Endnotes，GabrielTarde，Lesloisde1’imitation，EnglishtranslationTheLawsofImitation。DemocracyinAmerica，vol。ii，bookiii，chap。21。TheWorksofEdmundBurke(Boston，1884)，vol。iii，p。277。AmenomoriintheAtlanticMonthly，Oct。1904。FrenchTraits。P。G。Hamerton’sworks，especiallyhisFrenchandEnglish，arealsofullofsuggestion。FrenchTraits，page284。Page295。Page295。Idem，page304。Page64。Imitation-coutumeandimitation-mode。AmericansshouldnoticethatwhattheyareapttocallthesnobbishnessoftheEnglishmiddleclass梩heiranxietytoimitatethosewhomtheyregardassocialsuperiors梙asitsgoodresultinproducingadisciplineinwhichmanyofusaresomewhatgrosslylacking。Itmaybebetter，inmannersforinstance，thatpeopleshouldadoptastandardfromquestionablemotivesthanthattheyshouldhavenostandardatall。Thetroublewithusistheprevalenceofasprawling，gossipingself-contentthatdoesnotknoworcarewhethersuchthingsasmanners，artandliteratureexistornot：，CharlesHortonCooley：SocialOrganization：Chapter30：Formalismand，Disorganization，CHAPTERXXX
FORMALISMANDDISORGANIZATION，THENATUREOFFORMALISM——ITSEFFECTSUPONPERSONALITY——
FORMALISMINMODERNLIFE——DISORGANIZATION，“INDIVIDUALISM“——HOWIT
AFFECTSTHEINDIVIDUAL——RELATIONTOFORMALISM——“INDIVIDUALISM“IMPLES
DEFECTIVESYMPATHY——CONTEMPORARY“INDIVIDUALISM“——RESTLESSNESSUNDER
DISCOMFORT——THEBETTERASPECTOFDISORGANIZATION
Toomuchmechanisminsocietygivesussomethingforwhichtherearemanynames，slightlydifferentinmeaning，asinstitutionalism，formalism，traditionalism，conventionalism，ritualism，bureaucracyandthelike。Itisbynomeanseasy，however，todeterminewhethermechanismisinexcessornot。Itbecomesanevil，nodoubt，whenitinterfereswithgrowthandadaptation，whenitsuppressesindividualityandstupefiesormisdirectstheenergiesofhumannature。Butjustwhenthisisthecaseislikelynottobeclearuntiltheoccasionislongpastandwecanseethematterintheperspectiveofhistory。
Thus，inreligion，itiswellthatmenshouldadheretothecreedsandritualworkedoutinthepastforspiritualedification，solongasthesedo，onthewhole，fulfiltheirfunction;anditishardtofixthetime梟otthesamefordifferentchurches，classesorindividuals梬hentheyceasetodothis。Butitiscertainthattheydie，intime，likealltissue，andifnotclearedawaypresentlyrot。
Ithasbeenwellsaidthatformalismis“anexcessofthecrganoflanguage。”*
Theaimofallorganizationis，(343)toexpresshumannature，anditdoesthisthroughasystemofsymbols，whicharetheembodimentandvehicleoftheidea。Solongasspiritandsymbolarevitallyunitedandtheideaisreallyconveyed，alliswell，butsofastastheyareseparatedthesymbolbecomesanemptyshell，towhich，however，custom，prideorinterestmaystillcling。Itthensupplantsratherthanconveysthereality。
Underlyingallformalism，indeed，isthefactthatitispsychicallycheap;itsubstitutestheouterfortheinnerasmoretangible，morecapableofbeingheldbeforethemindwithoutfreshexpenseofthoughtandfeeling，moreeasilyextended，therefore，andimpresseduponthemultitude。Thusinourownarchitectureorliteraturewehaveinnumerablecheap，unfeltrepetitionsofformsthatweresignificantandbeautifulintheirtimeandplace。
TheeffectofformalismuponpersonalityistostarveitsNigherlifeandleaveitthepreyofapathy，self-complacency，sensualityandthelowernatureingeneral。Aformalizedreligionandaformalizedfreedomare，notoriously，thecongenialdwelling-placeofdepravityandoppression。
Whenasystemofthissortisthoroughlyestablished，asinthecaseofthelaterRomanEmpire，itconfinestheindividualmindasinanarrowcagebysupplyingitwithonlyonesortofsuggestions。Thevariationofideasandthesupplantingofoldtypesbynewcanbeginonlybyindividualsgettingholdofsuggestionsthatconflictwiththoseoftherulingsystem;
andintheabsenceofthisanoldtypemaygoonreproducingitselfindefinitely，indi-
(344)-vidualsseemingnomoretoitthantheleavesofatree，whichdropintheautumnandinthespringarereplacedbyothersindistinguishablefromthem。It“breedstrue“onthesameprinciplethatwildpigeons，longkepttoafixedtypebynaturallimitations，arelessvariablethan]
domesticspecies，inwhoserecentpasttherehavebeenelementsofchange。
