhoughtheirperformances，whencloselyviewed，appeartobeanequallynaturalproductofhistoryandenvironment。Tnshortitmakesadifferencewhetherwejudgeamanwithreferencetohisspecialhistoryand“lights，“ortothelargerlifeoftheworld;anditisrighttoassignexemplarypraiseorblameonthelattergroundwhichwouldbeunwarrantedontheformer。Thereiscertainlyaspecialrightforeveryman;buttherightofmostmenispartial，importantchieflytothemselvesandtheirimmediatesphere;whiletherearesomewhoserightisrepresentative，likethatofJesus，fittoguidethemoralthoughtofmankind;andwecherishandreveretheselatterbecausetheycorroboratetheidealswewishtoholdbeforeus。
Itmatterslittlefortheselargerpurposeswhetherthesinsorvirtuesofconspicuouspersonsareconsciousornot;ourconcerniswithwhattheystandforinthegeneralmind。Infactconsciouswickednessiscomparativelyunimportant，becauseitimpliesthattheindividualisdividedinhisownmind，andthereforeweak。Themosteffectiveill-doersbelieveinthemselvesandhaveaquietconscience。And，inthesameway，goodnessismosteffectualwhenittakesitselfasamatterofcourseandfeelsnoself-complacency。
Blameandpunishment，then，areessentiallysymbolic，theirfunctionbeingtodefineandenforcethepublicwill，andinnowayimplythattheoffendersareofadifferentnaturefromtherestofus。
Wefeelittobetruethatwithalittledifferenttrainingandsurroundingswemighthave，(17)committedalmostanycrimeforwhichmenaresenttoprison，andcanreadilyunderstandthatcriminalsshouldnotcommonlyfeelthattheyareworsethanothers。Thesameprincipleappliestothosemalefactors，moredangerouspcrhups，whokeepwithinthelaw，andyetarcterriblypunishedfromtimetotimebypublicopinion。
Perhapsitwouldbewellifboththosewhosufferpunishmentandthosewhoinflictitweremoredistinctlyawareofitssymboliccharacterandfunction。Theformermightfindtheirsenseofjusticeappeasedbyperceivingthatthoughwhattheydidwasnaturalandperhapsnotconsciouslywrong，itmaystillneedtobediscreditedandatonedfor。Theculpritisnotseparatedfromsocietybyhispunishment，butrestoredtoit。Itishiswayofservice;andifhetakesitintherightspiritheisbetteroffthanthosewhodowrongbutarenotpunished。
Therestofus，ontheotherhand，mightrealizethatthoseinthepilloryareourrepresentatives，whosuffer，inarealsense，forus。Thiswoulddisinclineustospendinacheapabuseofconspicuousoffendersthatmoralardorwhoseproperfunctionisthecorrectionofourownlife。Thespectacleofpunishmentisnotforustogloatover，buttoremindusofoursins，which，asspringingfromthesamenatureandsociety，aresuretobemuchthesameasthatoftheonepunished。Itispreciselybecauseheislikeusthatheispunished。Ifhewereradicallydifferenthewouldbelonginaninsaneasylum，andpunishmentwouldbemerecruelty。
Underthelargerviewofmindresponsibilityisbroadened，becausewerecognizeabroaderreachofcausation，but，(18)bynomeanslostinanabstract“society。”Itgoeswithpowerandincreasesrapidlyinproportionastheevilcomesnearerthesphereoftheindividual’svoluntaryaction，sothateachofusispeculiarlyresponsibleforthemoralstateofhisowntrade，family，orsocialconnection。Contrarytoaprevalentimpression，itisinthesefamiliarrelationsthattheindividualisleastofalljustifiedinbeingnobetterthanhisenvironment。
Everyactofthewill，especiallywherethewillismostathome，shouldbeaffirmativeandconstructive;itbeingthefunctionandmeaningofindividualitythateachoneshouldbe，inthedirectionofhischiefactivities，somethingotherandbetterthanhissurroundings。
Onceadmittheplea“Imaydowhatotherpeopledo，“andthebasisofrighteousnessisgone;perhapsthereisnomoralfallacysowidespreadandsoperniciousasthis。Itistheseno-worse-than-other-peopledecisionsthatparalyzethemorallifeintheoneandinthewhole，involvingasortofmoralpanmixia，asthebiologistssay，which，lackinganyprogressiveimpulse，mustresultindeterioration。Intheenditwilljustifyanything，sincetherearealwaysbadexamplestofallbackupon。
Itiscommonlyfutile，however，torequireanysharpbreakwiththepast;wemustbecontentwithanupwardendeavorandtendency。
Itisquitetruethatweareallinvolvedinanetofquestionablepracticesfromwhichwecanonlyescapealittleatatimeandincooperationwithourassociates。
Itisanerrortoimaginethatthedoctrineofindividualresponsibilityisalwaystheexpedientandedifyingone，(19)inmattersofconduct。Thereisasortofpeoplewhogrowindignantwhenevergeneralcausesareinsistedupon，apparentlyconvincedthatwhetherthesearerealornotitisimmoraltobelieveinthem。Butitisnotinvariablyagoodthingtourgethewill，sincethis，ifoverstimulated，becomesfagged，stale，anddiscouraged。
Oftenitisbetterthatoneshouldlethimselfgo，andtrusthimselftotheinvoluntaryforces，tothenatureofthings，toGod。Thenervousorstrainedpersononlyharassesandweakenshiswillbyfixingattentionuponit：itwillworkonmoreeffectuallyifhelooksawayfromit，calminghimselfbyaviewofthelargerwhole;andnotwithoutreasonSpinozacountsamongtheadvantagesofdeterminism“theattainmentofhappinessbymanthroughrealizinghisintimateunionwiththewholenatureofthings;thedistinctionbetweenthingsinourpowerandthingsnotinourpower;theavoidanceofalldisturbingpassions，andtheperformanceofsocialdutiesfromrationaldesireforthecommongood。”[2]
