Certainlythereis，onthewhole，amorelivelyandhopefulpursuitofthebrotherhoodofmaninmoderndemocracythanthereeverwas，onalargescale，before。Onewhoisnotdeaftothevoicesofliterature，ofsocialagitation，ofordinaryintercourse，canhardlydoubtthis。Thesocialsettlementandsimilarmovementsexpressit，and，(195)-so，moreandmore，doesthewholefeelingofoursocietyregardingricherandpoorer。Philanthropyisnotonlyextending，butundergoingarevolutionofprinciplefromalmstojusticeandfromcondescensiontofellowship。Thewealthyandtheeducatedclassesfeel，howevervaguely，thattheymustjustifytheiradvantagestotheirfellowmenandtheirownconsciencesbymakingsomepublicuseofthem。Gifts梬ellmeantifnotalwayswise梩oeducation，scienceandphilanthropyareincreasing，andtherewasnever，perhaps，amoreprevalentdispositiontomakeunusualmentalacquirementsavailabletowardgeneralculture。
Eventheloveofpublicityanddisplay，saidtomarkourrichpeople，hasitsamiablesideasindicatingadesiretoimpressgeneralopinion，ratherthanthatofanexclusiveclass。Tndeed，ifthereisanywhereinAmericansocietyanexclusiveandself-sufficientkindofpeople，theyarenotakindwhohavemuchinfluenceuponthegeneralspirit。
Thesamesentimentincitesus，inourbettermoments，toshunhabits，modesofdressandthelikethatarenotgoodinthemselvesandmerelyaccentuateclasslines;tosaveonprivateandmaterialobjectssoastohavethemoreenergytobehumanly，spiritually，alive。This，forexample，istheteachingofThoreau，whoseworks，especiallyhisWalden，havelatterlyawidecirculation。IfThoreauseemsalittletooaloofandfastidioustorepresentdemocracy，thisisnotthecasewithWhitman，whohadjoyinthepressofcities，andwhosepassionwasto“utterthewordDemocratic，thewordEnMasse。”[7]Hischantsexpressagreatgustoincommonlife：“AllthisI
(196)swallow，ittastesgood，Ilikeitwell，itbecomesmine;Iamtheman，Isuffered，Iwasthere。”[8]“Whoeverdegradesanotherdegradesme。”[9]“ByGod！Iwillacceptnothingwhichallcannothavetheircounterpartofonthesameterms。”[10]“Ibelievethemainpurportofthesestatesistofoundasuperbfriendship，exalte，previouslyunknown。”[11]
Onthewhole，Americansmaysurelyclaimthattherewasneverbeforeagreatnationinwhichthepeoplefeltsomuchlikeafamily，hadsokindlyandcheerfulasenseofacommonlife。Itisnotonlythatthesentimenthasawiderrange;thereisalsomorefaithinitsfuture，morebeliefthatgovernmentandotherinstitutionscanbemadetoexpressit。Andthepopularagitationofallcountriesmanifeststhesamebelief梥ocialism，andevenanarchism，aswellasthelabormovementandthestruggleagainstmonopolyandcorruption。
Alargerspiritofserviceistheactivesideofdemocraticfeeling。
Alifeofserviceofsomesort梚nbehalfoftheclanortribe，ofthechief，ofthesovereign，ofthemistress，oftheChurch，ofGod梙asalwaysbeentheideallife，sincenoimaginativeandtrulyhumanmindcontentsitselfwithaseparategood：whatisnewisthattheobjectofthisservicetendstobecomewider，withthemodernexpansionoftheimagination，andtoincludeallclasses，allnationsandraces，initsidealscope。Thenarrowerboundariesdonotdisappear，butastheybecomelessdistinctthegreaterwholebecomesmoreso。Asthechildgrowsuntilhecanseeoverthehedgesboundinghisearly，(197)playground，sothedemocratizedindividualhasoutgrownthelimitsoftheclanorthecaste。
IntheUnitedStates，atleast，thefeelingthate。verybodvoughttobedoingsomethingusefulissoestablishedthattheresnoinfluentialclasswithinwhichidlenessisrespectable。Whatevernarrownesstheremaybeinthisspirit，inthewayofundervaluingactivitieswhoseusefulnessisofaninobvioussort，itissoundonthewholeanddoesincalculableserviceinredeemingrichesfromvulgarityandcorruption。Ifitbetrue，asisasserted，thatthechildrenofthewealthy，withus，areonthewholelessgiventoslothandvicethanthesameclassinoldercountries，thereasonistobefoundinahealthier，moreorganicstateofpublicopinionwhichpenetratesallclasseswiththeperceptionthatthesignificanceoftheindividualliesinhisservicetothewhole。Thatthissentimentisgaininginourcollegesisevidenttothosewhoknowanythingoftheseinstitutions。Studiesthatthrowlightonthenatureandworkingofsociety，pastorpresent，andupontheopportunitiesofserviceordistinctionwhichitofferstotheindividual，arerapidlytakingtheplace，forpurposesofculture，ofstudieswhosehumanvalueisless，ornotsoapparent。Classesinhistory梡olitical，industrialandsocial梚neconomics，ingovernmentandadministration，insociologyandethics，incharitiesandpenology，arelargeryearbyyear。Andtheyoungpeople，chieflyfromthewell-to-doclasses，whoseekthesestudies，areoneandalladherentsofthedemocraticideathatprivilegemustbeearnedbyfunction。
Thetendencyofmannerswellexpressesthatofsentin~ent，andseemstobetowardaspontaneouscourtesy，(198)expressingtruthandequalityasagainsttheconcealmentand，sometimes，thearrogance，ofmerepolish。Thebestpracticeappearstobetoputyourself，onapproachinganother，intoasopenandkindlyaframeofmindtowardhimasyoucan，butnottotrytoexpressmorethanyoufeel，preferringcoldnesstoaffectedwarmth。DemocracyIStoobusyandtoofondoftruthandhumannaturetolikeformality，exceptasanoccasionalamusement。Amerelyformalpolitenessgoeswithacrystallizedsociety，indicatingacertaindistrustofhumannatureanddesiretocloakorsupplantitbypropriety。ThusaChineseteacher，havingarareopportunitytosendamessagetohisoldmother，calledoneofhispupilssaying，“Here，takethispaperandwritemealettertomymother。”Thisproceedingstrucktheobserverassingular，andheenquirediftheladwasacquaintedwiththeteacher’smother，learningthattheboydidnotevenknowtherewassuchaperson。“How，then，washetoknowwhattosay，nothavingbeentold？“Tothistheschoolmastermadereply：“Doesn’theknowquitewellwhattosay？Formorethanayearhehasbeenstudyingliterarycomposition，andheisacquaintedwithanumberofelegantformulas。Doyouthinkhedoesnotknowperfectlywellhowasonoughttowritetoamother？”TheletterwouldhaveansweredequallywellforanyothermotherintheEmpire。[12]Hereisoneextreme，andthekindlyfrontiersmanwith“nomannersatall“
isattheother。
Nodoubtform，inmannersaswellaselsewhere，iscapableofabeautyandrefinementofitsown，andprobablyrawdemocracygoestoananarchicexcessindepreci-
(199)-atingit;butthesentimentofrealitywhichdemandsthatformandcontentshouldagree，isperhapsapermanentfactorinthebestmanners。
Conflict，ofsomesort，isthelifeofsociety，andprogressemergesfromastruggleinwhicheachindividual，classorinstitutionseekstorealizeitsownideaofgood。Theintensityofthisstrugglevariesdirectlyasthevigorofthepeople，anditscessation，ifconceivable，wouldbedeath。Thereis，then，noprospectofanamiableunanimity，andthequestionarises，Whatchange，ifany，inthenatureofoppositionandofhostility，accompaniestheallegedgrowthofthesenseofbrotherhood？
Theanswertothisisprobablybestsoughtbyaskingourselveswhatisthedifferencebetweentheoppositionoffriendsandthatofenemies。
Evidentlytheformermaybeasenergeticasthelatter，butitislesspersonal：thatis，itisnotdirectedagainsttheopponentasawhole，butagainstcertainviewsorpurposeswhichtheopponent？towardwhomakindlyfeelingisstillcherished梖orthetimebeingrepresents。Theoppositionofenemies，ontheotherhand，involvesapersonalantagonismandisgratifiedbyapersonalinjury。
Well-conductedsportsarealessontoeveryonethatfairandorderlyoppositionmayevenpromotegoodfellowship;andfamiliaritywiththem，inprimarygroups，isanexcellentpreparationforthefriendlycompetitionthatoughttoprevailinsocietyatlarge。Indeeditisonlythroughoppositionthatwelearntounderstandoneanother。Inthemomentofstruggletheopposingagent，mayarouseanger，butafterwardthemind，moreatease，(200)viewswithrespectandinterestthatwhichhasexhibitedsomuchforce。Itseemsevident，forinstance，thattheself-assertionofthewage-earningclass，sofarasitisorderlyandpursuantofidealswhichallclassesshare，hascommandednotonlytherespectbutthegoodwillofthepeopleatlarge。Weakness梚ntrinsicweakness，thefailureofthemembertoassertitsfunction梚sinstinctivelydespised。Iamsofarinsympathywiththestruggleforexistenceastothinkthatpassivekindlinessalone，apartfromself-assertion，isademoralizingideal，orwouldbeifitwerelikelytobecomeascendant。Buttheselfwhichisasserted，theidealfoughtfor，mustbeagenerousone？involvingperhapsself-sacrificeasthatisordinarilyunderstood梠rthestruggleisdegrading。