AmongtheHindoos，forinstance，achildisbroughtup]frominfancyinsubjectiontoceremoniesandriteswhichstampuponhimtheimpressionofafixedandimmemorialsystem。Theycontrolthemostminutedetailsofhislife，andleavelittleroomforchoiceeitheronhispartorthatofhisparents。Thereisnoattempttojustifytraditionbyreason：customassuchisobligatory。
Intolerancegoesverynaturallywithformalism，sincetoamindintheunresistedgraspofafixedsystemofthoughtanythingthatdepartsfromthatsystemmustappearirrationalandabsurd。ThelowestChinamanunaffectedlydespisestheforeigner，ofwhateverrank，asavulgarbarbarian，justasChristiansusedtodespisetheJews，andtheJews，intheirtime，theSamaritans。
Tolerancecomesinalongwithpeacefuldiscussion，whenthereisacompetitionofvariouswaysofthinking，nooneofwhichisstrongenoughtosuppresstheothers。
InAmericaandwesternEuropeatthepresentdaythereisagreatdealofformalism，butitis，onthewhole，ofapartialandsecondarycharacter，existingratherfromtheinadequacyofvitalforcethanasarulingprinciple。
Thegeneralstateofthoughtfavorsadaptation，becauseweareusedtoitandhavefounditonthewholebeneficial。
(345)Weexpect，forexample，thatamorevitalandflexible;formoforganizationwillsupplanttherigidsystemsofRussiaandtheOrient，andwhateverinourownworldisanalogoustothese。
Butdeadmechanismistoonaturalaproductofhumanconditionsnottoexistatalltimes，andwemayeasilyfinditto-dayinthechurch，inpolitics，ineducation，industryandphilanthropy;whereverthereisalackofvitalthoughtandsentimenttokeepthemachineryplianttoitswork。
Thusourschools，highandlow，exhibitagreatdealofit。Routinemethods，hereaseverywhere，areadeviceforturningoutcheapworkinlargequantities，andthetemptationtousethem，intheeaseofateacherwhohastoomuchtodo，orisrequiredtodothatwhichhedoesnotunderstandorbelievein，isalmostirresistible。Indeed，theyaretoofrequentlyinculcatedbyprincipalsandtrainingschools，incontemptofthefactthattheoneessentialthinginrealteachingisapersonalexpressionbetweenteacherandpupil。Drilliseasyforonewhohasgottheknackofit，justbecauseitrequiresnothingvitalorpersonal，butisaconvenientapplianceforgettingthebusinessdonewithanappearanceofsuccessandlittletroubletoanyone。
Evenuniversitieshavemuchofthissortofcant。Inliterature，forinstance，whetherancientormodern，Englishorforeign，littlethatisvitaliscommonlyimparted。Compelledbyhispositiontoteachsomethingtolargeanddiverseclasses，theteacherisledtofixuponcertainmatters梥uchasgrammar，metres，orthebiographiesoftheauthors梬hosedefinitenesssuitsthemforthedidac-
(346)-ticpurpose，anddrillthemintothestudent;whiletherealthing，thesentimentsthatarethesoulofliterature，arenotcommunicated。Iftheteacherhimselffeelsthem，whichisoftenthecase，thefactthattheycannotbereducedtoformulasandtestedbyexaminationsdiscourageshimfromdwellinguponthem。
Inlikemannerourwholesystemofcommerceandindustryisformalinthesensethatitisavastmachinegrindingonandoninablindwaywhichisoftendestructiveofthehumannatureforwhoseserviceitexists。Mammon梐sinthepaintingbyWatts梚snotafiend，Iwilfullycrushingthewoman’sformthatliesunderhishand，butonlyasomewhathardenedmanoftheworld，lookinginanotherdirectionandpreoccupiedwiththeconductofbusinessuponbusinessprinciples。
Acuriousinstanceofthesamesortofthingisthestereotypingoflanguagebythecheappressandthehabitofhastyreading。Thenewspapersarecalledupontogiveamaximumofcommonplaceinformationforaminimumofattention，andindoingthisareledtoadoptasmallstandardvocabularyandauniformarrangementofwordsandsentences。Allthatrequiresfreshthought，eitherfromreaderorwriter，isavoidedtothegreatercomfortofboth。Thetelegraphplaysaconsiderablepartinthis，andanobserverfamiliarwithitstechniquepointsouthowitputsapremiumonlongbutunmistakablewords，onconventionalphrases(forwhichtheoperatorshavebriefsigns)andonasentencestructuresoobviousthatitcannotbeupsetbymistakesinpunctuation。[2]