Anobviousmoraldefectoftheunbalanceddoctrineofresponsibilityisthatitpermitsthesuccessfultodespisetheunfortunate，inthebeliefthatthelatter“haveonlythemselvestoblame，“abeliefnotcountenancedbythelargerviewoffact。Wemaypardonthisdoctrinewhenitmakesonetoohardonhimselforonsuccessfulwrongdoers，butasarodwithwhichtobeatthosealreadydownitisdespicable。
Theannalsofreligionshowthatthemorallifehasalwaysthesetwoaspects，theparticularandthegeneral，asinthedoctrinesoffreedomandpredestination，orin，(20)thewrestlingswithsinfollowedbyself-abandonmentthatwefindintheliteratureofconversion。[3]Perhapswemaysaythatthedeterministicattitudeismorallygoodinatleasttwoclassesofcases：First，fornervous，conscientiousindividuals，likeSpinoza，whosewillsneedrathercalmingthanstimulating，alsoforanyonewhomaybeeventemporarilyinastateofmentalstrain;second，indealingonalargescalewithsocialormoralquestionswhosecausesmustbetreateddispassionatelyandinamass。
Thesequestionsoffree-willversuslaw，andthelike，arebutlittle，ifatall，questionsoffact梬henwegetdowntodefinitefactsbearinguponthematterwefindlittleornodisagreement梑utofpointofviewandemphasis。Ifyoufixattentionontheindividualphaseofthingsandseelifeasatheatreofpersonalaction，thenthecorrespondingideasofprivatewill，responsibility，praise，andblamerisebeforeyou;ifyouregarditstotalaspectyouseetendency，evolution，lawandimpersonalgrandeur。Eachoftheseisahalftruthneedingtobecompletedbytheother;thelargertruth，includingboth，beingthatlifeisanorganicwhole，presentingitselfwithequalrealityinindividualandgeneralaspects。Argumentuponsuchquestionsiswithoutlimit梥incethereisreallynothing，(21)atissue梐ndinthatsensetheproblemoffreedomversuslawisinsoluble。
Aboveall，theorganicviewofmindcallsforsocialknowledgeasthebasisofmorality。Weliveinasystemandtoachieverightends，oranyrationalendswhatever，wemustlearntounderstandthatsystem。Thepublicmindmustemergesomewhatfromitssubconsciousconditionandknowandguideitsownprocesses。
Bothconsciouslyandunconsciouslythelargermindiscontinuallybuildingitselfupintowholes梖ashions，traditions，institutions，tendencies，andthelike梬hichspreadanddiversifylikethebranchesofatree，andsogenerateaneverhigherandmorevariousstructureofdifferentiatedthoughtandsymbols。Theimmediatemotorandguideofthisgrowthisinterest，andwhereverthatpointssocialstructurecomesintobeing，asapicturegrowswheretheartistmoveshispencil。
Visiblesocietyis，indeed，literally，aworkofart，slowandmostlysubconsciousinitsproduction梐sgreatartoftenis梖ullofgrotesqueandwaywardtraits，butyetofinexhaustiblebeautyandfascination。Itisthiswefindinthehistoryofoldcivilizations，gettingfromitthecompletedworkoftheartistwithoutthatstrainandconfusionofproductionwhichdefacesthepresent。Wegetit，especially，notfromthehistoryofthetheoristorthestatistician，butfromtheactual，naive，humanrecordtobefoundinmemoirs，inpopularliterature，inarchitecture，painting，sculpture，andmusic，intheindustrialarts，ineveryunforcedproductofthemind。
Socialorganizationisnothinglessthanthisvariega-
(22)-tionoflife，takeninthewidestsensepossible。Itshouldnotbeconceivedastheproductmerelyofdefiniteandutilitarianpurpose，butasthetotalexpressionofconsciousandsubconscioustendency，theslowcrystallizationinmanyformsandcolorsofthelifeofthehumanspirit。
Anyfairlydistinctanddurabledetailofthisstructuremaybecalledasocialtype;thisbeingaconvenienttermtousewhenwewishtobreakupthewholeintoparts，foranalysisordescription。Thustherearetypesofpersonality，ofpoliticalstructure，ofreligion，ofclasses。ofthefamily，ofart，oflanguage;alsoofprocesses，likecommunication，cooperation，andcompetition;andsoon。Thewholeissovariousthatfromeverynewpointofviewnewformsarerevealed。
Socialtypesareanalogoustothegenera，species，andvarietiesoftheanimalworld，inbeingpartsofonelivingwholeandyethavingarelativecontinuityanddistinctnesswhichissusceptibleofdetailedstudy。Likebiologicaltypes，also，theyexistinrelatedsystemsandorders，aresubjecttovariation，competewithoneanother，flourishanddecay，maybeflexibleorrigid，andmayormaynotformprolificcrosseswithoneanother。
Withoutforgettingtoseelifeasindividuals，wemustlearntoseeitalsoastypes，processes，organizationthelatterbeingjustasrealastheformer。Andespecially，inordertoseethemattertruly，shouldwebeabletointerpretindividualsbywholes，andviceversa。
Endnotes，SeehisessayonColeridge。Pollock’sSpinoza，2ded。195。Amplyexpounded，withduestressonthemoralvalueoflettinggo，byWilliamJames，inhisVarietiesofReligiousExperienee：“Thisabandonmentofself-responsibilityseemstobethefundamentalactinspecificallyreligious，asdistinguishedfrommoralpractice。Itantedatestheologiesandisindependentofphilosophies……itiscapableofenteringintoclosestmarriagewitheveryspeculativecreed。”Page289。，CharlesHortonCooley：SocialOrganization：Chapter3：PrimaryGroups，CHAPTERIII，PRIMARYGROUPS
MEANINGOFPRIMARYGROUPS——FAMILY，PLAYGROUND，ANDNEIGHBORHOOD——
HOWFARINFLUENCEDBYLARGERSOCIETY——MEANINGANDPERMANENCEOF“HUMAN
NATURE“——PRIMARYGROUPSTHENURSERYOFHUMANNATURE。
