Indeed，thereseemstobe，amongchildrenasamongprimitivepeoples，acertainreluctancetoascribelawstothemerehumanchoiceofthemselvesandtheirfellows。Theywishtoassignthemtoahighersourceandtothinkofthemashavinganunquestionablesanction。Sofarasmyownobservationgoes，evenAmericanboysprefertoreceiverulesfromtraditionorfromtheirelders，whentheycan。Nothingiseasierthanforaparent，ormentorofanykind，tobealawgivertochildren，ifonlyhehastheirconfidence，andifthelawsthemselvesproveworkable。Butthetestoflawissocialandpopular;itmustsuitthegeneralmind。If，forinstance，amantakesagroupofboyscamping，andhastheirconfidence，theywillgladlyreceive，(46)rulesfromhim，expecting，ofcourse，thattheywillbegoodrules。
Butiftheyprovetobeunreasonableandtroublesome，theywillsoonceasetowork。
Freedomisthatphaseofthesocialidealwhichemphasisesindividuality。
Thewholetowhichwebelongismadeupofdiverseenergieswhichenkindleoneanotherbyfriction;anditsvigorrequiresthatthesehaveplay。Thusthefierceimpulsesofambitionandpridemaybeasorganicasanythingelse梡rovidedtheyaresufficientlyhumanizedastotheirobjects梐ndaretobeinterferedwithonlywhentheybecomedestructiveoroppressive。
Moreover，wemustnotberequiredtoprovetoothersthebeneficenceofourpeculiarity，butshouldbeallowed，ifwewish，to“writewhimonthelintelsofthedoor-post。”Ourdesiresandpurposes，thoughsocialintheirultimatenature，areapttobeunacceptableonfirstappearance，andthemoresoinproportiontotheirvalue。Thuswefeelaneedtobeletalone，andsympathizewithasimilarneedinothers。
Thisissofamiliaraprinciple，especiallyamongEnglishandAmericans，towhosetemperamentandtraditionsitispeculiarlycongenial，thatI
neednotdiscussitatlength。Itisaphaseofidealismthatcomesmostvividlytoconsciousnesswhenformalandantiquatedsystemsofcontrolneedtobebrokenup，asintheeighteenthcentury。Itthenrepresentedtheappealtohumannatureasagainstoutwornmechanism。Ourwholesocialandpoliticalphilosophystillechoesthatconflict。
Thebearingofthisviewofhumannaturemayperhapsbemadeclearerbyconsideringitsrelationtothefamiliar，(47)butnowsomewhatdiscrediteddoctrineofNaturalRight。ThisistracedfromthespeculationsofGreekphilosophersdownthroughRomanjurisprudencetoHobbes，Locke，Rousseau，andothers，whogaveititsmodernformsandthroughwhoseworksitbecameafactorinmodernhistory。ItwasfamiliartoourforefathersandissetforthintheDeclarationofIndependence。
Accordingtoitsocietyismadeup，primarily，offreeindividuals，whomustbeheldtocreategovernmentandotherinstitutionsbyasortofimpliedcontract，yieldingupapartoftheirnaturalrightinordertoenjoythebenefitsoforganization。Butiftheorganizationdoesnotconferthesebenefits，then，asmostwritersheld，itiswrongandvoid，andtheindividualsmayproperlyreclaimtheirnaturalfreedom。
Nowinformthisdoctrineiswhollyatvariancewithevolutionarythought。
Tothelatter，societyisanorganicgrowth;thereisnoindividualapartfromsociety，nofreedomapartfromorganization，nosocialcontractofthesorttaughtbythesephilosophers。Initspracticalapplications，however，theteachingofnaturalrightisnotsoabsurdandobsoleteasissometimesimagined。Ifitistruethathumannatureisdevelopedinprimarygroupswhichareeverywheremuchthesame，andthattherealsospringsfromtheseacommonidealismwhichinstitutionsstrivetoexpress，wehaveagroundforsomewhatthesameconclusionsascomefromthetheoryofanaturalfreedommodifiedbycontract。Naturalfreedomwouldcorrespondroughlytotheidealsgeneratedandpartlyrealizedinprimaryassociation，thesocialcontracttothelimitationstheseidealsencounterinseekingalargerexpression。
(48)
Indeed，isitnottruethatthenaturalrightsofthisphilosophy梩herighttopersonalfreedom，therighttolabor，therighttoproperty，therighttoopencompetition梐reidealswhichinrealitysprangthenastheydonowlargelyfromwhatthephilosophersknewoftheactivitiesofmeninsmall，face-to-facegroups？
ThereluctancetogiveupidealslikethoseoftheDeclarationofIndependence，withoutsomethingequallysimpleandhumantotaketheirplace，ishealthyandneednotlookfarfortheoreticaljustification。
Theideaofthegerminalcharacterofprimaryassociationisonethatisfastmakingitswayineducationandphilanthropy。Aswelearnthatmanisaltogethersocialandneverseentrulyexceptinconnectionwithhisfellows，wefixourattentionmoreandmoreongroupconditionsasthesource，forbetterorworse，ofpersonalcharacter，andcometofeelthatwemustworkontheindividualthroughthewebofrelationsinwhichheactuallylives。
Theschool，forinstance，mustformawholewiththerestoflife，usingtheideasgeneratedbythelatterasthestarting-pointofitstraining。
Thepublicopinionandtraditionsofthescholarsmustberespectedandmadeanallyofdiscipline。Children’sassociationsshquldbefosteredandgoodobjectssuggestedfortheiractivity。
Inphilanthropyitisessentialthattheunityofthefamilyberegardedanditsnaturalbondsnotweakenedforthesakeoftransientbenefittotheindividual。Children，especially，mustbeprotectedfromthedestructivekindnesswhichinculcatesirresponsibilityintheparent。Ingeneraltheheartofreformisincontroloftheconditions，(49)whichactuponthefamilyandneighborhood。Whenthehousing，forexample，isofsuchacharacterastomakeahealthyhomelifeimpossible，theboysandgirlsaredriventothestreets，themenintosaloons，andthussocietyisdiseasedatitssource。
Withouthealthyplay，especiallygroupplay，humannaturecannotrightlydevelop，andtopreservethis，inthemidstofthecrowdingandaggressivecommercialismofourcities，iscomingtobeseenasaspecialneedofthetime。Democracy，itisnowheld，mustrecognizeasoneofitsessentialfunctionstheprovisionofamplespacesandapparatusforthispurpose，withenoughjudicioussupervisiontoensuretheascendancyofgoodplaytraditions。Andwiththismustgothesuppressionofchildlaborandotherinhumaneconditions。
Fruitfulattentionisbeinggiventoboys’fellowshipsor“gangs。”Itappears梐sanyonewhorecallshisownboyhoodmighthaveanticipated梩hatnearlyallthejuvenilepopulationbelongtosuchfellowships，andputanardent，thoughoftenmisdirected，idealismintothem。“Almosteveryboyinthetenement-housequartersofthedistrict，“saysRobertA。Woods，speakingofBoston，“isamemberofagang。Theboywhodoesnotbelongisnotonlytheexceptionbuttheveryrareexception。”[10]Incrowdedneighborhoods，wheretherearenoplaygroundsandstreetsportsareunlawful，thehumannatureofthesegangsmusttakeasemi-criminaldirection;butwithbetteropportunitiesandguidanceitturnsquiteasnaturallytowholesomesportandsocialservice。Accordinglysocialsettlementsandsimilaragenciesareconvertinggangsinto，(50)clubs，withthebestresults;andthereisalsocomingtobearegularorganizationofvoluntaryclubsinaffiliationwiththepublicschools。
Itismuchthesameinthecountry。Ineveryvillageandtownshipinthelaud，Isuppose，thereareoneormoregroupsofpredatoryboysandhoydenishgirlswhosemischiefisonlytheresultofill-directedenergy。
Ifeachofthesecouldreceivealittlesympatheticattentionfromkindredbutwiserspirits，atleasthalfofthecrimeandviceofthenextgenerationwouldalmostcertainlybedoneawaywith。
Endnotes，Thoreau，AWeekontheConcordandMerrimackRivers，283。CharitiesandtheCommons，Aug。3，1907。Anticalupa，Chepiuchetuttel’altrebestiehaipreda。Purgatorio，xx，10。1Samuel，15：33。Vol。i，540ff。TheCityWilderness，116。Boys’Self-GoverningClubs，4，5。CharitiesandtheCommons，Aug。3，1907，abridged。JohnGrahamBrooks，TheSocialUnrest，135。TheCityWilderness，113。，CharlesHortonCooley：SocialOrganization：Chapter5：TheExtensionofPrimary，Ideals，CHAPTERV，THEEXTENSIONOFPRIMARYIDEALS
PRIMARYIDEALSUNDERLIEDEMOCRACYANDCHRISTIANITY——
WHYTHEYARENOTACHIEVEDONALARGERSCALE——WHATTHEYREQUIREFROMPERSONALITY——
FROMSOCIALMECHANISM——THEPRINCIPLEOFCOMPENSATION
ITwillbefoundthatthosesystemsoflargeridealismwhicharemosthumanandsoofmostenduringvalue，arebasedupontheidealsofprimarygroups。Take，forinstance，thetwosystemsthathavemostvitalityatthepresenttime梔emocracyandChristianity。