Thewidercontactwhichmarksmodernlife，thesupplingoftheimaginationwhichenablesittoappreciatediversephasesofhumannature，themoreinstructedsenseofjustice，bringsinalargergoodwillwhicheconomizespersonalhostilitywithoutnecessarilydiminishingopposition。Inprimitivelifethereactionofmanagainstmaniscrude，impulsive，wasteful。Violentangerisfeltagainsttheopponentasawholeandexpressedbyageneralassault。Civilizedman，trainedtobemorediscriminating，strikesattendenciesratherthanpersons，andavoidssofaraspossiblehostileemotion，whichhefindspainfulandexhausting。Asanopponentheisatoncekinderandmoreformidablethanthesavage。
Perhapsthemosturgentneedofthepresenttime，sofarasregardstheassuagingofantipathy，issomeclearerconsciousnessofwhatmaybecalled，inthewidestsense，therulesofthegame;thatis，foracceptedidealsofjustice，(201)whichconscienceandpublicopinionmayimposeuponreasonablemen，andlawupontheunreasonable。Inthelackofclearnotionsofrightanddutytheorderlytestofstrengthdegeneratesintoascuffle，inwhichtheworstpassionsarereleasedandlowformsofpowertendtoprevail梛ustasbrutalandtrickymethodsprevailinill-regulatedsports。WeneedapopularethicswhichisatonceChristianandevolutionary，recognizingunityofspiritalongsideofdiversityofstandpoint;acooperativecompetition，givingeachindividual，grouporraceafairchanceforhigherself-assertionunderconditionssojustastogivetheleastpossibleoccasionforill-feeling。
Somethingofthissortisinfacttheidealinaccordancewithwhichmoderndemocracyhopestoreconstructasomewhatdisorderedworld。
ThereisaFrenchmaxim，muchquotedoflate，totheeffectthattounderstandallistopardonall：allanimosity，assomeinterpretthis，isamistake;whenwefullyunderstandweceasetoblame。This，however，isonlyahalf-truth，andbecomesaharmfulfallacywhenitismadetostandforthewhole。Itistruethatifwewhollyloseourselvesinanother’sstateofmindblamemustdisappear：perhapsnothingisfeltaswrongbyhimwhodoesitattheveryinstantitisdone。Butthisismorethanwehavearighttodo：itinvolvesthatwerenounceourmoralindividuality，thehighestpartofourbeing，andbecomeamereintelligence。Thefactthateverychoiceisnaturaltothemindthatchoosesdoesnotmakeitright。
Thetruthisthatwemustdistinguish，insuchquestionsasthis，twoattitudesofmind，theactiveandthecon-
(202)-templative，bothnaturalandhavingimportantfunctions，butneitherbyitselfsufficient。Purecontemplationseesthingsandtheirrelationsasapictureandwithnosenseofbetterorworse;itdoesnotcare;itistheidealofscienceandspeculativephilosophy。lfonecouldbecompletelyinthisstateofmindhewouldceasetobeaselfaltogether。Allactivepersonality，andespeciallyallsenseofrightandwrong，ofduty，responsibility，blame，praiseandthelike，dependuponthemindtakingsidesandhavingparticulardesiresandpurposes。
Theunhappinessofbadmen，maintainedbySocrates，dependsupontheirbadnessbeingbroughthometotheminconscience。If，becauseoftheirinsensibilityorlackofproperreproof，theerroroftheirwayisnotimpresseduponthem，theyhavenomotivetoreform。Thefactthattheevil-doerhasbecomesuchgradually，anddoesnotrealizetheevilinhim，isnoreasonwhyweshouldnotblamehim;itisthefunctionofblametomakehimandothersrealizeit，todefineevilanddeclareitinthesightofmen。Wemaypardontheevil-doerwhenheisdead，orhassincerelyandopenlyrepented，notwhileheremainsaforceforwrong。
Itseemsthattherightwayliesbetweentheoldvindictivenessandtheviewnowsomewhatprevalentthatcrimeshouldberegardedwithoutresentment，quitelikeadiseaseoftheflesh。Theresentmentofsociety，ifjustandmoderate，isamoralforce，anddefiniteformsofpunishmentarerequiredtoimpressituponthegeneralmind。Ifcrimeisadiseaseitisamoraldiseaseandcallsformoralremedies，amongwhichiseffectiveresentment。
Itisrightthatonewhoharmsthestateshouldgotoprison，(203)inthesightofall;butitisrightalsothatallshouldunderstandthatthisisdoneforthedefenceofsociety，andnotbecausetheoffenderisimaginedtobeanotherkindofmanfromtherestofus。
Thedemocraticmovement，insomuchasitfeelsacommonspiritinallmen，isofthesamenatureasChristianity;anditissaidwithtruththatwhiletheworldwasneversocarelessasnowofthemechanismofreligion，itwasneversoChristianinfeeling。Adeepersenseofacommonlife，bothasincarnatedinthemenaboutusandasinferredinsomelargerwholebehindandabovethem？inGod梑elongstothehigherspiritofdemocracyasitdoestotheteachingofJesus。
Hecallsthemindoutofthenarrowandtransientselfofsensualappetitesandvisibleappurtenances，whichallofusinourawakenedmomentsfeeltobeinferior，andfillsitwiththeincorruptgoodofhighersentiment。
Wearetolovemenasbrothers，tofixourattentionuponthebestthatisinthem，andtomaketheirgoodourownambition。
Suchidealsareperennialinthehumanheartandassoundinpsychologyasinreligion。Themind，initsbestmoments，isnaturallyChristian;
becausewhenwearemostfullyalivetothelifeaboutusthesympatheticbecomestherational;whatisgoodforyouisgoodformebecauseIshareyourlife;andIneednourgingtodobyyouasIwouldhaveyoudobyme。Justiceandkindnessaremattersofcourse，andalsohumility，whichcomesfrombeingawareofsomethingsuperiortoyourordinaryself。Tooneinwhomhumannatureisfullyawake“Love，(204)yourenemiesanddogoodtothemthatdespitefullyuseyou“isnaturalandeasy，becausedespitefulpeopleareseentobeinastateofunhappyaberrationfromthehigherlifeofkindnessandthereisanimpulsetohelpthemtogetback。Theawakenedmindidentifiesitselfwithotherpersons，livingthesympatheticlifeandfollowingthegoldenrulebyimpulse。
Toputitotherwise，Christandmoderndemocracyalikerepresentaprotestagainstwhateverisdeadininstitutions，andanattempttobringlifeclosertothehigherimpulsesofhumannature。Thereisacommonaspirationtoeffectuatehomelyidealsofjusticeandkindness。ThemoderndemocratisaplainmanandJesuswasanother。Itisnowonder，then，thatthecharacteristicthoughtofthedayispreponderantlyChristian，inthesenseofsharingtheidealsofChrist，andthatinsofarasitdistruststheChurchitisonthegroundthattheChurchisnotChristianenough。
Buthowfar，afterall，isthisbrotherlyandpeacefulsentiment，ancientormodern，applicabletolifeasweknowit？Isitfeasible，isitreallyright，isitnotasentimentofsubmissioninaworldthatgrowsbystrife？Afterwhathasalreadybeensaidonthis，itisperhapsenoughtoaddherethatneitherinthelifeofChristnorinmoderndemocracydowefindsanctionforsubmissiontoessential，moralwrong。Christbroughtaswordwhichthegoodmanofourdaycanbynomeanssheathe：hiscounselsofsubmissionseemtorefertomerelypersonalinjuries，whichitmaybebettertooverlookinordertokeeptheconflictonahigherplane。IfwemeanbyChristianityanunderstandingandbrotherlyspirittowardallmen，(205)andareverenceforthehigherLifebehindthem，expressedinaninfinitevarietyofconductaccordingtoconditions，itwouldseemtobealwaysright，andalwaysfeasible，sofaraswehavestrengthtorisetoit。
Themostnotablereactionofdemocracyuponreligioussentimentisnodoubtatendencytosecularizeit，tofixituponhumanliferatherthanuponavagueotherworld。Sosoonasmencometofeelthatsocietyisnotamachinecontrolledchieflybythepowersofdarkness，butanexpressionofhumannature，capableofreflectingwhatevergoodhumannaturecanriseto;sosoon，thatis，astherecomestobeapublicwill，thereligiousspiritisdrawnintosocialidealism。Whydreamofaworldtocomewhenthereishopefulactivityinthis？God，itseems，istobefoundinhumanlifeaswellasbeyondit，andsocialserviceisamethodofhisworship。
“Ifyelovenotyourbrotherwhomyehaveseen，howcanyeloveGodwhomyehavenotseen？”
Anidealdemocracyisinitsnaturereligious，anditstruesovereignmaybesaidtobethehighernature，orGod，whichitaspirestoincarnateinhumaninstitutions。
Endnotes，Page55。JaneAddams，DemocracyandSocialEthics，275。QuotedinTheCommons，October，1903。Dante，Purgatorio，15，55-57。HeisspeakingofParadise。Longfellow’sTranslation。JaneAddams，DemocracyandSocialEthics，272。LeavesofGrass(1884)，page9。Idem，59。Idem，48。Idem，48。Idem，110。ArthurH。Smith，ChineseCharacteristics，181。，CharlesHortonCooley：SocialOrganization：Chapter18：TheHereditaryorCast，Principle，CHAPTERXVIII
THEHEREDITARYORCASTEPRINCIPLE，NATUREANDUSEOFCLASSES——INHERITANCEANDCOMPETITION
THETWOPRINCIPLESUPONWHICHCLASSESAREBASED——CONDITIONSINHUMAN
NATUREMAKINGFORHEREDITARYCLASSES——CASTESPIRIT