BYprimarygroupsImeanthosecharacterizedbyintimateface-to-faceassociationandcooperation。Theyareprimaryinseveralsenses，butchieflyinthattheyarefundamentalinformingthesocialnatureandidealsoftheindividual。Theresultofintimateassociation，psychologically，isacertainfusionofindividualitiesinacommonwhole，sothatone’sveryself，formanypurposesatleast，isthecommonlifeandpurposeofthegroup。Perhapsthesimplestwayofdescribingthiswholenessisbysayingthatitisa“we“;itinvolvesthesortofsympathyandmutualidentificationforwhich“we“isthenaturalexpression。Onelivesinthefeelingofthewholeandfindsthechiefaimsofhiswillinthatfeeling。
Itisnottobesupposedthattheunityoftheprimarygroupisoneofmereharmonyandlove。Itisalwaysadifferentiatedandusuallyacompetitiveunity，admittingofself-assertionandvariousappropriativepassions;butthesepassionsaresocializedbysympathy，andcome，ortendtocome，underthedisciplineofacommonspirit。Theindividualwillbeambitious，butthechiefobjectof，(24)
hisambitionwillbesomedesiredplaceinthethoughtoftheothers，andhewillfeelallegiancetocommonstandardsofserviceandfairplay。Sotheboywilldisputewithhisfellowsaplaceontheteam？butabovesuchdisputeswillplacethecommongloryofhisclassandschool。
Themostimportantspheresofthisintimateassociationandcooperation梩houghbynomeanstheonlyones梐rethefamily，theplay-groupofchildren，andtheneighborhoodorcommunitygroupofelders。Thesearepracticallyuniversal，belongingtoalltimesandallstagesofdevelopment;
andareaccordinglyachiefbasisofwhatisuniversalinhumannatureandhumanideals。Thebestcomparativestudiesofthefamily，suchasthoseofWestermarck[1]orHoward，[2]showittousasnotonlyauniversalinstitution，butasmorealiketheworldoverthantheexaggerationofexceptionalcustomsbyanearlierschoolhadledustosuppose。Norcananyonedoubtthegeneralprevalenceofplay-groupsamongchildrenorofinformalassembliesofvariouskindsamongtheirelders。Suchassociationisclearlythenurseryofhumannatureintheworldaboutus，andthereisnoapparentreasontosupposethatthecasehasanywhereoratanytimebeenessentiallydifferent。
Asregardsplay，Imight，wereitnotamatterofcommonobservation，multiplyillustrationsoftheuniversalityandspontaneityofthegroupdiscussionandcooperationtowhichitgivesrise。Thegeneralfactisthatchildren，especiallyboysafterabouttheirtwelfthyear，liveinfellow-
(25)-shipsinwhichtheirsympathy，ambitionandhonorareengagedevenmore，often，thantheyareinthefamily。Mostofuscanrecallexamplesoftheendurancebyboysofinjusticeandevencruelty？
ratherthanappealfromtheirfellowstoparentsorteachers——as，forinstance，inthehazingsoprevalentatschools，andsodifficult，forthisveryreason，torepress。Andhowelaboratethediscussion，howcogentthepublicopinion，howhottheambitionsinthesefellowships。
Noristhisfacilityofjuvenileassociation，asissometimessupposed，atraitpeculiartoEnglishandAmericanboys;sinceexperienceamongourimmigrantpopulationseemstoshowthattheoffspringofthemorerestrictivecivilizationsofthecontinentofEuropeformself-governingplay-groupswithalmostequalreadiness。ThusMissJaneAddams，afterpointingoutthatthe“gang“isalmostuniversal，speaksoftheinterminablediscussionwhicheverydetailofthegang’sactivityreceives，remarkingthat“inthesesocialfolk-motes，sotospeak，theyoungcitizenlearnstoactuponhisowndetermination。”[3]
Oftheneighborhoodgroupitmaybesaid，ingeneral，thatfromthetimemenformedpermanentsettlementsupontheland，down，atleast，totheriseofmodernindustrialcities，ithasplayedamainpartintheprimary，heart-to-heartlifeofthepeople。AmongourTeutonicforefathersthevillagecommunitywasapparentlythechiefsphereofsympathyandmutualaidforthecommonsallthroughthe“dark“andmiddleages，andformanypurposesitremainssoinruraldistrictsatthepresentday。
Insomecountrieswestillfinditwithallitsancientvi-
(26)tality，notablyinRussia，wherethemir，orself-governingvillagegroup，isthemaintheatreoflife，alongwiththefamily，forperhapsfiftymillionsofpeasants。
Inourownlifetheintimacyoftheneighborhoodhasbeenbrokenupbythegrowthofanintricatemeshofwidercontactswhichleavesusstrangerstopeoplewholiveinthesamehouse。Andeveninthecountrythesameprincipleisatwork，thoughlessobviously，diminishingoureconomicandspiritualcommunitywithourneighbors。Howfarthischangeisahealthydevelopment，andhowfaradisease，isperhapsstilluncertain。
Besidesthesealmostuniversalkindsofprimaryassociation，therearemanyotherswhoseformdependsupontheparticularstateofcivilization;
theonlyessentialthing，asIhavesaid，beingacertainintimacyandfusionofpersonalities。Inourownsociety，beinglittleboundbyplace，peopleeasilyformclubs，fraternalsocietiesandthelike，basedoncongeniality，whichmaygiverisetorealintimacy。Manysuchrelationsareformedatschoolandcollege，andamongmenandwomenbroughttogetherinthefirstinstancebytheiroccupations梐sworkmeninthesametrade，orthelike。
Wherethereisalittlecommoninterestandactivity，kindnessgrowslikeweedsbytheroadside。
Butthefactthatthefamilyandneighborhoodgroupsareascendantintheopenandplastictimeofchildhoodmakesthemevennowincomparablymoreinfluentialthanalltherest。
Primarygroupsareprimaryinthesensethattheygivetheindividualhisearliestandcompletestexperience，(27)ofsocialunity，andalsointhesensethattheydonotchangeinthesamedegreeasmoreelaboraterelations，butformacomparativelypermanentsourceoutofwhichthelatterareeverspringing。