Theaspirationsofidealdemocracy梚ncluding，ofcourse，socialism，andwhateverelsemaygobyaspecialname梐rethosenaturallyspringingfromtheplaygroundorthelocalcommunity;embracingequalopportunity，fairplay，theloyalserviceofallinthecommongood，freediscussion，andkindnesstotheweak。Thesearerenewedeverydayintheheartsofthepeoplebecausetheyspringfromandarecorroboratedbyfamiliarandhomelyexperience。Moreover，moderndemocracyasahistoricalcurrentisapparentlytraceablebacktothevillagecommunitylifeoftheTeutonictribesofnorthernEurope，fromwhichitdescendsthroughEnglishconstitutionallibertyandtheAmericanandFrenchrevolutionstoitsbroadanddeepchannelsofthenineteenthandtwentiethcenturies。
(52)AndChristianity，asasocialsystem，isbaseduponthefamily，itsidealsbeingtraceabletothedomesticcircleofaJudaeancarpenter。Godisakindfather;menandwomenarebrothersandsisters;
weareallmembersoneofanother，doingaswewouldbedonebyandreferring。MIthingstotheruleoflove。Insofarasthechurchhasdepartedfromtheseprinciplesithasprovedtransient;theseendurebecausetheyarehuman。
Butwhyisitthathumannatureisnotmoresuccessfulinachievingtheseprimaryaims？Theyappeartobesimpleandreasonable，andoneaskswhytheyaresolittlerealized，whywearenot，infact，amoralwhole，ahappyfamily。
Itisnotbecausewedonotwishit。Therecanbenodoubt，Ishouldsay，that，leavingasideacomparativelyfewabnormalindividuals，whoseinfluenceissmall，meningeneralhaveanaturalallegiancetothecommunityideal，andwouldgladlyseeitcarriedoutonalargeaswellasasmallscale。Andnearlyallimaginativeandaspiringpersonsviewitwithenthusiasm，andwoulddevotethemselvestoitwithsomeardorandsacrificeiftheysawclearlyhowtheycoulddosowitheffect。Itiseasytoimaginetypesofpuremalignityinpeopleofwhomwehavelittleknowledge，butwhoevercametoknowanyoneintimatelywithoutfindingthathehadsomewhereinhimtheimpulsesofamanandabrother？
Thefailuretorealizetheseimpulsesinpracticeis，ofcourse，dueinparttomoralweaknessofapersonalcharacter，tothefactthatourhighernaturehasbutanimperfectandtransientmasteryofourlower，sothatwenever，(53)liveuptoourideals。Butgoingbeyondthisandlookingatthematterfromthestandpointofthelargermind，thecauseoffailureisseentobethedifficultyoforganization。Evenifourintentionswerealwaysgood，weshouldnotsucceed，because，tomakegoodintentionseffective，theymustbeextendedintoasystem。Inattemptingtodothisourconstructivepowerisusedupandouridealsconfusedanddiscouraged。
Weareevenledtocreateakindofinstitutionswhich，thoughgoodincertainaspects，maybrutalizeorossifytheindividual，sothatprimaryidealisminhimisalmostobliterated。Thecreationofamoralorderonanever-growingscaleisthegreathistoricaltaskofmankind，andthemagnitudeofitexplainsallshortcomings。
Frompersonalitythebuildingofamoralorderrequiresnotonlygoodimpulsesbutcharacterandcapacity。Theidealmustbeworkedoutwithsteadfastness，self-control，andintelligence。Evenfamiliesandfellowships，thoughusuallyonahigherlevelthanmoreelaboratestructures，oftenbreakdown，andcommonlyfromlackofcharacterintheirmembers。
Butifitisinsufficienthere，howmuchlesswillitsufficeforarighteousstate。Ourneworderoflife，withitsgreatextensionofstructureanditsprincipleoffreedom，isaneverseverertestofthepoliticalandmoralfibreofmankind，ofitspowertoholditselftogetherinvast，efficient，plasticwholes。Whateverracesorsocialsystemsfailtoproducethisfibremustyieldascendancytothosewhichsucceed。
Thisstrongerpersonalitydependsalsoupontraining;
andwhateverpeoplessucceedinbeingrighteousona，(54)greatscalewilldosoonlybyaddingtonaturalcapacityaneducationsuitedtothegrowingdemandsofthesituation梠neatthesametimebroadandspecial，technicalandhumane。Therecanbenomoralorderthatdoesnotliveinthemindoftheindividual。
Besidespersonality梠rrathercorrelativewithittheremustbeanadequatemechanismofcommunicationandorganization。Insmallgroupstherequirementsofstructurearesosimpleastomakelittletrouble，butinproportionasthewebofrelationsextendsanddiversifies，theybecomemoreandmoredifficulttomeetwithoutsacrificinghumannature;
sothat，otherthingsequal，thefreedomandrealunityofthesystemarelikelytovaryinverselywithitsextent。Itisonlybecauseotherthingshavenotremainedequal，becausethemechanismhasbeenimproved，thatithasbecomepossible，inameasure，toreconcilefreedomwithextent。
Communicationmustbefullandquickinordertogivethatpromptnessinthegive-and-takeofsuggestionsuponwhichmoralunitydepends。Gestureandspeechensurethisintheface-to-facegroup;butonlytherecentmarvellousimprovementofcommunicativemachinerymakesafreemindonagreatscaleevenconceivable。Ifthereisnomeansofworkingthoughtandsentimentintoawholebyreciprocation，theunityofthegroupcannotbeotherthaninertandunhuman。Thiscausealonewouldaccountforthelackofextendedfreedomprevioustothenineteenthcentury。
Theremustalsobeformsandcustomsofrationalorganization，throughwhichhumannaturemayexpressitself，(55)inanorderlyandeffectivemanner。Evenchildrenlearntheneedofregulardiscussionanddecision，whileallbodiesofadultsmeetingfordeliberationfindthattheycanthinkorganicallyonlybyobservanceoftheruleswhichhavebeenworkedoutforsuchoccasions。
Andifwearetohavegreatandstablenations，itiseasytoseethattheserulesofordermustbecomeabodyoflawandcustomincludingmost，ifnotall，ofthefamiliarinstitutionsofsociety。Theseareaproductofprogressiveinvention，trial，andsurvivalasmuchastherailroadorthefactory，andtheyhaveinthelongrunthesamepurpose，thatofthefullerexpressionofhumannatureinasocialsystem。
Asmightbeexpectedfromtheseconditions，thereisaprincipleofcompensationatworkinthegrowthofthelargermind。Themorebettermentthereis，themoreofvitalforce，ofhumanreason，feeling，andchoice，goesintoit;and，asthesearelimited，improvementinonerespectisapttobeoffset，atleastinpartortemporarily，bydelayorretrogressioninothers。
Thusarapidimprovementinthemeansofcommunication，asweseeinourowntime，suppliesthebasisforalargerandfreersociety，andyetitmay，bydisorderingsettledrelations，andbyfixingattentiontoomuchuponmechanicalphasesofprogress，bringinconditionsofconfusionandinjusticethataretheoppositeoffree。
Averygeneralfactofearlypoliticalhistoryisdeteriorationbygrowth。Thesmallstatecannotescapeitsdestinyaspartofalargerworld，butmustexpandorperish。Itgrowsinsize，power，anddiversitybythenecessities，(56)ofitsstruggleforexistence梐sdidRome，Athens，andahundredotherstates梑utinsodoingsacrificeshumannaturetomilitaryexpediencyanddevelopsamechanicalordespoticstructure。This，inthelongrun，producesweakness，decay，andconquest，orperhapsrevoltandrevolution。Therequirementsofhumannature梑othdirect，asexpressedinsocialidealism，andindirect，asfeltintheultimateweaknessandfailureofsystemswhichdisregardthem梐reirrepressible。Gradually，therefore，throughimprovementandthroughthesurvivalofhighertypesinconflict，atypeoflargerstructureisdevelopedwhichlesssacrificestheserequirements。
Muchofwhatisunfreeandunhumaninourmodernlifecomesfrommereinadequacyofmentalandmoralenergytomeettheaccumulatingdemandsuponit。Inmanyquartersattentionandeffortmustbelacking，and：wherethisisthecasesocialrelationsfalltoalowplane？justasateacherwhohastoomuchtodonecessarilyadoptsamechanicalstyleofinstruction。Sowhatwecall“redtape“prevailsingreatclericalofficesbecausemuchbusinessisdonebypersonsofsmallability，whocanworkonlyunderrule。Andgreatbureaucraticsystems，liketheRussianEmpire，areofmuchthesamenature。
Ingeneralthewrongsofthesocialsystemcomemuchmorefrominadequacythanfromillintention。Itisindeednottobeexpectedthatallrelationsshouldbefullyrationalandsympathetic;wehavetobecontentwithinfusingreasonandsympathyintowhatismostvital。
Society，then，asamoralorganism，isaprogressivecreation，tentativelywroughtoutthroughexperiment，struggle，andsurvival。Notonlyindividualsbutideas，(57)institutions，nations，andracesdotheirworkuponitandperish。Itsideals，thoughsimpleinspirit，areachievedthroughendlesselaborationofmeans。
Itwillbemyfurtherendeavortothrowsomelightuponthisstrivingwholebyconsideringcertainphasesofitsorganization，suchasCommunication，PublicOpinion，Sentiment，Classes，andInstitutions;