SPEAKINGroughly，wemaycallanypersistentsocialgroup，otherthanthefamily，existingwithinalargergroup，aclass。Andeverysociety，exceptpossiblythemostprimitive，ismoreorlessdistinctlycomposedofclasses。Eveninsavagetribesthereare，besidesfamiliesandclans，almostalwaysotherassociations：ofwarriors，ofmagiciansandsoon;
andthesecontinuethroughoutallphasesofdevelopmentuntilwereachtheintricategroupstructureofourowntime。Individualsneverachievetheirlifeinseparation，butalwaysincooperationwithagroupofotherminds，andinproportionasthesecooperatinggroupsstandoutfromoneanotherwithsomedistinctnesstheyconstitutesocialclasses。
Wemaysayofthisdifferentiation，speakinggenerally，thatitisuseful。
Thevariousfunctionsofliferequirespecialinfluencesandorganization，andwithoutsomeclassspirit，somespecialityintraditionsandstandards，nothingiswellperformed。Thus，ifourphysicianswerenot，asregardstheirprofessionalactivities，somethingofapsychologicalunit，buildingupknowledgeandsenti-
(210)-mentbycommunication，desiringtheapprovalanddreadingthecensureoftheircolleagues，itwouldbeworsenotonlyforthembutfortherestofus。Therearenodoubtclassdivisionsthatareuselessorharmful，butsomethingofthisnaturethereshouldbe，andlhavealreadytriedtoshowthatourownsocietysuffersconsiderablyfromalackofadequategroupdifferentiationinitshighermentalactivities。
Fundamentaltoallstudyofclassesarethetwoprinciples，ofinheritanceandofcompetition，accordingtowhichtheirmembershipisdetermined。
Theruleofdescent，asinthehereditarynobilityofEnglandorGermany，givesafixedsystem，thealternativetowhichissomekindofselection梑yelectionorappointmentasinourpolitics;bypurchase，asformerlyintheBritisharmyandnavy;orbytheinformalactionofpreference，opportunityandendeavor，asinthecaseofmosttradesandprofessionsatthepresentday。
Evidentlythesetwoprinciplesareverymuchintermingledintheirworking。
Thehereditarydistinctionsmusthaveabeginninginsomesortofselectivestruggle，suchasthemilitaryandcommercialcompetitionfromwhichprivilegedfamilieshaveemergedinthepast，andneverbecomesorigidasnottobemodifiedbysimilarprocesses。Ontheotherhand，inheritedadvantages，eveninthefreestsociety，enterpowerfullyintoeverykindofcompetition。
Anotherconsiderationofmuchinterestisthatthestrictruleofdescentisabiologicalprinciple，makingthesocialorganizationsubordinatetophysicalcontinuityoflife，(211)whileselectionorcompetitionbringsinpsychicalelements，ofthemostvariousqualitiestobesure，butcapableatthebestofformingsocietyonatrulyrationalmethod。
Finallyitiswelltorecognizethatthereisavastsumofinfluencesgovernedbynoascertainableprincipleatall，whichgotoassigntheindividualhisplaceintheclasssystem。Afterallowingforinheritanceandforeverythingwhichcanfairlybecalledselection(thatis，foralldefiniteandorderlyinteractionbetweenthemanandthesystem)，thereremainsalargepartwhichcanbeassignedonlytochance。Thisisparticularlytrueinthesomewhattumultuouschangesofmodernlife。
Whenaclassissomewhatstrictlyhereditary，wemaycallitacaste梐
nameoriginallyappliedtothehereditaryclassesofIndia，buttowhichitiscommon，andcertainlyconvenient，togiveawidermeaning。
Perhapsthebestwaytounderstandcasteistoopenoureyesandnotethoseforcesatworkamongourselveswhichmightconceivablygiverisetoit。
Oneverysidewemayseethatdifferencesarise，andthatthesetendtobeperpetuatedthroughinheritedassociations，opportunitiesandculture。
Theendeavortosecureforone’schildrenwhateverdesirablethingonehasgainedforoneselfisaperennialsourceofcaste，andthisendeavorflowsfromhumannatureandthemoralunityofthefamily。Ifamanhasbeenabletosavemoney，heanxiouslyinvestsittoyieldanincomeafterhisdeath;ifhehasbuiltupabusiness，itishishopethathischildrenmaysucceedhiminit;ifhehasagoodhandicraft，hewisheshisboystolearnit。Andsowithlesstangible，(212)goods梕ducation，culture，religiousandmoralideas？thereisnogoodparentbutdesireshischildrentohavemorethanthecommoninheritanceofwhatisbestinthesethings’Itits，perhaps，safetosaythatifthegoodofhischildrencouldbesetononesideandthegoodofalltherestoftheworldoveragainstitontheother，theaverageparentwoulddesirethatevilmightbefallthelatterratherthantheformer。Andmuchofthewidersocialspiritofrecenttimescomesfromthebeliefthatwecannotmakethisseparation，andthattosecuretherealgoodofourchildrenwemustworkforthecommonadvancement。
Thatthisendeavortosecureasuccessionindesirablefunctionisnotconfinedtotherichwemaysee，forinstance，inthefactthatlaborunionsoftenhaveregulationstendingtosecuretothechildrenofmembersacompleteorpartialmonopolyoftheopportunitiesofapprenticeship。InChicago，notlongsince，onlythesonofaplumbercouldlearntheplumber’strade。
Asbeingtheactualpossessoroftheadvantagesinquestion，theparentisusuallyinapositioneithertohandthemoverdirectlytohischildren，ortomaketheiracquisitioncomparativelyeasy。Wealth，themostobviousandtangiblesourceofcaste，istransmissible，eveninthefreestsocieties，underthesanctionandprotectionoflaw。Andwealthisconvertiblenotonlyintomaterialgoodsbut，iftheholderhasalittletactandsense，intootherandfineradvantages梕ducationalopportunities，businessandprofessionalopenings，travelandintercoursewithpeopleofrefinementandculture。Againstthiswemust，ofcourse，offsetthediminishedmotivetoexertion，thelackofrough-and-tumbleexperience，andotherdisad-
(213)-vantageswhichinheritedwealth，especiallyiflarge，isapttobringwithit;butthatitdoes，asarule，perpetuatethemoreconventionalsortsofsuperiorityisundeniable。
Andsuchintangibleadvantagesasculture，manners，goodassociationsandthelike，whetherassociatedwithwealthornot，arepracticallyheritable，sincetheyarechieflyderivedbychildrenfromasocialenvironmentdeterminedbythepersonalityandstandingoftheirparents。
Indeed，irrespectiveofanyintentiontowardorfrominheritance，thereisastrongdrifttowarditduetomerefamiliarity。Itiscommonlythelineofleastresistance。Thefatherknowsmuchabouthisowntradeandthosecloselyrelatedtoit，littleaboutothers;andthesonshareshispointofview。Sowhenthelattercomestofixuponacareerheislikely，intheabsenceofanydecidedindividualityofpreference，totakethewaythatliesmostopentohim。Ofcoursehemaylacktheabilitytocarrythepaternalfunction;butthis，thoughcommonenough，doesnotaffectthemajorityofcases。Thefunctionsthatrequireapeculiartypeofnaturalability，whileofthefirstimportance，sincetheyincludeallmarkedoriginality，arenotverynumerous，soundcharacterandtraining，withfairintelligence，beingordinarilysufficient。Eveninthelearnedprofessions，suchaslaw，medicine，teachingandtheministry，thegreatmajorityofpractitionersholdtheirownbycommonsenseandassiduityratherthanbyspecialaptitude。
Tothebestofmyobservation，therearemanymenservingasforemeninvarioussortsofhandicraft，orasfarmers，whohavenaturalcapacityadequateforsuccessinlaw，commerceorpolitics。Amanofgood，all-roundabilitywillsucceedinthatlineofworkwhich，(214)hefindsreadytohishand，butonlyafewwillbreakawayfromtheirantecedentsandseekawhollydifferentline。Andiftheirworkaffordsthemhealth，thoughtandmastery，whyshouldtheywishtochangeitiftheycould？
Iwouldnothaveitsupposed，however(becauseIdwellthusuponopportunity)，thatIagreewiththosewhosezealforeducationandtrainingleadsthemtodepreciatenaturaldifferences。Idonotknowhowtotalkwithmenwhobelieveinnativeequality：itseemstomethattheylackcommonsenseandobservation。Howcantheyfailtoseethatchildreninthesamefamily，eventwins，asMr。Galtonhasshown，[1]areoftenwidelydivergentinability，onedestinedtoleadershipandanothertoobscurity？
Thetwovariablesofpersonality，“natureandnurture，“arewithoutdoubtofequaldiversityandimportance，andtheymustworktogethertobringaboutanynotableachievement。Naturalabilityisessential;but，nomatterhowgreat，itcannotknowordevelopitspowerwithoutopportunity。
Indeed，greatnaturalfacultyisoftenmoredependentoncircumstancethanismediocrity梑ecauseofsometrait，likeextremesensitiveness，thatunfitsitformiscellaneouscompetition。Opportunity，moreover，meansdifferentthingsindifferentcases，andisnottobeidentifiedwithwealthorfacilecircumstancesofanysort。Somedegreesandkindsofdifficultyarehelpful，othersnot。
Andyet，leavingout，ontheonehand，unusualtalentorenergy，and，ontheother，decidedweaknessordulness，themassofmenareguidedchieflybyearlysurroundingsandtraining，whichdetermineforthem，inageneralway，(215)whatsortoflifetheywilltakeup，andcontributemuchtotheirsuccessorfailureinit。Society，eveninacomparativelyfreecountry，isthusvaguelydividedintohereditarystrataorsections，fromwhichthemajoritydonotdepart。