Ofcoursetheyarenotindependentofthelargersociety，buttosomeextentreflectitsspirit;astheGermanfamilyandtheGermanschoolbearsomewhatdistinctlytheprintofGermanmilitarism。Butthis，afterall，islikethetidesettingbackintocreeks，anddoesnotcommonlygoveryfar。AmongtheGerman，andstillmoreamongtheRussian，peasantryarefoundhabitsoffreecooperationanddiscussionalmostuninfluencedbythecharacterofthestate;anditisafamiliarandwell-supportedviewthatthevillagecommune，self-governingasregardslocalaffairsandhabituatedtodiscussion，isaverywidespreadinstitutioninsettledcommunities，andthecontinuatorofasimilarautonomypreviouslyexistingintheclan。“Itismanwhomakesmonarchiesandestablishesrepublics，butthecommuneseemstocomedirectlyfromthehandofGod。”[4]
Inourowncitiesthecrowdedtenementsandthegeneraleconomicandsocialconfusionhavesorelywoundedthefamilyandtheneighborhood，butitisremarkable，inviewoftheseconditions，whatvitalitytheyshow;
andthereisnothinguponwhichtheconscienceofthetimeismoredeterminedthanuponrestoringthemtohealth。
Thesegroups，then，arespringsoflife，notonlyfortheindividualbutforsocialinstitutions。Theyareonlyinpartmouldedbyspecialtraditions，and，inlargerdegree，expressauniversalnature。
Thereligionorgovernmentofothercivilizationsmayseemalientous，butthechil-
(28)-drenorthefamilygroupwearthecommonlife，andwiththemwecanalwaysmakeourselvesathome。
Byhurnannature，Isuppose，wemayunderstandthosesentimentsandimpulsesthatarehumaninbeingsuperiortothoseofloweranimals，andalsointhesensethattheybelongtomankindatlarge，andnottoanyparticularraceortime。Itmeans，particularly，sympathyandtheinnumerablesentimentsintowhichsympathyenters，suchaslove，resentment，ambition，vanity，hero-worship，andthefeelingofsocialrightandwrong。[5]
Humannatureinthissenseisjustlyregardedasacomparativelypermanentelementinsociety。Alwaysandeverywheremenseekhonoranddreadridicule，defertopublicopinion，cherishtheirgoodsandtheirchildren，andadmirecourage，generosity，andsuccess。Itisalwayssafetoassumethatpeopleareandhavebeenhuman。
Itistrue，nodoubt，thattherearedifferencesofracecapacity，sogreatthatalargepartofmankindarepossiblyincapableofanyhighkindofsocialorganization。Butthesedifferences，likethoseamongindividualsofthesamerace，aresubtle，dependinguponsomeobscureintellectualdeficiency，somewantofvigor，orslacknessofmoralfibre，anddonotinvolveunlikenessinthegenericimpulsesofhumannature。
Intheseallracesareverymuchalike。Themoreinsightonegetsintothelifeofsavages，eventhosethatarereckonedthelowest，themorehuman，themorelikeourselves，theyappear。TakeforinstancethenativesofCentralAustralia，asdescribed，(29)bySpencerandGillen，[6]tribeshavingnodefinitegovernmentorworshipandscarcelyabletocounttofive。Theyaregeneroustooneanother，emulousofvirtueastheyunderstandit，kindtotheirchildrenandtotheaged，andbynomeansharshtowomen。Theirfacesasshowninthephotographsarewhollyhumanandmanyofthemattractive。
Andwhenwecometoacomparisonbetweendifferentstagesinthedevelopmentofthesamerace，betweenourselves，forinstance，andtheTeutonictribesofthetimeofCaesar，thedifferenceisneitherinhumannaturenorincapacity，butinorganization，intherangeandcomplexityofrelations，inthediverseexpressionofpowersandpassionsessentiallymuchthesame。
Thereisnobetterproofofthisgenericlikenessofhumannaturethanintheeaseandjoywithwhichthemodernmanmakeshimselfathomeinliteraturedepictingthemostremoteandvariedphasesoflife梚nHomer，intheNibelungtales，intheHebrewScriptures，inthelegendsoftheAmericanIndians，instoriesoffrontierlife，ofsoldiersandsailors，ofcriminalsandtramps，andsoon。Themorepenetratinglyanyphaseofhumanlifeisstudiedthemoreanessentiallikenesstoourselvesisrevealed。
Toreturntoprimarygroups：theviewheremaintainedisthathumannatureisnotsomethingexistingseparatelyintheindividual，butagroup-natureorprimaryphaseofsociety，arelativelysimpleandgeneralcondition，(30)ofthesocialmind。Itissomethingmore，ontheonehand，thanthemereinstinctthatisborninus梩houghthatentersintoit梐ndsomethingless，ontheother，thanthemoreelaboratedevelopmentofideasandsentimentsthatmakesupinstitutions。ltisthenaturewhichisdevelopedandexpressedinthosesimple，face-to-facegroupsthataresomewhatalikeinallsocieties;groupsofthefamily，theplayground，andtheneighborhood。Intheessentialsimilarityoftheseistobefoundthebasis，inexperience，forsimilarideasandsentimentsinthehumanmind。Inthese，everywhere，humannaturecomesintoexistence。Mandoesnothaveitatbirth;hecannotacquireitexceptthroughfellowship，anditdecaysinisolation。
IfthisviewdoesnotrecommenditselftocommonsenseIdonotknowthatelaborationwillbeofmuchavail。Itsimplymeanstheapplicationatthispointoftheideathatsocietyandindividualsareinseparablephasesofacommonwhole，sothatwhereverwefindanindividualfactwemaylookforasocialfacttogowithit。Ifthereisauniversalnatureinpersonstheremustbesomethinguniversalinassociationtocorrespondtoit。
Whatelsecanhumannaturebethanatraitofprimarygroups？Surelynotanattributeoftheseparateindividual梥upposingtherewereanysuchthing梥inceitstypicalcharacteristics，suchasaffection，ambition，vanity，andresentment，areinconceivableapartfromsociety。
Ifitbelongs，then，tomaninassociation，whatkindordegreeofassociationisrequiredtodevelopit？Evidentlynothingelaborate，becauseelaboratephasesofsocietyaretransientanddiverse，whilehumannatureiscompara-