alwaystryingtoseethewholeinthepart，thepartinthewhole，andhumannatureinboth。
CharlesHortonCooley：SocialOrganization：Chapter6：TheSignificanceof，Communication，CHAPTERVI
THESIGNIFICANCEOFCOMMUNICATION，MEANINGOFCOMMUNICATION——ITSRELATIONTOHUMAN
NATURE——TOSOCIETYATLARGE
BYCommunicationisheremeantthemechanismthroughwhichhumanrelationsexistanddevelop梐llthesymbolsofthemind，togetherwiththemeansofconveyingthemthroughspaceandpreservingthemintime。
Itincludestheexpressionoftheface，attitudeandgesture，thetonesofthevoice，words，writing，printing，railways，telegraphs，telephones，andwhateverelsemaybethelatestachievementintheconquestofspaceandtime。Allthesetakentogether，intheintricacyoftheiractualcombination，makeupanorganicwholecorrespondingtotheorganicwholeofhumanthought;
andeverythinginthewayofmentalgrowthhasanexternalexistencetherein。
Themorecloselyweconsiderthismechanismthemoreintimatewillappearitsrelationtotheinnerlifeofmankind，andnothingwillmorehelpustounderstandthelatterthansuchconsideration。
Thereisnosharplinebetweenthemeansofcommunicationandtherestoftheexternalworld。Inasenseallobjectsandactionsaresymbolsofthemind，andnearlyanythingmaybeusedasasign梐sI
maysignifythemoonorasquirreltoachildbymerelypointingatit，or，(62)byimitatingwiththevoicethechatteroftheoneordrawinganoutlineoftheother。Butthereisalso，almostfromthefirst，aconventionaldevelopmentofcommunication，springingoutofspontaneoussignsbutsoonlosingevidentconnectionwiththem，asystemofstandardsymbolsexistingforthemerepurposeofconveyingthought;anditisthiswehavechieflytoconsider。
Withoutcommunicationtheminddoesnotdevelopatruehumannature，butremainsinanabnormalandnondescriptstateneitherhumannorproperlybrutal。ThisismovinglyillustratedbythecaseofHelenKeller，who，asalltheworldknows，wascutoffateighteenmonthsfromthecheerfulwaysofmenbythelossofsightandhearing;anddidnotrenewtheconnectionuntilshewasnearlysevenyearsold。Althoughhermindwasnotwhollyisolatedduringthisperiod，sincesheretainedtheuseofaconsiderablenumberofsignslearnedduringinfancy，yetherimpulseswerecrudeanduncontrolled，andherthoughtsounconnectedthatsheafterwardrememberedalmostnothingthatoccurredbeforetheawakeningwhichtookplacetowardthecloseofherseventhyear。
Thestoryofthatawakening，astoldbyherteacher，givesasvividapictureasweneedhaveofthesignificancetotheindividualmindofthegeneralfactandideaofcommunication。ForweeksMissSullivanhadbeenspellingwordsintoherhandwhichHelenhadrepeatedandassociatedwithobjects;butshehadnotyetgraspedtheideaoflanguageingeneral，thefactthateverythinghadaname，andthatthroughnamesshecouldshareher，(63)ownexperienceswithothers，andlearntheirs梩heideathatthereisfellowshipinthought。Thiscamequitesuddenly。
“Thismorning，“writesherteacher，“whileshewaswashing，shewantedtoknowthenameforwater……Ispelledw-a-t-e-randthoughtnomoreaboutituntilafterbreakfast。ThenitoccurredtomethatwiththehelpofthisnewwordImightsucceedinstraighteningoutthemug-milkdifficulty[aconfusionofideaspreviouslydiscussed]。Wewentoutintothepump-houseandImadeHelenholdhermugunderthepumpwhileIpumped。
AsthecoldwatergushedforthfillingthemugIspelledw-a-t-e-rinHelen’sfreehand。Thewordcomingsocloseuponthesensationofcoldwaterrushingoverherhandseemedtostartleher。Shedroppedthemugandstoodasonetransfixed。Anewlightcameintoherface。Shespelledwaterseveraltimes。
Thenshedroppedonthegroundandaskedforitsname，andpointedtothepumpandthetrellis，andsuddenlyturningroundsheaskedformyname。
Ispelled’teacher。’JustthenthenursebroughtHelen’slittlesisterintothepump-house，andHelenspelled’baby’andpointedtothenurse。
Allthewaybacktothehouseshewashighlyexcited，andlearnedthenameofeveryobjectshetouched，sothatinafewhoursshehadaddedthirtynewwordstohervocabulary“
ThefollowingdayMissSullivanwrites，“Helengotupthismorninglikearadiantfairy。Shehasflittedfromobjecttoobject，askingthenameofeverythingandkissingmeforverygladness。”Andfourdayslater，“Everythingmusthaveanamenow……Shedropsthesignsandpantomimesheusedbefore，sosoonasshehaswordstosupplytheirplace，andtheacquirementofanewwordaffordshertheliveliestpleasure。Andwenoticethatherfacegrowsmoreexpressiveeachday。”[1]
Thisexperienceisatypeofwhathappensmoregraduallytoallofus：itisthroughcommunicationthatwegetourhigherdevelopment。
Thefacesandconversationofourassociates;books，letters，travel，arts，andthelike，(64)byawakeningthoughtandfeelingandguidingthemincertainchannels，supplythestimulusandframeworkforallourgrowth。
Inthesameway，ifwetakealargerviewandconsiderthelifeofasocialgroup，weseethatcommunication，includingitsorganizationintoliterature，art，andinstitutions，istrulytheoutsideorvisiblestructureofthought，asmuchcauseaseffectoftheinsideorconsciouslifeofmen。Allisonegrowth：thesymbols，thetraditions，theinstitutionsareprojectedfromthemind，tobesure，butintheveryinstantoftheirprojection，andthereafter，theyreactuponit，andinasensecontrolit，stimulating，developing，andfixingcertainthoughtsattheexpenseofotherstowhichnoawakeningsuggestioncomes。Bytheaidofthisstructuretheindividualisamembernotonlyofafamily，aclass，andastate，butofalargerwholereachingbacktoprehistoricmenwhosethoughthasgonetobuilditup。Inthiswholehelivesasinanelement，drawingfromitthematerialsofhisgrowthandaddingtoitwhateverconstructivethoughthemayexpress。
Thusthesystemofcommunicationisatool，aprogressiveinvention，whoseimprovementsreactuponmankindandalterthelifeofeveryindividualandinstitution。Astudyoftheseimprovementsisoneofthebestwaysbywhichtoapproachanunderstandingofthementalandsocialchangesthatareboundupwiththem;becauseitgivesatangibleframeworkforourideas梛ustasonewhowishedtograsptheorganiccharacterofindustryandcommercemightwellbeginwithastudyoftherailwaysystemandoftheamountandkindofcommoditiesitcarries，(65)proceedingthencetothemoreabstracttransactionsoffinance。
Andwhenwecometothemodernera，especially，wecanunderstandnothingrightlyunlessweperceivethemannerInwhichtherevolutionincommunicationhasmadeanewworldforus。SointhepagesthatfollowIshallaimtoshowwhatthegrowthofintercourseimpliesinthewayofsocialdevelopment，inquiringparticularlyintotheeffectofrecentchanges。
Endnotes，TheStoryofMyLife，316，317。，CharlesHortonCooley：SocialOrganization：Chapter7：TheGrowthofCommunication，CHAPTERVII
THEGROWTHOFCOMMUNICATION，PRE-VERBALCOMMUNICATION——THERISEOFSPEECH——ITSMENTAL
ANDSOCIALFUNCTION——THEFUNCTIONOFWRITING——PRINTINGANDTHEMODERN
WORLD——THENON-VERBALARTS
THEchiefmeansofwhatwemaycallpre-verbalcommunicationaretheexpressionoftheface梕speciallyofthemobileportionsabouttheeyesandmouth梩hepitch，inflection，andemotionaltoneofthevoice;andthegesturesoftheheadandlimbs。Allofthesebeginininvoluntarymovementsbutarecapableofbecomingvoluntary，andallareeagerlypracticedandinterpretedbychildrenlongbeforetheylearntospeak。Theyareimmediatelyjoinedtoactionandemotion：theinflectionsofthevoice，forinstance，playuponthechild’sfeelingsasdirectlyasmusic，andareinterpretedpartlybyaninstinctivesensibility。Ihaveheardachildseventeenmonthsoldusinghervoicesoexpressively，thoughinarticulately，thatitsounded，alittlewayoff，asifshewerecarryingonananimatedconversation。
Andgesture，suchasreachingoutthehand，bendingforward，turningawaythehead，and;thelike，springsdirectlyfromtheideasandfeelingsitrepresents。
Thehumanface，“theshapeandcolorofamindandlife，“isakindofepitomeofsociety，andifonecouldonlyreadallthatiswritteninthecountenancesofmenastheypasshemightfindagreatdealofsociologyinthem。He-
(67)-reditarybias，familynurture，theprintoftheschool，currentopinion，contemporaryinstitutions，allarethere，drawnwithaveryfinepencil。IfonewishestogetarealhumaninsightintothetimesofHenrytheEighth，forexample，hecallhardlydobetterthantostudytheportraitdrawingsofHolbein;andsoofotherperiods，includingourown，whosetraitswouldappearconspicuouslyinacollectionofportraits。Manypeoplecandiscriminateparticularclasses，as，forinstance，clergymen，bytheirexpression，andnotafewwilltellwithmuchaccuracywhatchurchthelatterbelongtoandwhethertheyareofthelowerrankorinauthority。