Ifthetransmissionoffunctionfromfathertosonhasbecomeestablished，acastespirit，asentimentinfavorofsuchtransmissionandopposedtothepassagefromoneclassintoanother，mayariseandbesharedevenbytheunprivilegedclasses。Theindividualthenthinksofhimselfandhisfamilyasidentifiedwithhiscaste，andsympathizeswithotherswhohavethesamefeeling。Thecastethusbecomesapsychicalorganism，consolidatedbycommunityofsentimentandtradition。InsomemeasuretherulingclassinEngland，forexample，hashungtogetherinthisway，andthesameispartlytrueofthelowerorders。Nodoubtthereisgenerallysomeprotestagainstahereditarysystemonthepartofrestlessmembersofthelowercastes梒ertainlythiswasalwaysthecaseinEurope梑utitmaybepracticallyinsignificant。
Andoutofcastesentimentariseinstitutions，social，politicalandeconomic條ikethemediaevalsysteminEurope，muchofwhichstillsurvives梬hosetendencyistodefineandperpetuatehereditarydistinctions。
Ihave，perhaps，saidenoughtomakeitclearthatanimpulsetowardcasteisfoundinhumannatureitself。Whetheritspreadsthroughanddominatesthesystemoflife，asinIndia，orremainssubordinate，aswithus，dependsuponthestrengthorweaknessofotherimpulseswhichlimititsoperation。
Ascertaintypesofvegetation，(216)liketheferns，whichatonetimeweredominantintheforests，arenowovershadowedbyplantsofhigherorganization，socaste，whichwemust，onthewhole，reckontobeaninferiorprinciple，tendstobesupplantedbysomethingfreerandmorerational。
Endnotes，SeethememoironthesubjectinhislnquiriesintoHumanFaculty。，CharlesHortonCooley：SocialOrganization：Chapter19：TheConditionsFavoringor，OpposingtheGrowthofCaste，CHAPTERXIX
CONDITIONSFAVORINGOROPPOSINGTHEGROWTHOFCASTE，THREECONDITIONSAFFECTINGTHEINCREASEORDIMINUTIONOF
CASTE——RACE-CASTE——IMMIGRATIONANDCONQUEST——GRADUALDIFFERENTIATION
OFFUNCTIONS;MEDIAEVALCASTE;INDIA——INFLUENCEOFSETTLEDCONDITIONS——
INFLUENCEOFTHESTATEOFCOMMUNICATIONANDENLIGHTENMENT——CONCLUSION
THEREseemtobethreeconditionswhich，chiefly，makefortheincreaseordiminutionofthecasteprinciple。Theseare，first，likenessorunlikenessintheconstituentsofthepopulation;second，therateofsocialchange(whetherwehavetodowithasettledorashiftingsystem)，and，finally，thestateofcommunicationandenlightenment。Unlikenessintheconstituents，asettledsystemandalowstateofcommunicationandenlightenmentfavorthegrowthofcaste，andviceversa。Thefirstprovidesnaturallinesofcleavageandsomakesiteasiertosplitintohereditarygroups;
thesecondgivesinheritancetimetoconsolidateitspower，whilethethirdmeanstheabsenceofthoseconsciousandrationalforceswhichareitschiefrivals。
Themostimportantsortsofunlikenessintheconstituentsofthepopulationareperhapsthree：differencesin，(218)race;differences，apartfromrace，duetoimmigrationorconquest，andunlikenessduetothegradualdifferentiationofsocialfunctionswithinapopulationoriginallyhomogeneousTworacesofdifferenttemperamentandcapacity，distincttotheeyeandlivingsidebysideinthesamecommunity，tendstronglytobecomecastes，nomatterhowequalthesocialsystemmayotherwisebe。Thedifference，asbeinghereditary，answersinitsnaturetotheideaofcaste，andtheexternalsignservestomakeitconsciousanddefinite。
TheracecasteexistingintheSouthernUnitedStatesillustratestheimpotenceofdemocratictraditionstoovercomethecastespiritwhenfosteredbyobviousphysicalandpsychicaldifferences。Thisspiritisimmeasurablystrongonthepartofthewhites，andthereisnoapparentprospectofitsdiminution。
Thespeciallycastenatureofthedivision梐sdistinguishedfromthosepersonaldifferenceswhichdemocratictraditionrecognizes梚sseeninthefeeling，universalamongthewhites，thattheNegromustbeheldapartandsubordinatenotmerelyasanindividual，oranynumberofindividuals，butasarace，asocialwhole。Thatis，thefactthatmanyindividualsofthisraceareequal，andsomesuperior，tothemajorityofwhitesdoesnot，intheopinionofthelatter，makeitjustorexpedienttotreatthemapartfromthemassoftheirrace。TodinewithaNegro，toworkorplaybyhisside，ortoassociateinanyrelationwheresuperioritycannotbeasserted，isheldtobedegradingandofevilexample，nomatterwhatkindofNegrohemaybe。Itisthepracticeandpolicyof，(219)thedominantracetoimpressupontheNegrothathebelongsbybirthtoadistinctorderoutofwhichhecaninnowaydepart。ThereornowherehemustfindhisdestinyIfhewishestominglewithwhitesitmustbeasanacknowledgedinferior。Asaservanthemayrideinthesamerailwaycar，butasacitizenhemaynotdoso。
Thoughtfulwhitesjustifythisattitudeontheground，substantially，thataraceisanorganicwhole梑oundtogetherbyheredityandsocialconnection梐ndthatitispracticallynecessarytorecognizethisindealingwithracequestions。Theintegrityofthewhiteraceandofwhitecivilization，theysay，requiresNegrosubordination(separationbeingimpracticable)，andtheonlyavailablelineofdistinctionisthedefiniteoneofcolor。A
divisiononthislineisevenheldtobelessinvidious梐sinvolvingnojudgmentofindividuals梐swellasmorefeasible，thanonebasedonpersonaltraits。Particularpersonscannot，inpractice，beseparatedfromtheirfamiliesandotherantecedents，andiftheycouldbetheexampleofmixtureonanequalfootingwouldbedemoralizing。
Thisargumentisprobablysoundinsofarasitrequirestherecognitionofthetworacesasbeing，forsomepurposes，distinctorganisms。Inthisregarditisperhapsbettersociologythantheviewthateveryoneshouldbeconsideredsolelyonhismeritsasanindividual。
AtthesametimeitisonlytooapparentthatourapplicationofthisdoctrineisdeeplycoloredwiththatcastearrogancewhichdoesnotrecognizeintheNegroaspiritualbrotherhoodunderlyingallracedifferenceandpossibleinferiority。”Thematterofunequalability，inracesasinindividuals，isquitedistinctfromthatsharingina，(220)commonspiritandservicefromwhichnohumanbeingcanrightlyorChristianlybeexcluded。TheideathatheisfundamentallyamanliketherestofuscannotandshouldnotbekeptfromtheNegroanymorethanfromotherlowlyordersofpeople。Science，religionandthedemocraticspiritallgivehimarighttoit;andthewhitemancannotdenyittohimwithoutbeingfalsetohisownbestself。Anythinginourpresentattitudewhichdoesdenyitwemusthopetobetransitory，sinceitiscalculated，inamodernatmosphere，togeneratecontinuingdisquietandhatred。Itbelongedwithslaveryandisincongruouswiththenewerworld。
Thesemaybesubtleties，butsubtletyistheverysubstanceoftheracequestion，themostvitalmatterbeingnotsomuchwhatisdoneasthespiritinwhichitisdone。
Thepracticalquestionhereisnotthatofabolishingcastesbutofsecuringjustandkindlyrelationsbetweenthem，ofreconcilingthefactofcastewithidealsoffreedomandright。Thisisdifficultbutnotevidentlyimpossible，andarightspirit，togetherwithagovernmentfirmlyrepressiveofthelowerpassionsofbothraces，shouldgofartoachieveit。Thereseemstobenoreasoninthenatureofthingswhydivergentraces，likedivergentindividuals，shouldnotuniteinacommonserviceoftheidealstowhichallhumannaturebearsallegiance桰meanidealsofkindness，fairplayandsoon。Andthewhiteman，inclaimingsuperiority，assumesthechiefresponsibilityforbringingthisstateofthingstopass。
Whenpeoplesofthesameraceminglebymigration，theeffect，asregardsclasses，dependschieflyontheir，(221)statesofcivilizationandthecharacterofthemigrationashostileorfriendly。Thepeacefuladventofkindredsettlers，liketheEnglishimmigrantstotheUnitedStates，createsnoclassdivisions。Iftheydifferinlanguageandcustoms，likethoGermans，orareextremelypoorandignorant，likemanyoftheIrish，theyareheldapartforatimeandlookeddownupon，butastheyestablishthemselvesandgraduallyprovetheirsubstantialequalitywiththenatives，theymaybecomeindistinguishablefromthelatter。
Ofrecentyears，however，thearrivalbymillionsofpeoplessomewhatmoredivergentespeciallyItalians，SlavsandJews梙asintroduceddistinctionsinwhichraceaswellascultureplaysanappreciablepart。
Muchdepends，ofcourse，uponthespecialcharacteroftheinstitutionsandtraditionsthatthuscomeintocontact。Somesocietiesarerigidandrepellentintheirstructure，whileothers，liketheUnitedStates，arealmostideallyconstitutedtoinviteandhastenassimilation。