(31)-tivelystableanduniversal。Inshortthefamilyandneighborhoodlifeisessentialtoitsgenesisandnothingmoreis。
Hereaseverywhereinthestudyofsocietywemustlearntoseemankindinpsychicalwholes，ratherthaninartificialseparation。
Wemustseeandfeelthecommunallifeoffamilyandlocalgroupsasimmediatefacts，notascombinationsofsomethingelse。Andperhapsweshalldothisbestbyrecallingourownexperienceandextendingitthroughsympatheticobservation。What，inourlife，isthefamilyandthefellowship;whatdoweknowofthewe-feeling？Thoughtofthiskindmayhelpustogetaconcreteperceptionofthatprimarygroup-natureofwhicheverythingsocialistheoutgrowth。
Endnotes，TheHistoryofHumanMarriage。AHistoryofMatrimonialInstitutions。NewerIdealsofPeace，177。DeTocqueville，DemocracyinAmerica，vol。i，chap。5。Thesemattersareexpoundedatsomelengthinthewriter’sHumanNatureandtheSocialOrder。TheNativeTribesofCentralAustralia。ComparealsoDarwin’sviewsandexamplesgiveninchap。7ofhisDescentofMan。，CharlesHortonCooley：SocialOrganization：Chapter4：PrimaryIdeals，CHAPTERIV
PRIMARYIDEALS，NATUREOFPRIMARYIDEALISM——THEIDEALOFA“WE“ORMORAL
UNITY——ITDOESNOTEXCLUDESELF-ASSERTION——IDEALSSPRINGINGFROMHOSTILITY——
LOYALTY，TRUTH，SERVICE——KINDNESS——LAWFULNESS——FREEDOM——THE
DOCTRINEOFNATURALRIGHT——BEARINGOFPRIMARYIDEALISMUPONEDUCATION
ANDPHILANTHROPY
LIFEintheprimarygroupsgivesrisetosocialidealswhich，astheyspringfromsimilarexperiences，havemuchincommonthroughoutthehumanrace。Andthesenaturallybecomethemotiveandtestofsocialprogress。
Underallsystemsmenstrive，howeverblindly，torealizeobjectssuggestedbythefamiliarexperienceofprimaryassociationWheredowegetournotionsoflove，freedom，justice，andthelikewhichweareeverapplyingtosocialinstitutions？Notfromabstractphilosophy，surely，butfromtheactuallifeofsimpleandwidespreadformsofsociety，likethefamilyortheplay-group。Intheserelationsmankindrealizesitself，gratifiesitsprimaryneeds，inafairlysatisfactorymanner，andfromtheexperienceformsstandardsofwhatitistoexpectfrommoreelaborateassociation。Sincegroupsofthissortareneverobliteratedfromhumanexperience，butflourishmoreorlessunderallkindsofinstitutions，theyremainanenduringcriterionbywhichthelatterareultimatelyjudged。
Ofcoursethesesimplerrelationsarenotuniformfor，(33)allsocieties，butvaryconsiderablywithrace，withthegeneralstateofcivilization，andwiththeparticularsortofinstitutionsthatmayprevail。Theprimarygroupsthemselvesaresubjecttoimprovementanddecay，andneedtobewatchedandcherishedwithaveryspecialcare。
Neitherisitclaimedthat，atthebest，theyrealizeidealconditions;
onlythattheyapproachthemmorenearlythananythingelseingeneralexperience，andsoformthepracticalbasisonwhichhigherimaginationsarebuilt。Theyarenotalwayspleasantorrighteous，buttheyalmostalwayscontainelementsfromwhichidealsofpleasantnessandrighteousnessmaybeformed。
Theidealthatgrowsupinfamiliarassociationmaybesaidtobeapartofhumannatureitself。Initsmostgeneralformitisthatofamoralwholeorcommunitywhereinindividualmindsaremergedandthehighercapacitiesofthemembersfindtotalandadequateexpression。Anditgrowsupbecausefamiliarassociationfillsourmindswithimaginationsofthethoughtandfeelingofothermembersofthegroup，andofthegroupasawhole，sothat，formanypurposes，wereallymakethemapartofourselvesandidentifyourself-feelingwiththem。
Childrenandsavagesdonotformulateanysuchideal，buttheyhaveitnevertheless;theyseeit;theyseethemselvesandtheirfellowsasanindivisible，thoughvarious，“we，“andtheydesirethis“we“tobeharmonious，happy，andsuccessful。Howheartilyonemaymergehimselfinthefamilyandinthefellowshipsofyouthisperhapswithintheexperienceofallofus;andwecometofeelthatthesamespiritshouldextendtoourcountry，(34)ourrace，ourworld。“Alltheabuseswhicharetheobjectsofreform……areunconsciouslyamendedintheintercourseoffriends。”[1]，Acongenialfamilylifeistheimmemorialtypeofmoralunity，andsourceofmanyoftheterms——suchasbrotherhood，kindness，andthelike梬hichdescribeit。Themembersbecomemergedbyintimateassociationintoawholewhereineachageandsexparticipatesinitsownway。Eachlivesinimaginativecontactwiththemindsoftheothers，andfindsinthemthedwelling-placeofhissocialself，ofhisaffections，ambitions，resentments，andstandardsofrightandwrong。Withoutuniformity，thereisyetunity，afree，pleasant，wholesome，fruitful，commonlife。
Astotheplayground，Mr。JosephLee，inanexcellentpaperonPlayasaSchooloftheCitizen，givesthefollowingaccountofthemergingoftheoneinthewholethatmaybelearnedfromsport。Theboy，hesays，“isdeeplyparticipatinginacommonpurpose。TheteamandtheplaysthatitexecutesarepresentinaveryvividmannertohisconsciousnessHisconsciousindividualityismorethoroughlylostinthesenseofmembershipthanperhapsiteverbecomesinanyotherway。Sothatthesheerexperienceofcitizenshipinitssimplestandessentialform梠fthesharinginapublicconsciousness，ofhavingthesocialorganizationpresentasacontrollingidealinyourheart梚sveryintense……