Againthereisadifference，indescribable，perhaps，yetapparent，betweenthelookofAmericanandofEnglishyouths梥tillmoreofgirls梬hichreflectsthedifferingsocialsystems。
Thissortofcommunicationis，ofcourse，involuntary。Anartificialmechanismofcommunicationoriginateswhenmanbeginspurposelytoreproducehisowninstinctivemotionsandcries，orthesounds，forms，andmovementsoftheworldabouthim，inordertorecalltheideasassociatedwiththem。
Allkindsofconventionalcommunicationarebelievedtoberootedintheseprimitiveimitations，which，byaprocessnothardtoimagine，extendanddifferentiateintogesture，speech，writing，andthespecialsymbolsoftheartsandsciences;sothatthewholeexteriororganizationofthoughtrefersbacktothesebeginnings。
Wecanonlyconjecturethelifeofman，orofhishumanizingprogenitor，beforespeechwasachieved;butwemaysupposethatfacialexpression，inarticulatecriesandsongs，[1]
(68)andavarietyofimitativesoundsandactionsarousedsympathy，permittedthesimplerkindsofgeneralideastobeformed，andwerethemediumthroughwhichtraditionandconventionhadtheirearliestdevelopmentItisprobablethatartificialgesturelanguagewaswellorganizedbeforespeechhadmademuchheadway。Evenwithoutwordslifemayhavebeenanactiveandcontinuousmentalwhole，notdependentforitsunityuponmereheredity，butboundtogetherbysomeconsciouscommunityinthesimplersortsofthoughtandfeeling，andbythetransmissionandaccumulationofthesethroughtradition。Therewaspresumablycooperationandinstructionofacrudesortinwhichwasthegermoffutureinstitutions。
Noonewhohasobservedchildrenwillhaveanydifficultyinconjecturingthebeginningsofspeech，sincenearlyeverychildstartsintoinventalanguageforhimself，andonlydesistswhenhefindsthatthereisoneallready-madeforhim。Thereareasmanynaturalwords(ifwemaycallthemso)astherearefamiliarsoundswithdefiniteassociations，whethercomingfromhumanbeings，fromanimals，orfrominanimatenature。Thesethechildinstinctivelylovestoreproduceandcommunicate，atfirstinmeresportandsociability，then，asoccasionarises，withmoredefinitemeaning。Thismeaningiseasilyextendedbyvarioussortsofassociationofideas;thesoundsthemselvesarealteredandcombinedinusage;andthusspeechiswellbegun。
Manyhumbleinventorscontributetoitsgrowth，everyman，possibly，alteringtheheritageinproportionasheputshisindividualityintohisspeech。Variationsof，(69)ideaarepreservedinwordsorothersymbols，andsostoredupinacontinuingwhole，constantlygrowinginbulkanddiversity，whichis，aswehaveseen，nothinglessthantheoutsideorsensibleembodimentofhumanthought，inwhicheveryparticularmindlivesandgrows，drawingfromitthematerialofitsownlife，andcontributingtoitwhateverhigherproductitmaymakeoutofthatmaterial。
Awordisavehicle，aboatfloatingdownfromthepast，ladenwiththethoughtofmenweneversaw;andincomingtounderstanditweenternotonlyintothemindsofourcontemporaries，butintothegeneralmindofhumanitycontinuousthroughtime。Thepopularnotionoflearningtospeakisthatthechildfirsthastheideaandthengetsfromothersasoundtouseincommunicatingit;butacloserstudyshowsthatthisishardlytrueevenofthesimplestideas，andisnearlythereverseoftruthasregardsdevelopedthought。Inthatthewordusuallygoesbefore，Ieadingandkindlingtheidea梬eshouldnothavethelatterifu-edidnothavethewordfirst。“Thisway，“saystheword，“isaninterestingthought：
comeandfindit。”Andsoweareledontorediscoveroldknowledge。Suchwords，forinstance，asgood，right，truth，love，home，justice，beauty，freedom;arepowerfulmakersofwhattheystandfor。
Amindwithoutwordswouldmakeonlysuchfeebleanduncertainprogressasatravellersetdowninthemidstofawildernesswheretherewerenopathsorconveyancesandwithoutevenacompass。Amindwiththemislikethesametravellerinthemidstofcivilization，withbeatenroadsandrapidvehiclesreadytotakehiminanydirection，(70)wheremenhavebeenbefore。Asthetravellermustpassoverthegroundineithercase，sothemindmustpassthroughexperience，butifithaslanguageitfindsitsexperienceforeseen，mappedoutandinterpretedbyallthewisdomofthepast，sothatithasnotonlyitsownexperiencebutthatoftherace梛ustasthemoderntravellerseesnotonlytheoriginalcountrybutthecitiesandplantationsofmen。
Theprinciplethatappliestowordsappliesalsotoallstructuresthatarebuiltofwords，toliteratureandthemanifoldtraditionsthatitconveys。
AsthelinesofDanteare“foot-pathsforthethoughtofItaly，“sothesuccessfuleffortsofthemindineveryfieldarepreservedintheirsymbolsandbecomefoot-pathsbywhichothermindsreachthesamepoint。Andthisincludesfeelingaswellasdefiniteidea。Itisalmostthemostwonderfulthingaboutlanguagethatbysomethingintangibleinitsorderandmovementandintheselectionandcollocationofwords，itcantransmittheverysoulofaman，makinghispagelivewhenhisdefiniteideashaveceasedtohavevalue。InthiswayonegetsfromSirThomasBrowne，letussay，nothisconceitsandcredulities，buthishighandreligiousspirit，hovering，asitwere，overthepage。
Theachievementofspeechiscommonlyandproperlyregardedasthedistinctivetraitofman，asthegatebywhichheemergedfromhispre-humanstate。
Itmeansthat，likeHelenKeller，hehaslearnedthateverythinghas，ormayhave，aname，andsohasentereduponalifeofconsciousfellowshipinthought。Itnotonlypermittedtheriseofamorerationalandhumankindofthinkingandfeeling，butwasalsothebasisoftheearliestdefinite，(71)institutionsAwiderandfullerunityofthoughttookplaceineverygroupwhereitappeared。Ideasregardingthechiefinterestsofprimitivelife梙unting，warfare，marriage’feastingandthelike梬eredefined，communicatedandextended。Publicopinionnodoubtbegantoarisewithinthetribe，andcrystallizedintocurrentsayingswhichservedasrulesofthoughtandconduct;thefestalchants，iftheyexistedbefore，becamearticulateandhistorical。Andwhenanythoughtofspecialvaluewasachievedinthegroup，itdidnotperish，butwashandedonbytraditionandmadethebasisofnewgains。Inthiswayprimitivewisdomandrulewereperpetuated，enlargedandimproveduntil，inconnectionwithceremonialandothersymbols，theybecamesuchinstitutions，ofgovernment，marriage，religionandpropertyasarefoundineverysavagetribe。
Normustweforgetthatthisstateofthingsreacteduponthenaturalcapacitiesofman，perhapsbythedirectinheritanceofacquiredsocialhabitsandaptitudes，certainlybythesurvivalofthosewho，havingthese，weremorefittedthanotherstothriveinasociallife。Inthiswayman，ifhewashumanwhenspeechbegantobeused，rapidlybecamemoreso，andwentonaccumulatingasocialheritage。
Sothestudyofspeechrevealsatruthwhichwemayalsoreachinmanyotherways，namely，thatthegrowthoftheindividualmindisnotaseparategrowth，butratheradifferentiationwithinthegeneralmind。Ourpersonallife，sofaraswecanmakeout，hasitssourcespartlyincongenitaltendency，andpartlyinthestreamofcommunication，bothofwhichflowfromthecorporatelifeofthe，(72)race。Theindividualhasnobettergroundforthinkingofhimselfasseparatefromhumanitythanhehasforthinkingoftheselfheisto-dayasseparatefromtheselfhewasyesterday;thecontinuitybeingnomorecertainintheonecasethanintheother。Ifitbesaidthatheisseparatebecausehefeelsseparate，itmaybeansweredthattotheinfanteachmomentisseparate，andthatweknowourpersonallifetobeawholeonlythroughthegrowthofthoughtandmemory。Inthesamewaythesenseofalargerorsocialwholenessisperhapsmerelyaquestionofourgrowingintomorevividandintelligentconsciousnessofaunitywhichisalreadyclearenoughtoreflectiveobservation。
Itisthesocialfunctionofwriting，bygivingideasalastingrecord，tomakepossibleamorecertain，continuousanddiversifiedgrowthofthehumanmind。Itdoesfortheraceverymuchwhatitdoesfortheindividual。
Whenthestudenthasagoodthoughthewritesitdown，sothatitmayberecalledatwillandmadethestartingpointforabetterthoughtinthesamedirection;andsomankindatlargerecordsandcherishesitsinsights。