(347)Inthiswayournewspapers，andthemagazinesandbooksthatpartakeoftheircharacter，aretheseatofaconventionalismperhapsasdestructiveofthespiritofliteratureasecclesiasticismisofthespiritofChristianity。
Theapparentoppositeofformalism，butinrealitycloselyakintoit，isdisorganizationordisintegration，often，thoughinaccurately，called“individualism。”[3]Oneismechanismsupreme，theothermechanismgoingtopieces;andbothareincontrasttothatharmonybetweenhumannatureanditsinstrumentswhichisdesirable。
Inthisstateofthingsgeneralorderanddisciplinearelacking。Thoughtheremaybepraiseworthypersonsandactivities，societyasawholewantsunityandrationality，likeapicturewhichisgoodindetailsbutdoesnotmakeapleasingcomposition。Individualsandspecialgroupsappeartobeworkingtoomuchatcrosspurposes;thereisa“reciprocalstruggleofdiscordantpowers“butthe“harmonyoftheuniverse“cloesnotemerge。
Asgoodactorsdonotalwaysmakeagoodtroupenorbravesoldiersagoodarmy，soanationorahistoricalepoch？sayItalyintheRenaissance梞aybeprolificindistinguishedpersonsandscatteredachievementsbutsomewhatfutileandchaoticasasystem。
Disorganizationappearsintheindividualasamindwithoutcogentandabidingallegiancetoawhole，andwithoutthelargerprinciplesofconductthatflowfromsuchallegiance。Thebetteraspectofthisisthatthelack，(348)ofsupportmaystimulateamantogreateractivityandindependence，theworsethattheabsenceofsocialstandardsislikelytolowerhisplaneofachievementandthrowhimbackuponsensualityandotherprimitiveimpulses：
alsothat，ifheisofasensitivefibreheisapttobeoverstrainedbythecontestwithuntowardconditions。Howsoothingandelevatingitistobreathetheatmosphereofsomelargeandquietdiscipline。IrememberfeelingthisinreadingLordRoberts’Forty-oneYearsinIndia，abookpervadedwithonegreatandsimplethought，theAnglo-Indianservice，whichdominatesallnarrowconsiderationsandgivespeopleaworthyidealtoliveby。Howrarely，inourday，isabookoramandominatedbyrestfulandunquestionedfaithinanything！
Thefactthatgreatpersonalitiesoftenappearindisorderedtimesmayseemtobeacontradictionoftheprinciplethatthehealthydevelopmentofindividualsisonewiththatofinstitutions。ThustheItalianRenaissance，whichwasatimeofpoliticaldisorderandreligiousdecay，producedthegreatestpaintersandsculptorsofmoderntimes，andmanygreatpersonalitiesinliteratureandstatesmanship。Butthegeniuswhichmayappearinsuchaperiodisalways，inonepointofview，thefruitageofaforegoingandtraditionaldevelopment，neveramerelypersonalphenomenon。ThatthiswastrueofRenaissanceartneedsnoexposition;likeeverygreatachievementitwasfoundeduponorganization。
Itisnodoubtthecase，however，thatthereisaspurinthestrugglesofaconfusedtimewhichmayexciteafewindividualstoheroiceffortsandaccomplishment，justasafireorarailroaddisastermaybetheoccasionofheroism;
(349)andsothedisorderoftheRenaissancewasperhapsonecauseofthemenofgenius，aswellasofthedemoralizationwhichtheydidnotescape。
Itlooksatfirstsightasifformalismanddisorganizationwereasfarapartaspossible，butinfacttheyarecloselyconnected，thelatterbeingonlythenextstepaftertheformerinalogicalsequence梩hedecayofabodyalreadydead。Formalismgoesverynaturallywithsensuality，avarice，selfishambition，andothertraitsofdisorganization，becausethemerelyformalinstitutiondoesnotenlistanddisciplinethesouloftheindividual，buttakesholdofhimbytheoutside，hispersonalitybeinglefttotorporortoirreverentandriotousactivity。SointhelatercenturiesoftheRomanEmpire，whenitssystemwasmostrigid，thepeoplebecameunpatriotic，disorderlyandsensual。
Inthesamewayaschoolwhosedisciplineismerelyformal，notengagingtheinterestandgood-willofthescholar，isprettycertaintoturnoutunrulyboysandgirls，becausewhateverismostpersonalandvitalinthembecomesaccustomedtoassertitselfinoppositiontothesystem。Andsoinachurchwhereexternalobservancehasbeendevelopedattheexpenseofpersonaljudgment，theindividualconformstotheriteandthenfeelsfreeforallkindsofself-indulgence。Ingeneralthelower“individualism“