Conquesthasbeenoneofthemainsourcesofcastetheworldover。Thehostiletraditionitleavesmaycontinueindefinitely;servilefunctionsarecommonlyforcedupontheconquered，andtheconsciousnessofsuperiorityleadstheconquerorstoregardintermarriageasshameful。Aservilecaste，strictlyhereditary，existedevenamongtheprimitiveGermantribesfromwhichmostofusaredescended，andintermarriagewithfreemenwasseverelypunished。“TheLombard，“saysMr。Gummere，“killedaserfwhoventuredtomarryafreewoman，……WestGothsandBurgundiansscourgedandburntthemboth，(222)whiletheSaxonspunishedanunequalmarriageofanysortwithdeathofmanandwife。”[1]
Theunlikenessoutofwhichcastegrowsmaynotbeloriginal，asinthecaseofracedifferenceorconquestbutmayarisegraduallybythedifferentiationofahomogeneouspeople。Anydistinctsocialgroup，havingitsspecialgroupsympathiesandtraditions，hassometendencytopassonitsfunctionsandideastothechildrenofitsmembers，promotingassociationandintermarriageamongthem，andthustakingonacastecharacter。
Accordingly，anyincreaseinthecomplexityofsocialfunctions梡olitical，religious，militaryorindustrial？suchasnecessarilyaccompaniestheenlargementofasocialsystem，mayhaveacastetendency，becauseitseparatesthepopulationintogroupscorrespondingtotheseveralfunctions;andthisalonemaywithoutdoubtproducecasteiftheconditionsareotherwisefavorable。
SomethingofthissortseemstohavefollowedupontheconquestbytheGermanictribesofRomanterritory，andtheconsequentnecessityofadministeringamorecomplexsystemthantheirown。Asthenewordertookshapeitshowedatendencytowardmoredefiniteinheritanceofrankandfunctionthanexistedinthetribalsociety。Thiswasduepartly，nodoubt，totheinfluenceofRomantraditions，buttheverynatureofthecivilizationrequiredit。
Thatis，functionsbecamemorediverseandofsuchacharacterastoseparatethecitizensintodistinctclasses，theprincipalonesbeingwarriorsofvariousdegrees(combiningmilitaryfunctionswiththecontrolofland)，clergy，(223)artisansandpeasants。Themilitaryandlandholdingclass，unitingtheforceofarmswiththatofwealth，naturallydominatedtheothers;
theartisans，especiallyinthetowns，maintainedafreestatuswhichservedlaterasthenucleusofademocratictendency;thepeasantsbecameserfs。
Astheconditionsdidnotpermitorganizationonanyfreeoropenprinciple梩herebeinglittlefacilityoftravel，diffusionofknowledgeorunfixedwealth梩hehereditaryprinciplenaturallyprevailed。Onlytheclergy，monopolizingmostoftheknowledgeandcommunicationofthetimeandfortifiedbycelibacyagainstinheritance，maintainedacomparativelyopenorganization。Itiswellknownthatlands，andthelocalrulethatwentwiththem，heldatfirstasapersonaltrust，graduallybecameafamilyproperty，andwearetoldthatwhentheEmperorConrad，in1037，issuedhisedictmakingchiefshereditaryinItaly，heonlydidforthesouth“byasinglestrokewhatgradualcustomandpolicyhadslowlyprocuredforthenorth。”[2]Offices，armorialdevicesandotherprivilegesgenerallyfollowedthesamecourse，andtheservilestatusofserfswasalsotransmittedtochildren。
Thefeudalsystemwasbasedoninheritanceoffunctionandhadtwowell-definedcastes，theknightly，consistingoriginallyofthosewhoseabilitytomaintainahorseandequipmentplacedthemintherankofeffectivewarriors，andtheservile。BetweenthesemarriagewasimpossibleIntercourseofanykindwasscantyand，onthepartofthesuperiororder，contemptuous。“Aboyofknightlybirthwasrearedinceremony。Fromhisearliestchildhoodhelearnttolookuponhimselfandhisequalsasofadiffer-
(224)-entdegreeandalmostofadifferentnaturefromhisfellowcreatureswhowerenotofgentlecondition。Heraldicprideandthedistinctionofdegreewereamonghisfirstimpressions，“[3]Sociallyandpsychologicallythemediaevalnobilitylivedintheircaste，notintheworldatlarge。
Itwasthesphereofthesocialself;theknightlookedtoitandnottoageneralpublicforsympathyandrecognition：hewasfarcloserinspirittothechivalryofhostilenationsthantothecommonsofhisown。Buttheplainpeoplewereoutofallthis，andwereregardedwithacontemptatleastasgreatasthatfeltinourdayfortheNegroattheSouth。Thewholeinstitutionofchivalry，withitsattendantideas，idealsandliterature，wasathingofcastewhichrecognizednocommonhumanityinthelowerordersofsociety，andwhateveritdidfortheworldinthewayofdevelopingtheknightlyidealofvalor，devotionandcourtesy梐nideallatertransformedintothatofthegentlemanandnowcomingtopervadeallclasses梬asaproductofcastespirit。
Thefeudalcourts，largeandsmall，thetournaments，festivalsandmilitaryexpeditions，includingthecrusades，werefacilitiesofcommunicationthroughwhichthiscaste，notonlyinsinglecountriesbutthroughoutEurope，wasenabledtohaveacommonthoughtandsentiment。
Withoutdoubt，however，thelowercastehadalsoitsunityandorganization，itsgrouptraditions，customsandstandards;mostlylosttousbecausetheyneverachievedaliteraryrecord。Thiswasaninarticulatecaste;
butitisprobablethatvillagecommunitieswerethespheresofa，(225)vigorouscooperativelifeinwhichthebesttraitsofhumannaturewerefostered。
InIndiaalsotheelaboratecastesystems，althoughdueinparttoconquest，seemalsotohavecomeaboutbythehardeningofoccupation-classes。Thepriests，powerfulbecauseoftheirsupposedintercoursewithsuperhumanpowers，taughttheirmystictraditionstotheirchildrenandsobuiltupahereditarycorporation，known，finally，astheBrahmancaste。Themilitarycastewasapparentlyformedinasimilarmanner，whileinindustry“venerationforparentalexampleandtheneedofanexacttransmissionofmethods“[4]renderedallemploymentshereditary。Infact，saysonewriter，thecastesystemwasinitsorigin“simplyaninstinctiveeffortfortheorganizationoflabor。”[5]InthecaseofsointricateacastesocietyasthatofIndiamuchmayalsobeascribedtothereactionofthetheoryuponthesystem。Whentheideathatcasteisnaturalhadbecomeprevalentandsanctified，ittendedtocreatecastewhereitwouldnototherwisehaveexisted。
Asettledstateofsocietyisfavorable，andchangehostile，tothegrowthofcaste，becauseitisnecessarythatfunctionsshouldbecontinuousthroughseveralgenerationsbeforetheprincipleofinheritancecanbecomefixed。Whateverbreaksupexistingcustomsandtraditionstendstoabolishhereditaryprivilegeandthrowmenintoaroughstruggle，outofwhichstrong，coarsenaturesemergeasvictors，tofound，perhaps，anewaristocracy。
ThustheconquestofsouthernEuropebynorthern，(226)tribesledtoaperiodofsomewhatconfusedreadjustment，inwhichmenofnaturalpowerbetteredtheirstatus。Theclasseswhichemergedwereasmuchtheresultofcompetitionasderivedbyinheritancefromthoseoftribalsociety。Andsotheopennessofclassesinourowndaymaybedueasmuchtoconfusionastoapermanentdeclineinthecasteprinciple。
Thatalowstateofcommunicationandofenlightenmentarefavorabletocaste，whileintelligence梕speciallypoliticalintelligence梐ndfacilityofintercourseantagonizeit，becomesevidentwhenweconsiderwhat，psychologicallyspeaking，casteis。Itisanorganizationofthesocialmindonabiologicalprinciple。Thatfunctionsshouldfollowthelineofdescentinsteadofadjustingthemselvestoindividualcapacityandpreference，evidentlymeansthesubordinationofreasontoconvenience，offreedomtoorder。Theidealprincipleisnotbiologicalbutmoral，based，thatis，onthespiritualgiftsofindividualswithoutregardtodescent。Caste，then，issomethingwhich，wemayassume，willgivewaytothishigherprinciplewhenevertheconditionsaresuchastopermitthelattertoworksuccessfully;andthiswillbethecasewhenthepopulationissomobilizedbyfreetrainingandinstitutionsthatjustandorderlyselectionispracticableThediffusionofintelligence，rapidcommunication，themobilizationofwealthbymeansofmoney，andthelike，marktheascendancyofthehumanmindovermaterialandbiologicalconditions。Populargovernmentbecomespossible，commercialandindustrialfunctions梠therthingsequal梒omeundermoreopencompetition，and，(227)freepersonaldevelopmentofallsortsisfostered。Thegeneralsentimentalso，perceivingthesuperiorityoffreeorganizationtocaste，becomesdefinitelyhostiletothelatterandantagonizesitbypubliceducationalandotherOpportunities。Themosteffectiveagentinkeepingclassescomparativelyopenisanadequatesystemoffreetrainingfortheyoung，tendingtomakeallcareersaccessibletothosewhoarenaturallyfitforthem。Insofarasthereissuchasystemearlyeducationbecomesaprocessofselectionanddisciplinewhichpermitsabilitytoserveitspossessorandtheworldinitsproperplace。Inourownsociety梬emaynoteinpassing梩hiscallsforagreatdevelopmentofpubliceducation，especiallyinthewayoftradeschoolsandthelike，andalsoforaneffectivecampaignagainstchild-labor，badhousingandwhateverelseshutsoffopportunity。