Untilwritingisachievedtheaccumulationofideasdependsuponoraltradition，thecapacityofwhichismeasuredbytheinterestandmemoryofthepeoplewhotransmitit。Itmust，therefore，confineitselfchieflytoideasandsentimentsforwhichthereisasomewhatgeneralandconstantdemand，suchaspopularstories條iketheHomerianlegends梒hants，proverbs，maximsandthelike。Itistruethattraditionbecomesmoreorlessspecializedinfamiliesandcastes梐swesee，forinstance，inthewide，(73)spreadexistenceofahereditarypriesthood梑utthisspecializationcannotbeveryelaborateorverysecureinitscontinuance。Therecanhardlybe，withoutwriting，anyscienceoranydiversifiedliterature。Theserequireameansbywhichimportantideascanhepassedonunimpairedtomendistantintimeandspacefromtheirauthors。Wemaysafelypronounce，withGibbon，that’’withoutsomespeciesofwritingnopeoplehaseverpreservedthefaithfulannalsoftheirhistory，evermadeanyconsiderableprogressintheabstractsciences，oreverpossessed，inanytolerabledegreeofperfection，theusefulandagreeableartsoflife。”[2]
Norcanstableandextendedgovernmentbeorganizedwithoutit，forsuchgovernmentrequiresaconstitutionofsomesort，adefiniteandpermanentbodyoflawandcustom，embracingthewisdomofthepastregardingthemaintenanceofsocialorder。
Itisquitethesamewithreligioussystems。ThehistoricalreligionsarebaseduponScriptures，theessentialpartofwhichistherecordedteachingofthefounderandhisimmediatedisciples，andwithoutsucharecordChristianity，BuddhismorMohammedanismcouldneverhavebeenmorethanasmallandtransientsect。Theremaywellhavebeenmenofreligiousgeniusamongourilliterateforefathers，butitwasimpossiblethattheyshouldfoundenduringsystems。
Thewholestructureandprogressofmodernlifeevidentlyrestsuponthepreservation，inwriting，oftheachievementsoftheantiquemind，upontherecords，especially，ofJudea，GreeceandRome。Toinquirewhat，(74)weshouldhavebeenwithoutthesewouldbelikeaskingwhatweshouldhavebeenifourparentshadnotexisted。Writingmadehistorypossible，andthemanofhistorywithhiscomplexinstitutions。Itenabledarapidandsecureenlargementofthathumannaturewhichhadpreviouslybeenconfinedwithinsmallandunstablegroups。
Ifwriting，bygivingthoughtpermanence，broughtintheearliercivilization，printing，bygivingitdiffusionopenedthedoorsofthemodernworld。
Beforeitsadventaccesstotherecordsoftheracewaslimitedtoalearnedclass，whothusheldakindofmonopolyofthetraditionsuponwhichthesocialsystemrested。ThroughouttheearlierMiddleAges，forexample，theclergy，orthatsmallportionoftheclergywhowereeducated，occupiedthispositioninEurope，andtheirsystemwastheoneanimateandwide-reachingmentalorganizationoftheperiod。Formanycenturiesitwasrareforalayman，ofwhateverrank，toknowhowtosignhisname。
ThroughtheLatinlanguage，writtenandspoken，whichwouldapparentlyhaveperishedhaditnotbeenfortheChurch，thelargercontinuityandcooperationofthehumanmindwasmaintained。Thosewhocouldreadithadacommonliteratureandavaguesenseofunityandbrotherhood。Romanideaswerepreserved，howeverimperfectly，andanidealRomelivedinthePapacyandtheEmpire。Education，naturally，wascontrolledbytheclergy，whowerealsointrustedwithpoliticalcorrespondenceandtheframingoflaws。
Asiswellknowntheysomewhatrecastthetraditionsintheirowninterest，andwereaidedbytheircontrolofthecommu，(75)-nicatingmediuminbecomingthedominantpowerinEurope。
Printingmeansdemocracy，becauseitbringsknowledgewithinthereachofthecommonpeople;andknowledge，inthelongrun，issuretomakegooditsclaimtopower。Itbringstotheindividualwhateverpartintheheritageofideasheisfittoreceive。Theworldofthought，andeventuallytheworldofaction，comesgraduallyundertheruleofatruearistocracyofintelligenceandcharacter，inplaceofanartificialonecreatedbyexclusiveopportunity。
Everywherethespreadofprintingwasfollowedbyageneralawakeningduetotheunsettlingsuggestionswhichitscatteredabroad。Politicalandreligiousagitation，bynomeansunknownbefore，wasimmenselystimulated，andhascontinuedunabatedtothepresenttime。“Thewholeofthismovement，“
saysMr。H。C。Lea，speakingoftheliberalagitationsoftheearlysixteenthcentury，“hadbeenrenderedpossiblebytheinventionofprinting，whichfacilitatedsoenormouslythediffusionofintelligence，whichenabledpublicopiniontoformandexpressitself，andwhich，bybringingintocommunicationmindsofsimilarwaysofthinking，affordedopportunityforcombinedaction。”“When，therefore，onOctober31，1517，Luther’sfatefultheseswerehungonthechurchdooratWittenberg，theywere，ashetellsus，knowninafortnightthroughoutGermany;andinamonththeyhadreachedRomeandwerebeingreadineveryschoolandconventinEurope梐resultmanifestlyimpossiblewithouttheaidoftheprintingpress。”[3]
(76)Theprintedpageisalsothedoorbywhichtheindividual，inourowntime，entersthelargerroomsoflifeAgoodbook，“thepreciouslifebloodofamasterspiritstoreduponpurposetoalifebeyondlife，“[4]isalmostalwaysthechannelthroughwhichuncommonmindsgetincitementandaidtoliftthemselvesintothehigherthoughtthatotheruncommonmindshavecreated。“Instudyweholdconversewiththewise，inactionusuallywiththefoolish“[5]Whilethemassofmankindaboutusisevercommonplace，thereisalways，inourday，amoreselectsocietynotfarawayforonewhocravesit，andamanlikeAbrahamLincoln，whosebirthwouldhavemeanthopelessserfdomafewcenturiesago，maygetfromhalfadozenbooksaspirationswhichleadhimouttoauthorityandbeneficence。
Whilespokenlanguage，alongwiththewritingandprintingbywhichitispreservedanddisseminated，inthemaincurrentofcommunication，therearefromthestartmanysidechannels。
Thusamongsavageorbarbarouspeoplesweeverywherefind，besidegesturelanguage，theuseofamultitudeofothersymbols，suchastheredarrowforwar，thepipeofpeace，signalfires，notchedsticks，knottedcords，totems，and，amongnationsmoreadvancedinculture，coats-of-arms，flagsandaninfinitediversityofsymbolicritual。Thereis，indeed，aworldofsignsoutsideoflanguage，mostofwhich，however，wemaypassby，sinceitsgeneralnatureisobviousenough。
(77)
Theartsofpainting，sculpture，music，andarchitecture。consideredascommunication，havetwosomewhatdifferentfunctions：First，asmerepictureorimagewriting，conveyingideasthatcouldalsobeconveyed(thoughwithadifference)inwords;and，second，asthcvehicleofpeculiarphasesofsentimentincommunicableinanyotherway。Thesetwowereoften，indeedusually，combinedintheartofthepast。Inmoderntimestheformer，becauseofthediffusionofliteracy，hasbecomeofsecondaryimportanceOfthepicture-writingfunctionthemosaics，incolorsonagoldground，thatcovertheinnerwallsofSt。Mark’satVeniceareafamiliarinstance。
Theysetforthinsomewhatrudefigures，helpedoutbysymbols，thewholesystemofChristiantheologyasitwasthenunderstood。Theywerethusanilluminatedbookofsacredlearningthroughwhichthepeopleenteredintothereligioustradition。ThesametraditionisillustratedinthesculptureofthecathedralsofChartresandRheims，togetherwithmuchothermatter梥ecularhistory，typifiedbyfiguresofthekingsofFrance;
moralphilosophy，withvirtuesand_ices，rewardsandpunishments;andemblemsofhusbandryandhandicraft。Alongwiththesesculptureswentthepicturedwindows，thesacredrelics梬hich，asGibbonsays，“fixedandinflamedthedevotionofthefaithful“[6]梩hemusic，andtheelaboratepageantsandritual;allworkingtogetherasonerichsign，inwhichwasincarnatedtheideallifeofthetimes。
Asubtlerfunctionofthenon-verbalartsistocommunicatematterthatcouldnotgobyanyotherroad，(78)especiallycertainsortsofsentimentwhicharethusper。petuatedanddiflused。
Oneofthesimplestandmostfruitfulexamplesofthisisthedepictionofhumanformsandfaceswhichembody！asifbylivingpresence，thenoblerfeelingsandapirationsofthetime。Suchworks，inpaintingorsculpture，retmainassymbolsbytheaidofwhichlikesentimentsgrowupinthemindsofwhomsoeverbecomefamiliarwiththemSentimentiscumulativeinhumanhistoryinthesamemannerasthought，thoughlessdefinitelyandsurely，andChristianfeeling，asitgrewandflourishedintheMiddleAges，wasfosteredbypaintingasmuch，perhaps，asbytheScriptures。