ofourtime，theruthlessself-assertionwhichissoconspicuous，forexample，inbusiness，isnotsomethingapartfromourinstitutionsbutexpressesthefactthattheyarelargelyformalandunhuman，notcontainingandenlargingthesouloftheindividual。
(350)Therealoppositeofbothformalismanddisorderisthatwholesomerelationbetweenindividualityandtheinstitutioninwhicheachsupportstheother，thelattercontributingastablebasisforthevitalityandvariationoftheformer。
Fromonepointofviewdisorganizationisalackofcommunicationandsocialconsciousness，adefectintheorganoflanguage，asformalismisanexcess。Thereisalways，Isuppose，alargerwhole;thequestioniswhethertheindividualthinksandfeelsitvividlythroughsomesortofsympatheticcontact;ifhedoeshewillactasamemberofit。
Inthewritingsofoneofthemostsearchingandyethopefulcriticsofourtimes[4]wefindthat“individualism“isidentifiedprimarilywithanisolationofsentiment，likethatofthescholarinhisstudy，thebusinessmaninhisofficeorthemechanicwhodoesnotfeelthebroadermeaningofhiswork。Theoppositeofitisthelifeofshoulder-to-shouldersympathyandcooperation，inwhichthedesireforseparatepowerordistinctionislostintheoverrulingsenseofcommonhumanity。Andthelogicalremedyfor“individualism“issoughtinthatbroadeningofthespiritbyimmediatecontactwiththelargercurrentsoflife，whichistheaimofthesocialsettlementandsimilarmovements。
Thisis，indeed，aninspiringandtimelyideal，butletusholditwithoutforgettingthatspecializedandlonesomeendeavor，indeedevenindividualprideandself-seeking，havealsotheiruses。Ifwedwelltooexclusivelyuponthe，(351)we-feelingandthelossoftheoneinthemany，wemaylapseintoastructurelessemotionalism。Eye-to-eyefellowshipandtheprideofsolitaryachievementarebothessential，eachinitsownway，tohumangrowth，andeitheriscapableofover-indulgence。Weneedthemosterectindividualwiththewidestbaseofsympathy。
Insofarasitistrueofourtimethatthelargerinterestsofsocietyarenotimpressedupontheindividual，sothathisprivateimpulsescooperatewiththepublicgood，itisatimeofmoraldisintegration。Awell-orderedcommunityislikeashipinwhicheachofficerandseamanhasconfidenceinhisfellowsandinthecaptain，andiswellaccustomedtodohisdutywithnomorethanordinarygrumbling。Allhangstogether，andissubjecttoreasonintheformoflong-triedrulesofnavigationanddiscipline。
Virtueisasystemandmendoheroicactsaspartoftheday’sworkandwithoutself-consciousness。Butsupposethattheshipgoestopieces條etussayuponaniceberg梩hentheorderlywholeisbrokenupandofficers，seamenandpassengersfindthemselvesstrugglingmiscellaneouslyinthewater。Rationalcontrolandthevirtuethatishabitbeinggone，eachoneisthrownbackuponhisundisciplinedimpulses。Survivaldependsnotuponwisdomorgoodness梐sitlargelydoesinasocialsystem梑utuponruthlessforce，andthebestmayprobablyperish。
Hereis“individualism“inthelowestsense，anditistheanalogueofthiswhichissaid，notwithoutsomereason，topervadeourownsociety。
Oldinstitutionsarepassingawayandbetterones，wehope，arepreparingtotaketheir，(352)place，butinthemeantimethereisalackofthathigherdisciplinewhichprintsthegoodofthewholeupontheheartofthemember。Inatraditionalorderoneisaccustomedfromchildhoodtoregardusage，theauthorityofeldersandthedominantinstitutionsastheruleoflife。“Soitmustbe“
isone’sunconsciousconviction，and，liketheseaman，hedoeswiseandheroicthingswithoutknowingit。Butinourowntimethereisformanypersons，ifnotmost，noauthoritativecanonoflife，andforbetterorworseweareruledbynativeimpulseandbythatprivatereasonwhichmaybesoweakwhendetachedfromarationalwhole。Thehighermorality，ifitistobeattainedatall，mustbespeciallythoughtout;andofthefewwhocandothisalargepartexhausttheirenergyinthinkinganddonotpracticewithanyheartinessthetruthstheyperceive。
Wefind，then，thatpeoplehavetomakeuptheirownmindsupontheirdutiesaswives，husbands，mothersanddaughters;uponcommercialobligationandcitizenship;upontheuniverseandthenatureandauthorityofGod。
Inevitablymanyofusmakeapoorbusinessofit。Itistoomuch。Itisasifeachoneshouldsitdowntoinventalanguageforhimself：thesethingsshouldbethoughtoutgradually，cooperativelyeachaddinglittleandacceptingmuch。Thatgreattraditionsshouldrapidlygotopiecesmaybeanecessaryphaseofevolutionandadisguisedblessing，butthepresenteffectislargelydistractionanddemoralization。