Butbeforethismobilityisachieved，casteisperhapstheonlypossiblebasisforanelaboratesocialstructure;themainfiowofthoughtisthennecessarilyinlocalchannelsThepeoplecannotgraspthelifeofwhichtheyareapartinanylargeway，orhaveafreeandresponsibleshareinit，butaresomewhatmechanicallyheldinplacebyhabitandtradition。
Thosespecialrelationstothesystemofgovernment，religionorindustrywhichareimpliedinclasses，sincetheycannotbedeterminedbyrationalselectionmustbefixedinsometraditionalway，andthemostavailableistheinheritanceoffunctions。
Wemayexpect，then，thatcomplex，stationarysocietiesoflowmentalorganizationwilltendtowardcaste。Thatthisistrue，inageneralway，isshownbytheprevalenceof，(228)casteinOrientalnationsto-day，andinthelaterhistoryofthegreatempiresofantiquity。Itgoeswithoutsayingthateachsocietyhasitspeculiaritieswhichonlyspecialstudycouldelucidate。
Endnotes，GermanicOrigins，154，Tout，TheEmpireandThePapacy，59。Cornish，Chivalry，183。SamuelJohnson，OrientalReligions，India，241。Ibid。，CharlesHortonCooley：SocialOrganization：Chapter20：TheOutlookRegardingCaste，CHAPTERXX
THEOUTLOOKREGARDINGCASTE，THEQUESTION——HOWFARTHEINHERITANCEPRINCIPLEACTUALLY
PREVAILS——INFLUENCESFAVORINGITSGROWTH——THOSEANTAGONIZINGIT——
THEPRINCIPLEOFINHERITANCEANDEQUALOPPORTUNITYASAFFECTINGSOCIAL
EFFICIENCY——CONCLUSION
AVERYpertinentquestionisthatofthepartwhichthehereditaryorcasteprincipleislikelytoplayinthecominglife;whetheritisprobablethatcaste，otherthanthatduetorace，willariseinmodernsociety;
orthatthehereditaryprinciplewill，toanydegree，haveincreasedascendancy。
Theanswershouldprobablybethattheprincipleisalwayspowerful，andmaygainsomewhatasconditionsbecomemoresettled，butcertainlycanneverproducetruecasteinthemodernworld。
Asregardsthepower，ingeneral，oftheinheritancetendency，Ihaveperhapssaidenoughalready。Theinheritanceofproperty，notwithstandingtheperennialagitationofcommunism，isprobablyassecureasanyinstitutioncanbe梑ecausethereisapparentlynothingpracticabletotakeitsplaceasameanstoeconomicstability。Andwithinheritanceofpropertygoes，inallprosperouscountries，aclassofpeoplewhocomewithouteffortintowealthandallitsadvantages：theirnumberIandrichesarecertainlyontherapidincrease。ThelessIformalinheritanceofculture，opportunityandpositionisIequallyreal。
(230)
Astooccupation，evennowacensuswouldperhapsshowthatthemajorityofyoungmenfollowthatoftheirfather，oronecognatetoit。Mostfarmers’
sonsprobablyremainfarmers(inspiteofthewell-knowndrifttothetowns)，mostmechanics’sonsbecomemechanics，andalargeproportionofthechildrenofprofessionalmenentertheprofessions。Thechildofawell-to-doparentisgiven，asamatterofcourse，theeducation，oftenlongandexpensive，whichisrequiredforentranceuponaprofession，andiscomingtobenecessaryalsoforcommerce。Notonlythis，butheismadetofeelfromchildhoodthatsuccessinachievingaprofessionalorbusinesspositionisexpectedofhim;hemustgetitorlosetherespectofhisfamilyandfriends。Inthemajorityofcases梩houghtheminorityontheothersideisnosmallone梩heseopportunitiesandincitements，togetherwiththepowertowaitandchoosewhichjudiciouspaternalsupportgiveshim，areeffectiveindrawingouthisenergiesanddirectingthemcontinuouslyuponthedesiredpoint。Certainlytheywillnotmakeagoodlawyeroracaptainofindustryoutofafool，norwillthelackofthemkeepdecisivenaturalabilityfromexercisingthesefunctions;butwiththecommonrunofmen，havingfaircapacitynotverydefinitelyinclinedinaspecialdirection，theyarepotent。Paternalsuggestionandbackingmustbeusedwithgreatdiscretionandoftenfailentirely，butnomanoftheworld，sofarasIknow，regardsthemasunimportant。
Ifweaskwhethertheinfluenceofinheritanceislikelytoincreaseordiminish，wefind，onstudyingthesituation，(231)asawhole，aconflictoftendenciesthepreciseoutcomeofwhichcanonlybeguessedat。
Asfavoringthegrowthoftheprincipleandthecrystallizationofclasses，wehavechieflytwoconsiderations：theprobabilityofmoresettledconditions，andtheinfluenceofthatsharperdifferentiationoffunctionswhichmodernlifeinvolves。
Socialchange，asalreadypointedout，isamainforceinbreakinguptheinheritanceoffunction，andtothismustlargelybeattributedthecomparativeweaknessoftheprincipleintheUnitedStates。Thechangesincidenttothesettlementofanewcountry，coincidingwiththoseincidenttoaneconomicrevolution，haveseteverythingafloatandbroughtinasomewhatconfusedanddisorderlysortofcompetition。Ourcities，especially，areaggregatesofimmigrants，mostofwhomhavebrokenawayfromearlyassociations，andalargepartofwhomareperformingfunctionsunheardofbytheirfathers。Itishardlypossiblethattradesshouldbecomehereditarywhenmostofthemendurelessthanoneman’slifetime。Andsomethingofthesameuncertaintyrunsthroughcommerceandtheprofessions。
Withoutpredictinganygreatdeclineinthepaceofinvention，wemayyetexpectthatthenextfiftyyearswillseeagreatdealoftheconsolidationthatcomeswithmaturity。Thepopulationwillbecomparativelyestablished，inplaceatleast，andtheforcesmakingforinheritancewillhaveachancetowork。Animmensebodyoftransmittedwealthwillexist，anddemocraticinfluenceswillhavealltheycandotokeepitfromgeneratinganaristocraticspirit。Industries，professionsandtradescanhardly，(232)failtobemorestablethantheyhavebeen，andtheruralpopulation，asalways，willbeastrongholdoftheforcesthatfavorinheritance。
Thesentimentofregardforancestry，ofwhichcasteistheextremeexpression，islikelytoincreaseinthisandinallnewcountries。Ascommunitiesgrowolderthefamilylinecomesmoreandhnoreunderpublicobservation。Itisseenanddisplayedinmemory，whereveranysortofcontinuityispreserved，and，beingseen，itisjudged，andtheindividualsharesthecreditordiscreditofhiskin。WhilethisinfluenceisnowweakintheUnitedStates，onthewhole，andisalmostabsentintherecentandconfusedlifeofourcities，itisgainingrapidlywherever梐sisgenerallythecaseintheEastandSoutheastoutsideoflargetowns梩heconditionsaresettledenoughtomakethefamilyasawholeamatterofobservation。
AndtherecanbelittledoubtthatitisincreasingintheWestwhereverithasasimilarchance。
Insomewaysthisgreaterrecognitionofdescentiswholesome。Asenseofbeingpartofakindred，ofbearingthehonorofacontinuinggroupaswellasofaperishingindividual，tendstomakeoneabetterman;andfromthispointofviewoursomewhatdisintegratedsocietymightwellhavemoreofit。
Astothesharperdifferentiationthatgoeswithmodernlife，weseeitonallhands。Thecityismoreclearlymark’offfromthecountry，initsfunctions，andisitselfbrokenupintoquarterstheinhabitantsofwhichhaveoftenlittleornointercoursewiththoseofotherquarters。
Tradandprofessionssubdivideintospecialties，and，amoelaboratetrainingbeingdemanded，itismorenecessary，(233)thanformerlythatamanshouldknowfromthestartwhathewantstodoandassiduouslypreparehimselftodoit。Not’forgettingthatthereisanothersidetothis，asideofunificationimpliedinthesedifferences，onemayyetsaythatillthemselvestheytendtoseparatepeoplemoresharplyintosocialgroupswhichmightconceivablybecomehereditary。
Theforcesantagonizinginheritanceoffunctioncomechieflyundertwoheads，theoppositionofambitiousyoungmenandthegeneralcurrentofdemocraticsentiment。
Castemeansrestrictionofopportunity，andconsequentlyliesacrossthepathofthemostenergeticpartofthepeople。Itsrulecanprevailonlywhereindividualself-assertionisrestrainedbyignoranceandformalinstitutions。Underourflexiblemodernconditions，itissafetosay，nosystemcanendurethatdoesnotmakeapointofpropitiatingtheformidableambitionofyouthbyatleastanapparentfreedomofopportunity。Eventheinheritanceofpropertyisconstantlyquestionedinthemindsoftheyoung，andnothingbutthelackofaplausiblealternativepreventsitsbeingmoreseriouslyassailed。Andsincethisstrongholdofinequalitycanhardlybeshaken，thereisallthemoredemandthatitbeoffsetbyopeningeveryotherkindofadvantage，especiallyinthewayofeducationandtraining，towhomsoevermaybefittoprofitbyit。