Alongwiththesenseoftheteamasamechanicalinstrument，andunseparatedfromitintheboy’smind，istheconsciousnessofitastheembodimentofacommonpurpose。Thereisinteamplayaveryintimateexperienceofthewaysinwhichsuchapurposeisbuiltupandmadeeffective。Youfeel，thoughwithoutanalysis，thesubtlewaysinwhichasinglestrongcharacterbreaksouttheroadahead，(35)andgivesconfidencetotheresttofollow;howthecreativepowerofoneardentimagination，bravelysustained，makespossibletheputtingthroughoftheplayasheconceivesit。YoufeeltothemarrowOfyourboneshoweachloyalmembercontributestothesalvationofalltheothersbyholdingtheconceptionofthewholeplaysofirmlyinhismind11。9
toenablethemtoholdit，andtoparticipateinhissingle-mindeddeterminationtoseeitcarriedout。Youhaveintimateexperienceofthewaysinwhichindividualmemberscontributetotheteamandofhowtheteam，inturn，buildsuptheirspiritualnature……
Andtheteamisnotonlyanextensionoftheplayer’sconsciousness;
itisapartofhispersonality。Hisparticipationhasdeepenedfromcooperationtomembership。Notonlyishenowapartoftheteam，buttheteamisapartofhim。”[2]
Moralunity，asthisillustrationimplies，admitsandrewardsstrenuousambition;butthisambitionmusteitherbeforthesuccessofthegroup，oratleastnotinconsistentwiththat。Thefullestself-realizationwillbelongtotheonewhoembracesinapassionateself-feelingtheaimsofthefellowship，andspendshislifeinfightingfortheirattainment。
TheidealofmoralunityItaketobethemother，asitwere，ofallsocialideals。
Itis，then，notmyaimtodepreciatetheself-assertivepassions。I
believethattheyarefierce，inextinguishable，indispensable。Competitionandthesurvivalofthefittest|areasrighteousaskindnessandcooperation，andnotnecessarilyopposedtothem：anadequateviewwillembraceandharmonizethesediverseaspects。ThepointIwishparticularlytobringoutinthischapteristhatthenormalselfismouldedinprimarygroupstobeasocial，(36)selfwhoseambitionsareformedbythecommonthoughtofthegroup。
Intheircrudestformsuchpassionsaslust，greed，revenge，theprideofpowerandthelikearenot，distinctively，humannatureatall，butanimalnature，and90farasweriseintothespiritoffamilyorneighborhoodassociationwecontrolandsubordinatethem。Theyarerenderedhumanonlysofarastheyarebroughtunderthedisciplineofsympathy，andrefinedintosentiments，suchaslove，resentment，andambition。Andinsofarastheyarethushumanizedtheybecomecapableofusefulfunction。
Takethegreedofgain，forexample，theancientsinofavarice，theoldwolf，asDantesays，thatgetsmorepreythanalltheotherbeasts。[3]Thedesireofpossessionisinitselfagoodthing，aphaseofself-realizationandacauseofsocialimprovement。Itisimmoralorgreedyonlywhenitiswithoutadequatecontrolfromsympathy，whentheselfrealizedisanarrowself。Inthatcaseitisaviceofisolationorweaksocialconsciousness，andindicatesastateofmindintermediatebetweenthebrutalandthefullyhumanormoral，whendesireisdirectedtowardsocialobjects梬ealthorpower梑utisnotsocialinitsattitudetowardotherswhodesirethesameobjects。Intimateassociationhasthepowertoallaygreed。Onewillhardlybegreedyasagainsthisfamilyorclosefriends，thoughverydecentpeoplewillbesoasagainstalmostanyoneelse。Everyonemusthavenoticedthatafter，(37)frankassociation，evenofatransientcharacter，withanotherperson，oneusuallyhasasenseofkindredwithhimwhichmakesoneashamedtoactgreedilyathis，expense。
Thosewhodwellpreponderantlyupontheselfishaspectofhumannatureandfloutassentimentalismthe“altruistic“conceptionofit，maketheirchieferrorinfailingtoseethatourselfitselfisaltruistic，thattheobjectofourhighergreedissomedesiredplaceinthemindsofothermen，andthatthroughthisitispossibletoenlistordinaryhumannatureintheserviceofidealaims。Theimprovementofsocietydoesnotcallforanyessentialchangeinhumannature，but，chiefly，foralargerandhigherapplicationofitsfamiliarimpulses。
Iknow，also，thatthemosttruculentbehaviormaybeexaltedintoanideal，liketheferocityofSamuel，whenhehewedAgagtopiecesbeforetheLord，[4]oroftheorthodoxChristianofaformerageinthedestructionofheretics。Ingeneralthereisalwaysamoralityofopposition，springingfromtheneedofthesympatheticgrouptoassertitselfinthestruggleforexistence。Evenatthepresentdaythismoreorlessidealizesdestructivenessanddeceitintheconflictsofwar，ifnotofcommerce。
Butsuchpreceptsaresecondary，notidealsinthesameprimaryandenduringsensethatloyaltyandkindnessare。Theyshinebyreflectedlight，andgettheirforcemainlyfromthebeliefthattheyexpresstherequirementsofthe“we“groupincombatingitsenemies。Flourishingatcertainstagesofdevelopmentbecausetheyarerequisite，(38)undertheprevailingconditionsofdestructiveconflict，theyareslowlyabandonedortransformedwhentheseconditionschange。Mankindatlargehasnoloveofthemfortheirownsake，thoughindividuals，classes，orevennationsmayacquirethemasahabit。Withtheadvanceofcivilizationconflictitselfisbroughtmoreandmoreunderthecontrolofthoseprinciplesthatprevailinprimarygroups，and，sofarasthisisthecase，conductwhichviolatessuchprinciplesceasestohaveanyidealvalue。
Tobreakuptheidealofamoralwholeintoparticularidealsisanartificialprocesswhicheverythinkerwouldprobablycarryoutinhisownway。Perhaps，however，themostsalientprinciplesareloyalty，lawfulness，andfreedom。