Inparticular，wenoticethatfewwhohaveburdenstobeararemuchunderthecontrolofsubmissivetradition，(353)buteveryoneasks“WhymustIbearthis？”andthepainoftryingtoseewhyisoftenworsethantheevilitself。Thereiscommonlynoobviousreason，andtheanswerisoftenasenseofrebellionandabitternessoutofwhichcomes，perhapsrecklessness，divorce，orsuicide。
WhyamIpoorwhileothersarerich？WhydoIhavetodoworkIdonotlike？WhyshouldIbehonestwhenothersareunscrupulous？WhyshouldIwearmyselfoutbearingandrearingchildren？WhyshouldIbefaithfultomyhusbandorwifewhenwearenothappytogether，andanotherwouldpleasemebetter？WhyshouldIbelieveinagoodGodwhenallIknowisabadworld？WhyshouldIlivewhenIwishtodie？Never，probably，weresomanyaskingsuchquestionsasthisandfindingnoclearanswer。Therehavebeenothertimesofanalogousconfusion，butitcouldneverhavepenetratedsodeeplyintothemassesasitdoesinthesedaysofuniversalstirandcommunication。
Howcontemptiblethesecalculationsseemincomparisonwiththeattitudeofthesoldier，whoknowsthathemustsufferprivationandnotimprobablydeath，andyetfacestheprospectquitecheerfully，withacertainprideinhisself-devotion。Inthisspirit，evidently，allthedutiesoflifeoughttobetakenup。Butthesoldier，theseaman，thefireman，thebrakeman，thedoctorandotherswhosetradeleadsthemintoobviousperilhaveonegreatadvantage：theyknowwhattheirdutyisandhavenootherthoughtthantodoit;thereisnomentaldistractiontocomplicatethesituation。
Andasfastasprinciplesbecomesettledandhabitsformed，peoplewillbeasheroicinotherfunctionsastheyareinthese。
(354)WemayapplytomanyinourowntimethewordsofBurckhardtindescribingthedisorganizationoftheRenaissance：“Thesightofvictoriousegoisminothersdriveshimtodefendhisownrightbyhisownarm。And，whilethinkingtorestorehisinwardequilibrium，hefalls，throughthevengeancewhichheexecutes，intothehandsofthepowersofdarkness。”
Thatis，wethinkwemustbeasselfishasotherpeople，butfindthatselfishnessismiseryInoticethatmanymen，evenofmuchnaturalsympathyandfellow-feeling，haveaccepted“everymanforhimself“asakindofdogma，makingthemselvesbelievethatitisthenecessaryruleofacompetitivesociety，andpracticingitwithakindoffanaticismwhichgoesagainsttheirbetternatures。Perhapsthesensitivearemoreapttodothisthanothers梑ecausetheyaremoreupsetbythespectacleof“victoriousegoism“
aroundthem。Butthetruegoodoftheindividualisfoundonlyinsubordinatinghimselftoarationalwhole;andinturningagainstothershedestroyshimself。
Theembitteredanddistractedindividualmustbeabadcitizen。Thereisthesamekindofmoraldifferencebetweenthosewhofeellifeasarationalwhole，andsohavesomesortofabeliefinGod，asthereisbetweenanarmythatbelievesinitscommanderandonethatdoesnot。Ineithercasethefeelingdoesmuchtobringaboutitsownjustification。
Thefactthatthebreakingupoftraditionsthrowsmenbackuponimmediatehumannaturehas，however，itsgoodaswellasitsbadside。Itmayobscurethoselargertruthsthatarethegrowthoftimeandmayletloosepride，(355)sensualityandscepticism;butitalsoawakensthechildinmanandachildlikepliabilitytothebetteraswellastheworseinnaturalimpulse。Wemaylook，amongpeoplewhohavelostthesenseoftradition，forthesortofvirtues，aswellasofvices，thatwefindonthefrontier：
forplaindealing，loveofcharacterandforce，kindness，hope，hospitalityandcourage。Alongsideofanextravagantgrowthofsensuality，prideandcaprice，wehaveaboutusageneralcultofchildhoodandwomanhood，avastphilanthropy，andaninterestineverythingrelatingtothewelfareofthemassesofthepeople。Thelargeprivategiftstophilanthropicandeducationalpurposes，andthefactthatagreatdealofpersonalprideismingledwiththesegifts，areequallycharacteristicofthetime。
And，afterall，thereisneveranygeneralstateofextremedisintegration。