Somewhatvaguerbutperhapsevenmoreeffectivethantheresistanceofyoungmenistheoppositionofthegeneralcurrentofsentimenttoanygrowthofinheritanceat，(234)theexpenseofopportunity。Toabolishextrinsicinequalitiesandgiveeachachancetoserveallinhisownfitway，isundoubtedlythedemocraticideal。Inpoliticsthisisexpressedbydoingawaywithhereditaryprivilegeandbasingeverythingonpopularsuffrage;ineducationitisseekinganexpressionquiteasvitalbystrivingtoopentoeveryonethetrainingtoanyfunctionforwhichhemayshowfitness。Butthespiritofunityandbrotherhoodisfarfromsatisfiedwithwhathasbeenachievedinthesedirections，andaspirestobringhometoeverychildthatfairaccesstothefruitsofprogresswhich，inspiteoftheoreticalliberty，isnowwidelylacking。Itcallsforsocialdemocracy，therealpresenceoffreedomandjusticeineveryfibreofthesocialfabric。
Tothisspiritanyincreaseoftheprivileges，alreadyunavoidablygreat，whichcomebyinheritance，isevidentlyhateful。
InAmericaatleastthissentimentisnotthatofastrugglinglowerclassbutof，practically，thewholecommunity。Withreferencetosovitalapartofourtraditionalidealtherearenoclasses;allthepeoplefeelsubstantiallyalike;andthereisnopublicpurposeforwhichwealthissofreelyspentasinthesupportofinstitutionswhosepurposeistokeepopenthepathofopportunityfromanyconditionoflifetoanyother。
Thereisalso，backofthissentiment，abeliefthatequalopportunitymakesforthegeneralgood，sincethatsystemofsocietywillbemostefficient，otherthingsequal，：inwhicheachindividualisrequiredtoprovethathehasmorefitnessthanothersforhisspecialfunction。Everyonecansee，attimes，thedeterioratingeffectoffamily，(235)influence梐suponbusinessestablishmentswhenalessCompetentsonsucceedshisfather，oruponmilitaryservice，asintheBritisharmyattheoutbreakoftheBoerwar。
Ontheotherhand，theresultsofaconfusedcompetitionmaybeworsethanthoseoforder，cvcnifthelatterrestsuponanartificialprincipleThusitissaidwithsometruth梐ndthisisperhapsthemostconsiderableargumentforcasteinmodernlife？thataclasshavinghereditarywealthandposition，liketheEnglisharistocracy，makesapermanentchannelforhightraditionsofcultureandpublicservice，andthatitiswelltopreservesuchtraditionsevenatthecostofasomewhatexclusiveordertocontainandcherishthem。DeTocqueville，himselfimbuedwiththebesttraditionsoftheoldFrencharistocracy，heldthisview，andascribedthelackofintellectualdistinctionintheAmericaofhisdaylargelytothefactthattherewasnoclass“inwhichthetasteforintellectualpleasuresistransmittedwithhereditaryfortuneandleisure，andbywhichthelaborsoftheintellectareheldinhonor。”[1]
Theanswer，ofcourse，isthatthereareothermeansthancasteforsecuringthecontinuityofspecialtraditions，and，moreparticularly，thatvoluntaryassociationsarecapableofsupplantinginheritedwealthaschannelsofculture。Inthevariousbranchesofscience，forexample，wehavevigorousandcontinuinggroups，withplentyofespritdecorps，bywhichthelaborsoftheintellectareheldInhonor。Iflibraries，associationsandeducationalinstitutionscandothisforonephaseofculture，whynotforothers？
(236)
Itwouldbeunfair，however，nottoacknowledgethatgreatservicesareconstantlyrenderedtosocietybypersonswhominheritedwealthenablestodevotethemselvesearlierandmoreindependentlytohighaimsthanwouldotherwisebepossible。Thereiscertainlysomethingfavorabletooriginalityinaninheritedcompetence，withoutwhichoneismoreapttobecoercedintoseekingakindofsuccessalreadyinvogue，andsohavingamarketvalueAndthemovementtofosteroriginalitybyendowmentsdependinguponmeritratherthanbirthwillbemostdifficulttomakeeffectual，sincesuchendowmentsalmostinevitablyfallintothecontrolofaninstitutionalsortofmenwhocannotbeexpectedtosubsidizeheresy。Fundsforthispurposewillprobablyaidonlythosesortsoforiginalityalreadyrecognized，andinamannerestablished;nottheradicalinnovationsfromwhichimportantmovementsusuallystart。Itishardtoseehowtheycandomuchoutsideofexperimentalscience，inwhichthereisasortofconventionaltestoforiginality。
Onthewhole，whateverisgoodintheprincipleofdescentmaybeappropriatedbyademocraticsocietywithoutgoingbacktoformalrankorexclusiveopportunity。Freedomoffersnobartocontinuityoffunctioninthefamily，solongasefficiencyismaintained，butmerelyrequiresthis，likeeverythingelse，tomeetthetestofservice。Thereisnoadequatereasonwhyahereditarygroup，transmittingspecialcultureandfitness，shouldnotcontinuetheirfunctionsunderademocraticsystem梐sisactuallythecasetoacertainextentwiththepoliticalfamiliesofEngland。Theywilldotheirworkallthe，(237)betterfornotbeingtoosureoftheirposition。IseenothingbutgoodinthefactthatamilitarycareerhasbecometraditionalinanumberofAmericanfamilieswhohaverendereddistinguishedserviceofthissort。Themorespecialfamilyambitionswehave，ofanoblekind，thebetterforthecountry。
Nosoberobserverwillimaginethattheopposingforcesaretoabolishthepowerofinheritance;theymerelysetreasonablelimitstoitsscope。
Whenthewayofambitionisopenedtothemostenergeticindividuals，thesharpestteethofdiscontentaredrawn，andthemassofmenverywillinglyavoidtroubletothemselvesandtosocietybykeepingoninthepaternalroad。Thefamilyisafteralltoonaturalandtooconvenientachannelofsocialcontinuitynottoplayagreatpartineveryphaseoforganization，andthereseemslittlereasontodepartfromtheopinionofComtethatitmustordinarilybethemaininfluenceindeterminingoccupation。
Iaminclinedtoexpectthat，owingtosomewhatmoresettledconditionsoflife，inheritanceoffunctionwillberathermorecommon，andthetendencytoseetheindividualasoneofastockrathergreater，inthefuturethanintheimmediatepast。Ontheotherhanditisnearlycertainthateducationalopportunitieswillbecomemoreopenandvaried，makingiteasierthannowforspecialaptitudetofinditsplace。Thesethingsarenotinconsistent，andbothwillmakefororderandcontentment。
Alsomuchmoreendeavorwillbedirectedtothewelfareofthelessprivilegedclassesasclasses梩hatis，ofthosewhoarecontenttoremainintheancestralstatusinstead，(238)oftryingtogetintoonemorefavored。Heretoforewehavegiventoomuchthought，relatively，totheonemanwhoaimsatdistinction，andtoolittletotheninetyandninewhodonot。
Endnotes，DemocracyinAmerica，vol。i，chap。3。，CharlesHortonCooley：SocialOrganization：Chapter21：OpenClasses，CHAPTERXXI
OPENCLASSES，THENATUREOFOPENCLASSES——WHETHERCLASS-CONSCIOUSNESS
ISDESIRABLE——FELLOWSHIPANDCOOPERATIONDEFICIENTINOURSOCIETY——
CLASSORGANIZATIONINRELATIONTOFREEDOM
WITHthegrowthoffreedomclassescometobemoreopen，thatis，morebasedonindividualtraitsandlessupondescent。Competitioncomesactivelyintoplayandmoreorlessefficientlyfulfilsitsfunction[1]ofassigningtoeachoneanappropriateplaceinthewhole。Thetheoryofafreeorderisthateveryoneisborntoservemankindinacertainway，thathefindsoutthroughawisesystemofeducationandexperimentwhatthatwayis，andistrainedtoenteruponit。Infollowingithedoesthebestpossiblebothfortheserviceofsocietyandhisownhappiness。
Sofarasclassesexisttheyaremerelygroupsforthefurtheranceofefficiencythroughcooperation，andtheirmembershipisdeterminedentirelybynaturalfitness。
Thisidealconditionisneverattainedonalargescale。Inpracticethemenwhofindworkexactlysuitedtothemandatthesametimeacceptabletosocietyareatthebestsomewhatexceptional梩houghhabitreconcilesmostofus梐ndclassesareneverwhollyopenorwhollydevotedtothegeneralgood。
Theproblemoffindingwheremenbelong，ofadaptingpersonalgiftstoacomplexsystem，isindeedoneofex-
(240)-tremedifficulty，andisinnowaysolvedbyfacileschemesofanysort。Thereare，fundamentally，onlytwoprinciplesavailabletomeetit，thatofinheritanceorcasteandthatofcompetition。Whiletheformerisalowprinciple，thelatterisalso，inmanyofitsphases，objectionable，involvingwasteofenergyandapttodegenerateintoanarchy。Therearealwaysdifficultiesoneitherhand，andtheactualorganizationoflifeiseveracompromisebetweentheaspirationtowardfreedomandtheconvenienceofstatus。
Wemayassume，then，thatincontemporarylifewehavetodowithasocietyinwhichtheconstitutionofclasses，sofaraswehavethem，ispartlydeterminedbyinheritanceandpartlybyamoreorlessopencompetition，whichis，again，moreorlesseffectiveinplacingmenwheretheyrightlybelong。