AndsoGreeksculpture，fromthetimeofthehumanistsdownthroughWinckelmannandGoethetothepresentday，hasbeenachannelbywhichGreeksentimenthasflowedintomodernlife。
Thisrecordofhumanfeelinginexpressiveformsandfaces，asinthemadonnasandsaintsofRaphael，iscalledbysomecritics“illustration“;
andtheydistinguishitfrom“decoration，“whichincludesallthoseelementsinaworkofartwhichexistnottotransmitsomethingelsebutfortheirownmoreimmediatevalue，suchasbeautyofcolor，form，compositionandsuggestedmovement。Thislatteriscommunicationalso，appealingtovividbutotherwiseinarticulatephasesofhumaninstinct。Eachartcanconveyauniquekindofsentimentandhas“itsownpeculiarandincommunicablesensuouscharm，itsownspecialmodeofreachingtheimagination。”Inapicturethemostcharacteristicthingis“thattruepictorialquality……theinventiveorcreativehandlingofpurelineandcolor，which，asalmostalwaysinDutchpainting，as，(79)oftenalsointheworksofTitianorVeronese，isquiteindependentofanythingdefinitelypoeticalinthesubjectitaccompanies。”inmusic“themusicalcharm梩hatessentialmusic，whichpresentsnowords，nomatterofsentimentorthought，separablefromthespecialforminwhichitisconveyedtous。”{[7]Andsowitharchitecture，anartpeculiarlyclosetosocialorganization，sothatinmanycases梐sinthePlaceofVenice梩hespiritofasocialsystemhasbeenvisiblyraisedupinstone。
Itneedsnoargument，Isuppose，toshowthattheseartsarenolessessentialtothegrowthofthehumanspiritthanliteratureorgovernment。
Endnotes，Ontheprobabilitythatsongprecededspeech，seeDarwin，DescentofMan，chap。19。DeclineandFall，Milman-Smithedition，i，354。TheCambridgeModernHistory，i，684，685。Milton，Areopagitiea。Bacon，AntithetaonStudies。DeclineandFall，Milman-Smithedition，iii，428。WalterPater，EssayontheSchoolofGiorgione。，CharlesHortonCooley：SocialOrganization：Chapter8：ModernCommunication：
EnlargementandAnimation，CHAPTERVIII
MODERNCOMMUNICATION：
ENLARGEMENTANDANIMATION，CHARACTEROFRECENTCHANGES——THEIRGENERALEFFECT——THE
CHANGEINTHEUNITEDSTATES——ORGANIZEDGOSSIP——PUBLICOPINION，DEMOCRACY，INTERNATIONALISM——THEVALUEOFDIFFUSION——ENLARGEMENTOFFEELING——
CONCLUSION
THE，changesthathavetakenplacesincethebeginningofthenineteenthcenturyaresuchastoconstituteanewepochincommunication，andinthewholesystemofsociety。Theydeserve，therefore，carefulconsiderationnotsomuchintheirmechanicalaspect，whichisfamiliartoeveryone，asintheiroperationuponthelargermind。
Ifoneweretoanalyzethemechanismofintercourse，hemight，perhaps，distinguishfourfactorsthatmainlycontributetoitsefficiency，namely：
Expressiveness，ortherangeofideasandfeelingsitiscompetenttocarry。
Permanenceofrecord，ortheovercomingoftime。
Swiftness，ortheovercomingofspace。
Diffusion，oraccesstoallclassesofmen。
Nowwhilegainshavenodoubtbeenmadeinexpressiveness，asintheenlargementofourvocabularytoembracetheideasofmodernscience;andeveninpermanenceofrecord，forscientificandotherspecialpurposes;Netcertainlythelongstepsofrecenttimeshavebeenmade，(81)inthedirectionofswiftnessanddiffusion。FormostpurposesourspeechisnobetterthanintheageofElizabeth，ifsogood;butwhatfacilitywehavegainedintheapplicationofit！Thecheapeningofprinting，permittinganinundationofpopularbooks，magazinesaridnewspapers，hasbeensupplementedbytheriseofthemodernpostalsystemandtheconquestofdistancebyrailroads，telegraphsandtelephones。
Andalongwiththeseextensionsofthespokenorwrittenwordhavecomenewartsofreproduction，suchasphotography，photo-engraving，phonographyandthelike梠fgreatersocialimportthanwerealize梑ywhichnewkindsofimpressionfromthevisibleoraudibleworldmaybefixedanddisseminated。
Itisnottoomuchtosaythatthesechangesarethebasis，fromamechanicalstandpoint，ofnearlyeverythingthatischaracteristicinthepsychologyofmodernlife。Inageneralwaytheymeantheexpansionofhumannature，thatistosay，ofitspowertoexpressitselfinsocialwholes。Theymakeitpossibleforsocietytobeorganizedmoreandmoreonthehigherfacultiesofman，onintelligenceandsympathy，ratherthanonauthority，caste，androutine。Theymeanfreedom，outlook，indefinitepossibility。Thepublicconsciousness，insteadofbeingconfinedasregardsitsmoreactivephasestolocalgroups，extendsbyevenstepswiththatgive-and-takeofsuggestionsthatthenewintercoursemakespossible，untilwidenations，andfinallytheworlditself，maybeincludedinonelivelymentalwhole。
Thegeneralcharacterofthischangeiswellexpressed，(82)bythetwowordsenlargementandanimation。Socialcontactsareextendedinspaceandquickenedintime，andinthesamedegreethementalunitytheyimplybecomeswiderandmorealert。
Theindividualisbroadenedbycomingintorelationwithalargerandmorevariouslife，andheiskeptstirredup，sometimestoexcess，bythemultitudeofchangingsuggestionswhichthislifebringstohim。
Fromwhateverpointofviewwestudymodernsocietytocompareitwiththepastortoforecastthefuture，weoughttokeepatleastasubconsciousnessofthisradicalchangeinmechanism，withoutallowingforwhichnothingelsecanbeunderstood。
IntheUnitedStates，forinstance，atthecloseoftheeighteenthcentury，publicconsciousnessofanyactivekindwasconfinedtosmalllocalities。Travelwasslow，uncomfortableandcostly，andpeopleundertakingaconsiderablejourneyoftenmadetheirwillsbeforehand。Thenewspapers，appearingweeklyinthelargertowns，wereentirelylackinginwhatweshouldcallnews;andthenumberofletterssentduringayearinallthethirteenstateswasmuchlessthanthatnowhandledbytheNewYorkofficeinasingleday。Peoplearefarmorealiveto-daytowhatisgoingoninChina，ifithappenstointerestthem，thantheywerethentoeventsahundredmilesaway。Theisolationofevenlargetownsfromtherestoftheworld，andtheconsequentintroversionofmen’smindsuponlocalconcerns，wassomethingwecanhardlyconceive。Inthecountry“theenvironmentofthefarmwastheneighborhood;theenvironmentofthevillage，(83)wastheencirclingfarmsandthelocaltradition;……fewconventionsassembledfordiscussionandcommonaction;educationalcentresdidnotradiatetheshockofanewintellectuallifetoeveryhamlet;
federationsandunionsdidnotbindmen，nearandremote，intothatfellowshipthatmakesonecompositetypeofmanyhumansorts。Itwasanageofsects，intolerantfromlackofacquaintance。”[1]
Thechangetothepresentregimeofrailroads，telegraphs，dailypapers，telephonesandtheresthasinvolvedarevolutionineveryphaseoflife;incommerce，inpolitics，ineducation，eveninmeresociabilityandgossip？thisrevolutionalwaysconsistinginanenlargementandquickeningofthekindoflifeinquestion。
Probablythereisnothinginthisnewmechanismquitesopervasiveandcharacteristicasthedailynewspaper，whichisasvehementlypraisedasitisabused，andinbothcaseswithgoodreason。Whatastrangepracticeitis，whenyouthinkofit，thatamanshouldsitdowntohisbreakfasttableand，insteadofconversingwithhiswife，andchildren，holdbeforehisfaceasortofscreenonwhichisinscribedaworld-widegossip！
Theessentialfunctionofthenewspaperis，ofcourse，toserveasabulletinofimportantnewsandamediumfortheinterchangeofideas，throughtheprintingofinterviews，letters，speechesandeditorialcomment。Inthiswayitisindispensabletotheorganizationofthepublicmind。
Thebulkofitsmatter，however，isbestdescribedby，(84)thephraseorganizedgossip。Thesortofintercoursethatpeopleformerlycarriedonatcross-roadstoresorIoverthebackfence，hasnowattainedthedignityofprintandanimposingsystem。Thatweabsorbafloodofthisdoesnotnecessarilymeanthatourmindsaredegenerate’butmerelythatwearegratifyinganoldappetiteinanewway。HenryJamesspeakswithaseveritynaturaltoliterarysensibilityof“theubiquitousnewspaperface，withitsmeremonstrosityanddeformityoffeature，andthevastopenmouth，adjustedastothechatterofBedlam，thatflingstheflood-gatesofvulgarityfartherback[inAmerica]thananywhereelseonearth。”[2]Butafterallisitanymorevulgarthantheolderkindofgossip？Nodoubtitseemsworseforventuringtosharewithliteraturetheuseoftheprintedword。
Thatthebulkofthecontentsofthenewspaperisofthenatureofgossipmaybeseenbynotingthreetraitswhichtogetherseemtomakeafairdefinitionofthatword。Itiscopious，designedtooccupy，withoutexerting，themind。Itconsistsmostlyofpersonalitiesandappealstosuperficialemotion。Itisuntrustworthy梕xceptuponafewmattersofmomentwhichthepublicarelikelytofollowupandverify。Thesetraitsanyonewhoiscuriousmaysubstantiatebyastudyofhisownmorningjournal。