Suchasourtimesuffersfrominartandsocialrelationsischieflythepenaltyofaconcentrationofthoughtuponmaterialproductionandphysicalscience。Inthesefieldsthereisnolackofunifiedandcumulativeendeavor梩houghunhumaninsomeaspects梤esultingintotalachievement。IfwehavenotDanteandgothicarchitecture，wehaveDarwinandthemodernrailway……
Andasfastasthegeneralmindturnstootheraimswemayhopethatourchaoticmaterialwilltakeonorder。
Endnotes，ThePoet。Emerson。342，SeethearticlebyR。L。O’BrienintheAtlanticMonthly，Oct。1904。Inaccurately，becausethefulldevelopmentoftheindividualrequiresorganization，JaneAddams，CharlesHortonCooley：SocialOrganization：Chapter31：Disorganization：TheFamily，CHAPTERXXXI
DISORGANIZATION：
THEFAMILY，OLDANDNEWREGIMESINTHEFAMILY——THEDECLININGBIRTH-RATE——
“SPOILED“CHILDREN——THEOPENINGOFNEWCAREERSTOWOMEN——EUROPEAN
ANDAMERICANPOINTSOFVIEW——PERSONALFACTORSINDIVORCE——INSTITUTIONAL
FACTORS——CONCLUSION
THEmediaevalfamily，likeothermediaevalinstitutions，wasdominatedbycomparativelysettledtraditionswhichreflectedtheneedsofthegeneralsystemofsocietyMarriagewasthoughtofchieflyasanallianceofinterests，andwasarrangedbytherulingmembersofthefamiliesconcernedongroundsofconvenance，thepersonalcongenialityofthepartiesbeinglittleconsidered。
WeknowthatthisviewofmarriagehasstillconsiderableforceamongthemoreconservativeclassesofEuropeansociety，andthatroyaltyornobility，ontheonehand，andthepeasantry，ontheother，adheretotheideathatitisafamilyratherthanapersonalfunction，whichshouldbearrangedongroundsofrankandwealth。InFranceitishardlyrespectabletomakearomanticmarriage，andMr。Hamertontellsofayoungwomanwhowasindignantatarumorthatshehadbeenweddedforlove，insistingthatithadbeenstrictlyamatterofconvenance。Healsomentionsayoungmanwhowascompelledtoaskhismotherwhichoftwosistershehadjustmetwastobehiswife。[1]
(357)
Alongwiththissubordinationofchoiceincontractingmarriagegenerallywentanautocraticfamilydiscipline。Legallythewifeandchildrenhadnoseparaterights，theirpersonalitybeingmergedinthatofthehusbandandfather，whilesociallythelatterwasrathertheirmasterthantheircompanion。Hisrule，however梩houghitwasnodoubtharshandoftenbrutal，judgedbyournotions梐uthorityinourday;sincehewaswaspossiblynotsoarbitraryandwhimsicalaswouldbetheexerciseofsimilarhimselfsubordinatenotonlytosocialsuperiors，butstillmoretotraditionalideas，defininghisowndutiesandthoseofhishousehold，whichhefeltboundtocarryout。Thewholesystemwasauthoritative，admittinglittleplayofpersonalchoice。
Evidentlythedriftofmodernlifeisawayfromthisstateofthings。
Thedecayofsettledtraditions，embracingnotonlythoserelatingdirectlytothefamilybutalsothereligiousandeconomicideasbywhichtheseweresupported，hasthrownusbackupontheunschooledimpulsesofhumannature。Inenteringuponmarriagethepersonaltastesofthecoupledemandgratification，and，rightorwrong，thereisnoauthoritystrongenoughtoholdthemincheck。Nor，ifuponexperienceitturnsoutthatpersonaltastesarenotgratified，istherecommonlyanyinsuperableobstacletoadissolutionofthetie。Beingmarried，theyhavechildrensolongastheyfindit，onthewhole，agreeabletotheirinclinationstodoso，butwhenthispointisreachedtheyproceedtoexercisechoicebyrefusingtobearandrearanymore。AndasthespiritofchoiceisinItheair，thechildrenarenotslowtoinhaleitandtoexercisetheirownwillsinaccordancewiththesamelawofim-
(358)-pulsetheireldersseemtofollow。“Doasyoupleasesolongasyoudonotevidentlyharmothers“istheonlyruleofethicsthathasmuchlife;thereislittleregardforanyhigherdiscipline，fortheslowlybuilttraditionsofadeeperrightandwrongwhichcannotbejustifiedtothefeelingsofthemoment。
Amongthephasesofthisdomestic“individualism“orrelapsetoimpulseareadecliningbirthrateamongthecomfortableclasses，somelackofdisciplineandrespectinchildren，agrowingindependenceofwomenaccompaniedbyallegedneglectofthefamily，andanincreaseofdivorce。
Thecausesofdeclineinthebirthrateareclearlypsychological，being，ingeneral，thatpeoplepreferambitionandluxurytothelargefamiliesthatwouldinterferewiththem。