Insofarasoneidentifieshimselfwithawhole，loyaltytothatwholeisloyaltytohimself;itisself-realization，somethinginwhichonecannotfailwithoutlosingself-respect。Moreoverthisisalargerself，leadingoutintoawiderandricherlife，andappealing，therefore，toenthusiasmandtheneedofquickeningideals。Oneisnevermorehuman，andasaruleneverhappier，thanwhenheissacrificinghisnarrowandmerelyprivateinteresttothehighercallofthecongenialgroup。Andwithoutdoubtthenaturalgenesisofthissentimentisintheintimacyofface-to-facecooperation。
Itisrathertherulethantheexceptioninthefamily，andgrowsupamongchildrenandyouthsofastastheylearntothinkandacttocommonends。
Theteamfeelingdescribedaboveillustratesitaswellasanything。
Amongtheidealsinseparablefromloyaltyarethoseof，(39)truth，service，andkindness，alwaysconceivedasduetotheintimategroupratherthantotheworldatlarge。
Truthorgoodfaithtowardothermembersofafellow：;hipis，sofarasIknow’auniversalhumanideal。Itdoesnotinvolveanyabstractloveofveracity，andisquiteconsistentwithdeceptiontowardtheoutsideworld，beingessentially“truthofintercourse“orfairdealingamongintimates。
Therearefew，evenamongthosereckonedlawless，whowillnotkeepfaithwithonewhohasthegiftofgettingneartotheminspiritandmakingthemfeelthatheisoneofthemselves。ThusJudgeLindseyofDenverhasworkedarevolutionamongtheneglectedboysofhiscity，bynoothermethodthanthatofenteringintotilesamemoralwhole，becomingpartofa“we“
withthem。Heawakenstheirsenseofhonor，trustsit，andisalmostneverdisappointed。Whenhewishestosendaboytothereformschoolthelatterpromisestorepairtotheinstitutionatagiventimeandinvariablydoesso。Amongtrampsasimilarsentimentprevails。“Itwillbefound，“saidayoungmanwhohadspentthesummeramongvagrants，“thatiftheyaretreatedsquaretheywilldothesame。”
Theidealofservicelikewisegoeswiththesenseofunity。Ifthereisavitalwholetherightaimofindividualactivitycanbenootherthantoservethatwhole。Andthisisnotsomuchatheoryasafeelingthatwillexistwhereverthewholeisfelt。Itisapoorsortofanindividualthatdoesnotfeeltheneedtodevotehimselftothelargerpurposesofthegroup。Inoursocietymanyfeelthisneedinyouthandexpressitontheplaygroundwho，(40)neversucceedinrealizingitamongthelessintimaterelationsofbusinessorprofessionallife。
Allmankindacknowledgeskindnessasthelawofrightintercoursewithinasocialgroup。Bycommunionmindsarefusedintoasympatheticwhole，eachpartofwhichtendstosharethelifeofalltherest，sothatkindnessisacommonjoy，andharshnessacommonpain。Itisthesimplest，mostattractive，andmostdiffusedofhumanideals。Thegoldenrulespringsdirectlyfromhumannature。
Accordinglythisidealhasbeenboundupwithassociationinallpasttimesandamongallpeoples：itwasamatterofcoursethatwhenmenactedtogetherinwar，industry，devotion，sport，orwhatnot，theyformedabrotherhoodorfriendship。Itisperhapsonlyinmoderndays，alongwiththegreatandsuddendifferentiationofactivities，thatfeelinghasfailedtokeepup，andtheideaofcooperationwithoutfriendshiphasbecomefamiliar。
Mr。Westermarck，thanwhomthereisnobetterauthorityonaquestionofthissort，hasfilledseveralchaptersofhisworkontheOriginandDevelopmentofMoralIdeaswithevidenceoftheuniversalityofkindnessandthekindlyideal。Aftershowingatlengththatuncivilizedpeoplerecognizethedutyofkindnessandsupportfrommothertochild，fathertochild，childtoparent，andamongbrethrenandkinsmen，hegoesontosay：[5]“Butthedutyofhelpingtheneedyandprotectingthoseindangergoesbeyondthelimitsofthefamilyandthegens。Uncivilizedpeoplesare，asarule，describedaskindtowardmembers，(41)Oftheirowncommunityortribe。Betweenthemselvescharityisenjoinedasadutyandgenerosityispraisedasavirtue。Indeedtheircustomsregardingmutualaidareoftenmuchmorestringentthanourown。
Andthisappliesc`-cntothelowestsavages。”
BeginningwiththeAustralians，hequotesthestatementofSpencerandGillenthattheirtreatmentofoneanother“ismarkedonthewholebyconsiderablekindness，thatis，ofcourse，inthecaseofmembersoffriendlygroups，witheverynowandthentheperpetrationofactsofcruelty。”ConcerningtheNorthAmericanIndianshecitesmanywriters。Catlinsays“totheirfriendstherearenopeopleonearththataremorekind。”Adairthat“theyareverykindandliberaltoeveryoneoftheirowntribe，eventothelastmorseloffoodtheyenjoy“;alsothatNature’sschool“teachesthemtheplain，easyrule，Dotoothersasyouwouldbedoneby。”Morganreportsthat“amongtheIroquoiskindnesstotheorphan，hospitalitytoall，andacommonbrotherhoodwereamongthedockinesheldupforacceptancebytheirreligiousinstructors。”AnIroquois“wouldsurrenderhisdinnertofeedthehungry，vacatehisbedtorefreshtheweary，andgiveuphisappareltoclothethenaked。”
AndsoWestermarckgoeson，intheexhaustivewayfamiliartoreadersofhisworks，toshowthatlikesentimentsprevailtheworldover。KropotkinhascollectedsimilarevidenceinhisMutualAidaFactorinCivilization。
Thepopularnotionofsavagesaslackinginthegentlerfeelingsisanerrorspringingfromtheexternal，usuallyhostile，natureofourcontactwiththem。Indeed，astateofthings，suchasisfoundinourowncities，wherewant，(42)andplentyexistsidebysidewithoutthelatterfeelinganycompulsiontorelievetheformer，isshockingandincomprehensibletomanysavages。