Thereisabetterandaworsesidetothisenlargementofgossip。Ontheformerwemayreckonthefactthatitpromotesawidespreadsociabilityandsenseofcommunity;weknowthatpeoplealloverthecountryarelaughingatthesamejokesorthrillingwiththesamemildexcitementoverthefoot-ballgame，andweabsorbaconviction，(85)thattheyaregoodfellowsmuchlikeourselves。Italsotendspowerfully，throughthefearofpublicity，toenforceapopular，somewhatvulgar，butsoundandhumanstandardofmorality。Ontheotherhanditfosterssuperficialityandcommonplaceineverysphereofthoughtandfeeling，andis，ofcourse，theantithesisofliteratureandofallhighorfinespiritualachievement。Itstandsfordiffusionasopposedtodistinction。
Inpoliticscommunicationmakespossiblepublicopinion，which，whenorganized，isdemocracy。Thewholegrowthofthis，andofthepopulareducationandenlightenmentthatgowithit，isimmediatelydependentuponthetelegraph，thenewspaperandthefastmail，fortherecanbenopopularminduponquestionsoftheday，overwideareas，exceptasthepeoplearepromptlyinformedofsuchquestionsandareenabledtoexchangeviewsregardingthem。
Ourgovernment，undertheConstitution，wasnotoriginallyademocracy，andwasnotintendedtobesobythementhatframedit。Itwasexpectedtobearepresentativerepublic，thepeoplechoosingmenofcharacterandwisdom，whowouldproceedtothecapital，informthemselvesthereuponcurrentquestions，anddeliberateanddecideregardingthem。
Thatthepeoplemightthinkandactmoredirectlywasnotforeseen。TheConstitutionisnotdemocraticinspirit，and，asMr。Brycehasnoted，[3]mightunderdifferentconditionshavebecomethebasisofanaristocraticsystem。
Thatanysystemcouldhaveheldeventheoriginal，(86)thirteenstatesinfirmunionwithouttheadventofmoderncommunicationisverydoubtful。Politicalphilosophy，fromPlatotoMontesquieu，hadtaughtthatfreestatesmustbesmall，andFredericktheGreatissaidtohaveridiculedtheideaofoneextendingfromMainetoGeorgia。“Alargeempire，“saysMontesquieu，“supposesadespoticauthorityinthepersonwhogoverns。Itisnecessarythatthequicknessoftheprince’sresolutionsshouldsupplythedistanceoftheplacestheyaresentto。”[4]
Democracyhasarisenhere，asitseemstobearisingeverywhereinthecivilizedworld，not，chiefly，becauseofchangesintheformalconstitution，butastheoutcomeofconditionswhichmakeitnaturalforthepeopletohareandtoexpressaconsciousnessregardingquestionsoftheday。ItissaidbythosewhoknowChinathatwhilethatcountrywasatwarwithJapanthemajorityoftheChinesewereunawarethatawarwasinprogress。Suchignorancemakestheswayofpublicopinionimpossible;
andconversely，itseemslikelythatnostate，havingavigorouspeople，canlongescapethatswayexceptbyrepressingtheinterchangeofthought。
Whenthepeoplehaveinformationanddiscussiontheywillhaveawill，andthismustsoonerorlatergetholdoftheinstitutionsofsociety。
Oneisoftenimpressedwiththethoughtthatthereoughttobesomewidernameforthemodernmovementthandemocracy，somenamewhichshouldmoredistinctlysuggesttheenlargementandquickeningofthegeneralmind，ofwhichtheformalruleofthepeopleisonlyoneamongmanymanifestations。Thecurrentofnewlifethatissweepingwithaugmentingforcethroughtheolder，(87)structuresofsociety，nowcarryingthemaway，nowleavingthemoutwardlyundisturbed，hasnoadequatename。
Populareducationisaninseparablepartofallthis：
theindividualmusthaveatleastthoseartsofreadingandwritingwithoutwhichhecanhardlybeavitalmemberoftheneworganism。Andthatfurtherdevelopmentofeducation，rapidlybecomingaconsciousaimofmodernsociety，whichstrivestogivetoeverypersonaspecialtraininginpreparationforwhateverfunctionhemayhaveaptitudefor，isalsoaphaseofthefreerandmoreflexibleorganizationofmentalenergy。Thesameenlargementrunsthroughalllife，includingfashionandothertrivialorfugitivekindsofintercourse。Andthewidestphaseofall，uponwhosemomentousnessIneednotdwell，isthatriseofaninternationalconsciousness，inliterature，inscienceand，finally，inpolitics，whichholdsoutatrustworthypromiseoftheindefiniteenlargementofjusticeandamity。
Thisunificationoflifebyafreercourseofthoughtisnotonlycontemporaneous，overcomingspace，butalsohistorical，bringingthepastintothepresent，andmakingeverynotableachievementoftheraceapossiblefactorinitscurrentlife梐swhen，byskilfulreproductiontheworkofamediaevalpainterisbroughthometopeopledwellingfivehundredyearslaterontheothersideoftheglobe。Ourtimeisoneof“largediscourse，lookingbeforeandafter。“
Thereareremarkablepossibilitiesinthisdiffusivevigor。
Never，certainly，weregreatmassesofmensorapidlyrisingtohigherlevelsasnow。Therearethe，(88)samefacilitiesfordisseminatingimprovementinmindandmannersasinmaterialdevices;andthenewcommunicationhasspreadlikemorninglightovertheworld，awakening，enlightening，enlarging，andfillingwithexpectation。Humannaturedesiresthegood，whenitonceperceivesit，andinallthatiseasilyunderstoodandimitatedgreatheadwayismaking。
Noristhere，asIshalltrytoshowlater，anygoodreasontothinkthattheconditionsarepermanentlyunfavorabletotheriseofspecialandselecttypesofexcellence。Thesamefacilityofcommunicationwhichanimatesmillionswiththeemulationofcommonmodels，alsomakesiteasyformorediscriminatingmindstouniteinsmallgroupsThegeneralfactisthathumannatureissetfree;intimeitwillnodoubtjustifyitsfreedom。
Theenlargementaffectsnotonlythoughtbutfeeling，favoringthegrowthofasenseofcommonhumanity，ofmoralunity，betweennations，racesandclasses。Amongmembersofacommunicatingwholefeelingmaynotalwaysbefriendly，butitmustbe，inasense，sympathetic，involvingsomeconsciousnessoftheother’spointofview。Eventheanimositiesofmodernnationsareofahumanandimaginativesort，nottheblindanimalhostilityofamoreprimitiveage。Theyareresentments，andresentmeet，asCharlesLambsays，isofthefamilyoflove。
Therelationsbetweenpersonsorcommunitiesthatarewithoutmutualunderstandingarenecessarilyonalowplane。Theremaybeindifference，orablindangerduetointerference，ortheremaybeagood-naturedtolerance;butthereisnoconsciousnessofacommonnaturetowarm，(89)upthekindlysentiments。Areallyhumanfellow-feelingwasancientlyconfinedwithinthetribe，menoutsidenotbeingfeltasmembersofacommonwhole。Thealienwascommonlytreatedasamoreorlessusefulordangerousanimal——destroyed，despoiledorenslaved。Eveninthesedayswecarelittleaboutpeoplewhoselifeisnotbroughthometousbysomekindofsympatheticcontact。WemayreadstatisticsofthemiserablelifeoftheItaliansandJewsinNewYorkandChicago;ofbadhousing，sweatshopsandtuberculosis;butwecarelittlemoreaboutthemthanwedoaboutthesufferersfromtheBlackDeath，unlesstheirlifeisrealizedtousinsomehumanway，eitherbypersonalcontact，orbypicturesandimaginativedescription。
Andwearegettingthisatthepresenttime。Theresourcesofmoderncommunicationareusedinstimulatingandgratifyingourinterestineveryphaseofhumanlife。Russians，Japanese，Filipinos，fishermen，miners，millionaires，criminals，trampsandopium-eatersarebroughthometous。Thepresswellunderstandsthatnothinghumanisalientousifitisonlymadecomprehensible。
Withamindenlargedandsuppledbysuchtraining，themanofto-dayinclinestolookforacommonnatureeverywhereandtodemandthatthewholeworldshallbebroughtundertheswayofcommonprinciplesofkindnessandjustice。Hewantstoseeinternationalstrifeallayed？
insuchaway，however，asnottopreventtheexpansionofcapableracesandthesurvivalofbettertypes;hewishesthefrictionofclassesreducedandeachinterestfairlytreated梑utwithoutcheckingindividualityandenterprise。Therewasneversogeneralaneagernessthat，(90)righteousnessshouldprevail;thechiefmatterofdisputeisupontheprinciplesunderwhichitmaybeestablished。