Freedomofopportunitydiffusesarestlessdesiretoriseintheworld，beneficentfrommanypointsofviewbutbynomeansfavorabletonaturalincrease。Mendemandmoreoflifeinthewayofpersonalself-realizationthaninthepast，andittakesalongertimeandmoreenergytogetit，theconsequencebeingthatmarriageispostponedandthebirth-rateinmarriagedeliberatelyrestricted。Theyoungpeopleofthewell-to-doclasses，amongwhomambitionismostdeveloped，commonlyfeelpoorerinregardtothismatterthanthehand-workers，sothatwefindinEngland，forinstance，thattheprofessionalmenmarryatanaverageageofthirty-one，whileminersmarryattwenty-four。Moreover，whilethehand-workingclasses，bothonthefarmsandintowns，expectto，(359)maketheirchildrenmorethanpayforthemselvesaftertheyarefourteenyearsold，alargefamilythusbecominganinvestmentforfutureprofit，thewell-to-do，onthecontrary，seeintheirchildrenasourceofindefinitelycontinuousexpense。Andthetrendofthingsisbringinganeverlargerproportionofthepeoplewithintheambitiouschtssesandsubjecttothissortofchecks。
Thespreadofluxury，orevencomfort，worksinthesamedirectionbycreatingtastesandhabitsunfavorabletothebearingandrearingofmanychildren。Amongthosewhoselife，ingeneral，ishardthesethingsarenotharderthantherest，andacertaincallousnessofmindthatisapttoresultfrommonotonousphysicallaborrenderspeoplelesssubjecttoanxiety，asarule，thanthosewhomightappeartohavelessoccasionforit。Thejoyofchildren，the“luxuryofthepoor，“mayalsoappearbrighterfromthedulnessandhardshipagainstwhichitisrelieved。Butaspeopleacquirethehabit，oratleastthehope，ofcomforttheybecomeawarethatadditionalc}ildrenmeanasacrificewhichtheyoftenrefusetomake。
Theseinfluencesgohand-in-handwiththatgeneraltendencytorebelagainsttroublewhichisinvolvedinthespiritofchoice。Informerdayswomenacceptedthebearingofchildrenandtheaccompanyingcaresandprivationsasamatterofcourse;itdidnotoccurtothemthatanythingelsewaspossible。Now，beingaccustomedtochoosetheirlife，theydemandareasonwhytheyshouldundergohardships;andsincetheadvantageswhicharetofollowaredoubtfulandremote，andthesufferingnearandobvious，theyarenotunlikelytorefuse。Toocom-
(360)-monlytheyhavenoinwroughtprinciplesandtrainingthatdisposethemtosubmit。
Thedistractionofchoicegrievouslyincreasestheactualburdenandstressuponwomen)foritiscomparativelyeasytoputupwiththeinevitable。
Whatwithmoralstrainofthissortandtheanxiousselectionamongconflictingmethodsofnurtureandeducationitpossiblycoststhemotherofto-daymorepsychicalenergytoraisefourchildrenthanitdidhergrandmothertoraiseeight。
Itwouldbestrangeifchildrenwerenothospitabletothemodernsentimentthatonewillisasgoodasanother，exceptastheothermaybedemonstrablywiserinregardtothematterinhand。Willingsubmissiontoauthorityassuch，orsenseofthevalueofdisciplineasaconditionofthelargerandlessobviouswell-beingofsociety，ishardlytobeexpectedfromchildishreasoning，andmustcome，ifatall，astheunconsciousresultofatrainingwhichreflectsgeneralsentimentandcustom。Itisinstitutionalinitsnature，notvisiblyreasonable。
Butthechild，inourday，findsnosuchinstitution，nogeneralstateofsentimentsuchasexistsinJapanandexistedinourownpast，whichfillsthemindfrominfancywithsuggestionsthatparentsaretobereverencedandobeyed;nordoparentsordinarilydomuchtoinstilthisbytraining。
Probably，sogreatisthepowerofgeneralopinioneveninchildhood，theywouldhardlysucceediftheytried，butasaruletheydonotseriouslytry。Beingthemselvesaccustomedtotheviewthatauthoritymustappealtothereasonofthesubject，theyseenothingstrange，(361)Thefondattentionwhichparentsgivetotheirchildrenisoftenofasorttooverstimulatetheirself-consequence。Thisconstantlyaskingthem，Whatwouldyoulike？Shallwedothisorthat？Wheredoyouwanttogo？andsoon，thoughamiableonourpart，doesthechildlittlegood。
Theoldpracticeofkeepingchildrenatadistance，whateveritsevils，wasmoreapttofosterreverence。
Amonghand-workers，especiallyinthecountry，theworkbeingmoreobviousandoftensharedbythewholefamily，thepressureofnecessarylabormakesakindofdisciplineforall，andthechildrenaremorelikelytoseethattherearerulesandconditionsoflifeabovetheirimmediatepleasure。