Ifclassesareopenandmenmaketheirwayfromoneintoanother，itisplainthattheycannotbeseparatementalwholesasmaybethecasewithcastes。Thegeneralstateofthingsbecomesoneoffacileintercourse，andthosewhochangeclasswillnotforgettheideasandassociationsofyouth。Non-hereditaryclassesmayhaveplentyofsolidarityandclassspirit梒onsider，forinstance，themediaevalclergy梐ndtheiractivitymayalsobeofaspecialandremotesort，likethatofanastronomicalsociety，butafteralltherewillbesomethingdemocraticaboutthem;theywillsharethegeneralspiritofthewholeinwhichtheyarerooted。Theymeanonlyspecializationinconsciousness，wherecastemeansseparation。
Thequestionwhetherthereisoroughttobe“classconsciousness“inademocraticsocietyisamatterofdefi-
(241)-nitions。Ifwemeanadivisionoffeelingthatgoesdeeperthanthesenseofnationalunityandseparatesthepeopleintoaliensections，thenthereisnosuchthingintheUnitedStatesonanyimportantscale(leavingasidetheracequestion)，andwemayhopethereneverwillbe。
Butifwemeanthatalongwithanunderlyingunityofsentimentandidealstherearecurrentsofthoughtandfeelingsomewhatdistinctandoftenantagonistic，theansweristhatclass-consciousnessinthissenseexistsandismorelikelytoincreasethantodiminish。Acountryofnewspapers，populareducationandmanhoodsuffragehaspassedthestageinwhichsentimentsorinterestscanflowinseparatechannels;butthereisnothingtopreventthepeopleformingself-assertivegroupsinreferencetoeconomicandsocialquestions，astheydoinpolitics。
Class-consciousnessalongtheselineswillprobablyincreasewithgrowinginterestintheunderlyingcontroversies，butIdonotanticipatethatthisincreasewillprovethedreadfulthingwhichsomeimagine。A“class-war“
wouldindeedbeacalamity，butwhyexpectit？Iseenoreasonunlessitbeaguiltyconscienceoranunbeliefinmoralforces。Acertainsortofagitatorsexpectanddesireaviolentstruggle，becausetheyseeprivilegedefiantandviolenceseemstothemtheshortestwaytogetatit;andontheotherhand，therearemanyintheenjoymentofprivilegewhofeelintheirheartsthattheydeservenothingbetterthantohaveittakenawayfromthem：butthesearenaiveviewsthatignorethesolidityofthepresentorder，whichensuresthatanychangemustbegradualandmakeitswaybyreason。Orderlystruggleisthetime-honoredmethodofadjustingcontroversiesamongafreepeople，(242)andwhyshouldweassumethatitwilldegenerateintoanarchyandviolenceatjustthispoint？Willnotfeelingberatherbetterthanworsewhenavaguesenseofinjusticehashadachancetotryitselfoutinadefiniteandpositiveself-assertion？
Itistoberemembered，moreover，thatinasocietywheregroupsinterlaceasmuchastheydowithusaconflictofclassinterestsis，ingreatdegree，notaconflictofpersonsbutratheroneofideasinacommonsocialmedium梥incemanypersonsbelongtomorethanoneclass。Onlyunderconditionsofcastewouldaclasswarofthesortpredictedbysometheoristsbelikelytocometopass。IamnotsurethatitwouldbemorefantastictoexpectaliteralwarbetweenDemocratsandRepublicansthanbetweentheparties梙ardlylessunitedbycommonsocialandeconomicinterests梠fLaborandCapital。
Itseemsequallymistakentosay，ontheonehand，thatallclass-consciousnessisbad，or，ontheother，thatweoughtaboveallthingstogirdourselvesfortheclassstruggle。Thejustviewapparentlyisthatweshouldhaveinthismatter，aselsewhere，differenceonabasisofunity。Classloyaltyinthepursuitofrightendsisgood;butlikeallsuchsentimentsitshouldbesubordinattoabroadjusticeandkindness。Ifthereisnoclass-consciousnessmenbecomeisolated，degradedandineffective;ifthereistoomuch，orthewrongkind，thegroupbecomesseparateandforgetsthewhole。Lettherebe“diversitiesofgiftsbutthesamespirit。”
Thepresentstateofthingsasregardsfellowshipandcooperationinspecialgroupsis，onthewhole，oneofde-
(243)-ficiencyratherthanexcess。Theconfusionor“individualism“
thatweseeinliterature，art，religionandindustrymeansawantoftherightkindofclassunityandspiritThereisalackofmutualaidandsupportnotonlyamonghand-workers，whereitismuchneeded，butalsoamongscholars，artists，professionalmen，writersandmenofaffairs。
Theordinarybusinessorprofessionalmanhardlyfeelshimselfamemberofanybrotherhoodlargerthanthefamily;withhiswifeandchildrenabouthimhestandsinthemidstofasomewhatcoldandjostlingworld，keepinghisfeetasbesthecanandseekingamechanicalsecurityinbank-accountandlifeinsurance梑einglessfortunateinthisregard，perhaps，thanthetrades-unionist，whohasbeenforcedbynecessitytostandshoulder-to-shoulderwithhisfellowsandgiveandtakesacrificeforthecommongood。Andmuchthesameistrueofscholarsandartists：theyarelikelynottodrawcloseenoughtogethertokeeponeanotherwarmandfostertheclassidealswhichleadtheindividualontoaparticularkindofefficiency：thereisalackofthosesnugnestsofspecialtraditionandassociationinwhichmoresettledcivilizationsarerich。
Organization，ofcertainkinds，isnodoubtmoreextensiveandelaboratethaneverbefore，andorganization，itmaybesaid，involvestheinterdependence，theunity，ofparts。Butwillthisbeaconsciousandmoralunity？Inahighkindoforganizationitwill;butrapidgrowthmaygiveusasystemthatismechanicalratherthan，inthehighersense，social。Whenorganizationquicklyextendsthereisatendencytoloweritstype，asarubber，bandbecomesthinnerthemoreyoustretchit;therela-
(244)-tionsgrowlesshuman，andsomaydegradeinsteadofelevatingtheindividual’srelationtohiswhole。Inameasurethishastakenplaceinourlife。Thevaststructureofindustryandcommerceremainsforthemostpart，unhumanized，andwhetheritprovesarealgoodornotdependsuponoursuccessorfailureinmakingitvital，conscious，moral。Thereisuniononalowplaneandisolationonahigher。Theprogressofcommunicationhassuppliedthemechanicalbasisforaspiritualorganizationfarbeyondanythinginthepast;butthisremainsunachieved。Onthewhole，inthewordsofMissJaneAddams，withwhomthisisacherishedidea，“Thesituationaldemandstheconsciousnessofparticipationandwell-beingwhichcomestotheindividualwhenheisabletoseehimself’inconnectionandcooperationwiththewhole’;itneedsthesolaceofcollectiveartinherentincollectivelabor。”[2]
Itisindeedprobablethatthegrowthofclassfellowshipwillhelptofosterthatspiritofartinworkwhichwesonotablylack，andthereposeandcontentwhichthisbrings。Thereistruthintheviewthataconfusedandstandardlesscompetitiondestroysart，whichrequiresnotonlyagroupidealbutacertaindeliberation，achancetobroodoverthingsandworkperfectionintothem。Whentheworkmanismoresureofhisposition，whenhefeelshisfellowsathisshoulderandknowsthatthequalityofhisworkwillbeappreciated，hewillhavemorecourageandpatiencetobeanartist。WealldrawourimpulsetowardperfectionIotfromvulgaropinionorfromourpay，butfromtheapprovaloffellowcraftsmen。Thetruth，little，(245)seeninourday，isthatallworkshouldbedoneinthespiritofart，andthatnosocietyishumanlyorganizedinwhichthisisnotchieflythecase。
Itisalsotruethatcloserfellowship？dominatedbygoodideals——
shouldbringthesympatheticandmoralmotivestodiligenceandefficiencyintomoregeneralaction，andrelegatethe’workorstarve’motivemoretothebackground。Someofusloveourworkandareeagertodoitwell;
othershavetobedriven。Isthisbecausetheformerarenaturallyasuperiorsortofpeople，becausetheworkitselfisessentiallymoreinviting，orbecausethesocialconditionsaresuchthatsympathyandfellowshiparemoreenlistedwithit？Allowingsomethingforthefirsttwo，Isuspectthethirdistheprincipalreason。Whatworkistherethatwouldnotbepleasantinmoderatequantities，ingoodfellowship，andinthefeelingofservice？Nogreatproportion，Iimagine，ofourtask。Washingdishesisnotthoughtdesirable，andyetmendoitjoyfullywhentheygocampingtogether。
Classorganizationisnot，assomepeopleassert，necessarilyhostiletofreedom。Allorganizationis，properly，ameansthroughwhichfreedomissought。Asconditionschange，menarecompelledtofindnewformsofunionthroughwhichtoexpressthemselves，andtheriseofindustrialclassesisofthisnature。
Infact，thequestionoffreedom，asappliedtoclassconditions，hastwosomewhatdistinctaspects。Theseare：
1。Freedomtorisefromoneclassintoanother，freedomofindividualopportunity，orcarriereouverteauxtalentsThisischieflyforthemanofexceptionalcapacityandam-
(246)-bition。Itisimportant，butnotmoresothantheother，namely：
2。Freedomofclasses，or，whatisthesamething，ofthoseindividualswhohavenotthewishorpowertodepartfromthesphereoflifeinwhichcircumstancehu;placedthem。Itmeansjustice，opportunity，humaneliving，forthelessprivilegedgroupsasgroups;notopportunitytogetoutofthembuttobesomethinginthem;achancefortheteamstertohavecomfort，cultureandgoodsurroundingsforhimselfandhisfamilywithoutceasingtobeateamster。