Theworkofcommunicationinenlarginghumannatureispartlyimmediate，throughfacilitatingcontact，butevenmoreitisindirect，throughfavoringtheincreaseofintelligence，thedeclineofmechanicalandarbitraryformsoforganization，andtheriseofamorehumanetypeofsociety。Historymayberegardedasarecordofthestruggleofmantorealizehisaspirationsthroughorganization;andthenewcommunicationisanefficienttoolforthispurpose。Assumingthatthehumanheartandconscience，restrictedonlybythedifficulties-oforganization，isthearbiterofwhatinstitutionsaretobecome，wemayexpectthefacilityofintercoursetobethestarting-pointofaneraofmoralprogress。
Endnotes，W。L。Anderson，TheCountryTown，209，210。TheMannersofAmericanWomen，Harper’sBazaar，May，1907。TheAmericanCommonwealth，chap。26。TheSpiritofLaws，bookviii，chap。19。，CharlesHortonCooley：SocialOrganization：Chapter9：ModernCommunication：
Individuality，CHAPTERIX
MODERNCOMMUNICATION：INDIVIDUALITY，THEQUESTION——WHYCOMMUNICATIONSHOULDFOSTERINDIVIDUALITY——
THECONTRARYORDEAD-LEVELTHEORY——RECONCILIATIONOFTHESEVIEWS——
THEOUTLOOKASREGARDSINDIVIDUALITY
ITisaquestionofutmostinterestwhetherthesechangesdoordonotcontributetotheindependenceandproductivityoftheindividualmind。
Dotheyfosteraself-reliantpersonality，capableatneedofpursuinghighandrareaims，orhavetheyratheralevellingtendency，repressiveofwhatisoriginalandcharacteristic？Thereareinfactoppositeopinionsregardingthismatter，insupportofeitherofwhichnumerousexpressionsbywritersofsomeweightmightbecollected。
Fromonepointofviewitwouldappearthatthenewcommunicationoughttoencourageindividualityofallkinds;itmakesiteasiertogetawayfromagivenenvironmentandtofindsupportinonemorecongenial。Theworldhasgrownmorevariousandatthesametimemoreaccessible，sothatonehavinganaturalbentshouldbethemoreabletofindinfluencestonourishit。Ifhehasaturn，say，forentomology，hecanreadily，throughjournals，correspondenceandmeetings，getintouchwithagroupofmensimilarlyinclined，andwithacongenial，(92)tradition。Andsowithanysectofreligion，orpolitics，orart，orwhatnot;ifthereareinthecivilizedworldafewlike-mindedpeopleitiscomparativelyeasyforthemtogettogetherinspiritandencourageoneanotherintheirpeculiarity。
Itisasimpleandrecognizedprincipleofdevelopmentthatanenlargedlifeintheorganismcommonlyinvolvesgreaterdifferentiationinitsparts。
Thatthesocialenlargementofrecenttimeshasingeneralthischaracterseemsplain，andhasbeensetforthinmuchdetailbysomewriters，notablybyHerbertSpencer。Many，indeed，findthecharacteristicevilofthenewerainanextremeindividuality，asomewhatanarchicdifferentiationandworkingatcrosspurposes。“Probablytherewasneveranytime，“saysProfessorMackenzie，“inwhichmentendedtobesounintelligibletoeachotherastheyarenow，onaccountofthediversityoftheobjectswithwhichtheyareengaged，andofthepointsofviewatwhichtheystand。”[1]
Ontheotherhandwehavewhatwemaycallthedeadleveltheory，ofwhichDeTocqueville，inhisDemocracyinAmerica，wasapparentlythechiefauthor。Modernconditions，accordingtothis，breakdownalllimitstothespreadofideasandcustoms。Greatpopulationsarebroughtintoonementalwhole，throughwhichmovementsofthoughtrunbyacontagionlikethatofthemob;andinsteadoftheindividualitywhichwasfosteredbyformerobstacles，wehaveauniversalassimilation。Eachlocality，itispointedout，hadformerlyitspeculiaraccent，(93)andmodeofdress;whilenowdialectsaredisappearing，andalmostthesamefashionsprevailthroughoutthecivilizedworld。Thisuniformityinexternalsisheldtobeonlytheoutwardandvisiblesignofacorrespondinglevelingofideas。People，itissaid，haveapassiontobealike，whichmodernappliancesenablethemtogratify。AlreadyintheeighteenthcenturyDr。Johnsoncomplainedthat“commercehasleftthepeoplenosingularities，“
andinourdaymanyholdwithJohnBurroughsthat，“Constantintercommunication，thefrictionoftravel，ofstreets，ofbooks，ofnewspapers，makeusallalike;weare，asitwere，allpebblesuponthesameshore，washedbythesamewaves。”[2]
Thekeytothismatter，inmyjudgment，istoperceivethattherearetwokindsofindividuality，oneofisolationandoneofchoice，andthatmodernconditionsfosterthelatterwhiletheyeffacetheformer。Theytendtomakeliferationalandfreeinsteadoflocalandaccidental。Theyenlargeindefinitelythecompetitionofideas，andwhateverhasoweditspersistencemerelytolackofcomparisonislikelytogo，whilethatwhichisreallycongenialtothechoosingmindwillbeallthemorecherishedandincreased。Humannatureisenfranchised，andworksonalargerscaleasregardsbothitsconformitiesanditsnon-conformities。
Somethingofthismaybeseeninthecontrastbetweentownandcountry，thelatterhavingmoreoftheindividualityofisolation，theformerofchoice。“Theruralenvironment，’saysMr。R。L。Hartt，speakingofcountry，(94)villagesinNewEngland，“ispsychicallyextravagant。Ittendstoextremes。Amancarrieshimselfouttohislogicalconclusions;hebecomesaconcentratedessenceofhimself。”[3]ItravelledsomeyearsagoamongthemountainsofNorthCarolina，atthattimewhollyunreachedbymodernindustryandcommunication，andnoticedthatnotonlywasthedialectoftheregionasawholedistinctfromthatofneighboringpartsofthecountry，butthatevenadjoiningvalleysoftenshowedmarkeddifferences。
Evidentlythissortoflocalindividuality，characteristicofanilliteratepeoplelivingontheirowncorn，porkandneighborhoodtraditions，canhardlysurvivethenewcommunication。
Itmustbesaid，however，thatrurallifehasotherconditionsthatfosterindividualityinamorewholesomewaythanmereisolation，andarearealadvantageinthegrowthofcharacter。Amongthesearecontrolovertheimmediateenvironment，thehabitofface-to-facestrugglewithnature，andcomparativesecurityofeconomicposition。Allthesecontributetotheself-relianceuponwhichthefarmingpeoplejustlypridethemselves。
Inthecitywefindanindividualitylesspicturesquebutperhapsmorefunctional。Thereismorefacilityfortheformationofspecializedgroups，andsoforthefosteringofspecialcapacities。Notwithstandingthedinofcommunicationandtrade，thecitiesare，forthisreason，thechiefseatsofproductiveoriginalityinart，scienceandletters。
Thedifferenceisanalogoustothatbetweenthedevelopmentofnaturalspeciesonislandsorotherisolatedareas，(95)andonawideandtraversablecontinent。Theformerproducesmanyquaintspecies，likethekangaroos，whichdisappearwhenbroughtintocontactwithmorecapabletypes;butthecontinentbynomeansbringsaboutuniformity。
Itengenders，rather，acomplexorganismofrelatedspeciesandvarieties，eachofwhichiscomparativelyperfectinitsspecialway;andhasbecomesothroughtheveryfactofawiderstruggleforexistence。
So，easycommunicationofideasfavorsdifferentiationofarationalandfunctionalsort，asdistinguishedfromtherandomvariationsfosteredbyisolation。Anditmustberememberedthatanysortisrationalandfunctionalthatreallycommendsitselftothehumanspirit。Evenrevoltfromanascendanttypeiseasiernowthanformerly，becausetherebelcanfortifyhimselfwiththetriumphantrecordsofthenon-conformersofthepast。
Itis，then，probablethatlocalpeculiarityofspeechandmanner，andothercuriousandinvoluntarysortsofindividuality，willdiminish。Andcertainlyagreatdealisthuslostinthewayoflocalcolorandatmosphere，oftheracyflavorofisolatedpersonalitiesandunconsciouspicturesqueness-
ofsocialtypes。Thediversitiesofdress，languageandculture，whichweredevelopedinEuropeduringtheMiddleAges，wheneachlittlebaronywasthechannelofpeculiartraditions，canhardlyreappear。Norcanweexpect，inmoderncities，thesortofarchitecturalindividualitywefindinthoseofItaly，builtwheneachvillagewasadistinctpoliticalandsocialunit。Heine，speakingofScott，longagoreferredto“thegreatpaincausedbythelossofnationalcharacteristicsinconse，(96)-quenceofthespreadofthenewerculture梐painwhichnowquiversintheheartofallpeoples。”
Butthemorevitalindividuality，thecultivationbyspecialgroupsofpeculiarphasesofknowledge，artorconduct，ofanythingundertheheavensinfactthatafewpeoplemayagreetopursue，willapparentlybeincreasedSinceuniformityischeapandconvenient，wemayexpectitinallmatterswhereinmendonotspeciallycaretoassertthemselves。
Wehaveitindressanddomesticarchitecture，forinstance，justsofaraswearewillingtotakethesethingsready-made;butwhenwebegintoputourselvesintothemweproducesomethingdistinctive。