Ordinarilytheidealofkindness？insavageandcivilizedsocietiesalike，appliesonlytothosewithinthesympatheticgroup;themaindifferencebetweencivilizationandsavagery，inthisregard，beingthatundertheformerthegrouptendstoenlarge。Onereasonfortherestrictionisthatkindnessisarousedbysympathy，andcanhavelittlelifeexceptasourimaginationsareopenedtothelivesofothersandtheyaremadepartofourselves。EventheChristianchurch，ashistoryshows，hasforthemostpartinculcatedkindnessonlytothosewithinitsownpale，orwithinaparticularsect;andthemodernidealofakindnessembracingallhumanity(modernatleastsofaraswesternnationsareconcerned)isconnectedwithagrowingunderstandingoftheunityoftherace。
Everyintimategroup，likeeveryindividual，experiencesconflictingimpulseswithinitself，andastheindividualfeelstheneedofdefiniteprinciplestoshapehisconductandgivehimpeace，sothegroupneedslaworruleforthesamepurpose。Itisnotmerelythattheover-strongortheinsubordinatemustberestrained，butthatallalikemayhavesomedefinitecriterionofwhatthegoodmemberoughttodo。Itisamerefactofpsychologythatwhereasocialwholeexistsitmaybeaspainfultodowrongastosufferit梑ecauseone’sownspiritisdivided梐ndthecommonneedisforharmonythroughalaw，framedinthetotalinterest，whicheveryonecanandmustobey。
Thisneedofrulestoaligndifferentiatedimpulsewith，(43)thegoodofthewholeisnowheremoreapparentthanontheplayground。
MissBuck，theauthorofaninstructiveworkonBoys’Self-GoverningClubs，suggeststhattheelementaryformofequityis“takingturns，“asatswingsandthelike;andanyonwhohassharedinaboyscampwillrecalltheconstantdemand，bytheboysthemselves，forrulesofthisnature。Theremustbeafairdistributionofprivilegesastoboats，games，andsoon，andanequaldistributionoffood。AndwelearnfromRobertWoodsthatgangsofboysonthestreetsofcitiesgenerallyhavea“judge“towhomalldisputesarereferredifnoagreementisotherwisereached。[6]
Nodoubteveryoneremembershowtheideaofjusticeisdevelopedinchildren’sgames。Thereisalwayssomethingtobedone，inwhichvariouspartsaretobetaken，successdependingupontheirefficientdistribution。
Allseethisanddrawfromexperiencetheideathatthereisahigherprinciplethatoughttocontroltheundisciplinedambitionofindividuals。“Roughgames，“saysMissBuck，“inmanyrespectspresentinminiaturetheconditionsofasocietywhereanidealstateofjustice，freedomandequalityprevails。”“
Mr。JosephLee，inthepaperquotedabove，expoundsthematteratmorelengthandwithmuchinsight。
Youmaybeveryintenttobeattheothermanintherace，butafterexperienceofmanyconteststhefairpromiseofwhosemorninghasbeencloudedoverbythelongandmany-wordeddisputeterminatinginageneralrow，withindecisiveandunsatisfyingresult，youbegindimlytoperceivethatyouandtheotherfellowsandtherestofthecrowd，fortheveryreasonthatyouarecontestantsandprospective，(44)contestants，haveinterestsincommon梚nterestsintheestablishmentandmaintenanceofthosenecessaryrulesandregulationswithoutwhichsatisfactorycontestscannotbecarriedon……Thechild’sneedofconflictisfromadesirenottoexterminatehiscompetitor，buttoovercomehimandtohavehisownsuperiorityacknowledged。Theboydesirestobesomebodybutbeingsomebodyistohimasocialachievement。Andthoughthereistemptationtopervertjustice，totrytogetthedecisionwhenyouhavenotreallyfurnishedtheproof，thereisalsoamotiveagainstsuchprocedure。Thepersonwhomyoureallyandfinallywanttoconvinceisyourself。Yourdeepestdesireistobeattheotherboy，notmerelytoseemtobeathim。Byplayingunfairlyandforcingdecisionsinyourownfavor，youmaypossiblycheattheothers，butyoucannotcheatyourselfButthedecisionsinmostofthedisputeshavebehindthemthefurther，moreobviouslysocial，motiveofcarryingonasuccessfulgame。Thesenseofcommoninteresthasbeenstretchedsoastotakethecompetitiveimpulseitselfintocamp，domesticateit，andmakeitapartofthesocialsystem。
Theacutelyrealizedfactthatasocietyofchronickickerscanneverplayagameoranythingelse，comestobeseenagainstthebackgroundofapossibleorderlyarrangementofwhichonehashadoccasionalexperience，andwithwhichonehascomeatlasttosympathize;therecomestobetosomeextentanidentificationofone’sowninterestsandpurposeswiththeinterestsandpurposesofthewhole。CertainlythedecisionsofthegroupastowhetherJimmywasoutatfirst，astowhocameoutlast，andwhetherMaryAnnwasreallycaught，arefeltascommunityandnotasindividualdecisions。[7]
NodoubtAmericanboyshavemoreofthespiritandpracticeofthissortoforganizationthanthoseofanyothercountry，exceptpossiblyEngland：
theyhavetheconstantspectacleofself-governmentamongtheirelders，andalso，perhaps，someadvantageinnaturalaptitudetohelpthemon。
Butitisdoubtfulifthereisanygreatdifferenceamongthewhitepeoplesinthelatterregard。AmericanchildrenofGermanandIrishdescentarenot，(45)inferiortotheAnglo-Saxons，andamongthenewerimmigrantstheJewishchildren，atleast，showamarkedaptitudefororganization。Thequestionmightprofitablybeinvestigatedinourgreatcities。
Ofcoursetheidealsderivedfromjuvenileexperiencearecarriedoverintothewiderlife，andmenalwaysfinditeasytoconceiverighteousnessintermsoffairplay。“TheSocialQuestion，“saysapenetrativewriter，“isforeveranattackuponwhat，insomeform，isthoughttobeunfairprivilege。”[8]
Thelaworrulethathumannaturedemandshasademocraticprinciplelatentinit，becauseitmustbeonecongenialtogeneralsentiment。Explicitdemocracy，however梔ecidingbypopularvoteandthelike梚snotprimaryandgeneralliketheneedoflaw，butisratheramechanismfordecidingwhattheruleistobe，andnomorenaturalthantheappealtoauthority。