Socialplay，aswehaveseen，mayalsodomuchforthisperception。Butthisvisiblecontrolofahigherlawhasadecreasingpartinmodernlife，especiallywiththewell-to-doclasses，whoselaborsareseldomsuchaschildrenmayshare，orevenunderstand。
Inthis，asinsomanyotherrespects，weareapproachingahigherkindoflifeatthecostofincidentaldemoralization。Themodernfamilyatitsbest，withitsintimatesympathyanditsdisciplineoflove，isofahighertypethanthefamilyofanolderregime。“Inever，“saidThackeray，“sawpeopleonbettertermswitheachother，morefrank，affectionate，andcordial，thantheparentsandthegrown-upyoungfolksintheUnitedStates。Andwhy？Becausethechildrenwerespoiled，tobesure。”[2]Butwherethisidealisnotreached，thereisapttobeasomewhatdisastrousfailurewhichmakesoneregrettheauto-
(362)-craticandtraditionalorder。Notmerelyisdisciplinelacking，buttheaffectionwhichmightbesupposedtogowithindulgenceisturnedtoindifference，ifnotcontempt。Asarulewelovethosewecanlookupto，thosewhostandforthehigherideal。Inolddaysparentssharedsomewhatinthatdivinitywithwhichtraditionhedgedthegreatoftheearth，andmightreceiveareverencenotdependentupontheirpersonality;andevento-daytheyarelikelytobebetterlovediftheyexactrespect梛ustasanofficerisbetterlovedwhoenforcesdisciplineandisnottoofamiliarwithhissoldiers。Humannatureneedssomethingtolookupto，anditisapitywhenparentsdonotinpartsupplythisneedfortheirchildren。
Inshort，thechild，likethewoman，helpstobeartheoftengrievousburdenofdisorganization;bearsit，amongthewell-to-doclasses，inanill-regulatedlife，inlackofreverenceandlove，innervousnessandpetulance;
aswellasinprematureandstuntinglaboramongthepoor：
Theopeningofnewcareerstowomenandaresultingeconomicindependenceapproachingthatofmenisanotherphaseof“individualism“thathasitsworseandbetteraspects。Ingeneralithas，throughthefullerself-expressionofwomen，mostbeneficialreactionsbothuponfamilylifeandsocietyatlarge，butcreatessometroubleinthewayofdomesticreluctanceanddiscontent。
Thedispositiontorejectmarriagealtogethermaybesetasideasscarcelyexistent。Themarriagerateshowslittledecline，thoughtheaverageageissomewhatadvancedThewage-earningoccupationsofwomenaremostlyofatemporarycharacter，andthegreatmajorityofdomestic，(363)servants，shopandfactorygirls，clerks，typewritersandteachersmarrysoonerorlater。Thereisnoreasontodoubtthatacongenialmarriagecontinuestobethealmostuniversalfeminineideal。
Amorerealproblem，perhapsisfoundintheexcessiverequirements，inthewayofcomfortandrefinement，thatyoungwomenaresaidtocherish。
IntheUnitedStatestheireducation，sofarasgeneralcultureisconcerned，outstripsthatofmen，somethinglikethree-fifthsofourhighschoolpupilsbeinggirls，whileeveninthehigherinstitutionsthestudyofhistory，foreignlanguagesandEnglishliteratureislargelygivenovertowomen。
Acertainsenseofsuperioritycomingfromthisstateofthingsprobablycausestherejectionofsomehonestclerksorcraftsmenbygirlswhocanhardlylookforabetteroffer;andithasatendencytowardthecultivationofrefinementattheexpenseofchildrenwheremarriagedoesoccur。Itneedhardlybesaid，however，thataggressiveidealismOilthepartofwomenisinitselfnobadthing，andthatitdoesharmonlywhereill-directed。
Hardlyanything，forinstance，wouldbemoresalutarythanthegeneralenforcementbywomenofahighermoralstandarduponthemenwhowishtomarrythem。
Andcertainlynothinginmoderncivilizationismorewidelyandsubtlybeneficentthantheenlargementofwomeninsocialfunction。Itmeansthatahalfofhumannatureisnewlyenfranchised，instructedandenabledtobecomeamoreconsciousandeffectivefactorinlife。Theidealsofhomeandthecareofchildren，inspiteofpessimists，arechangingforthebetter，andtheworkofwomeninindependentcareersislargelyinthedirection，(364)ofmuch-neededsocialserviceeducationandphilanthropyinthelargestsenseofthewords。Anyonefamiliarwiththesemovementsknowsthatmuchoftheintellectualandmostoftheemotionalforcebackofthemisthatofwomen’Onemaysaythatthematernalinstincthasbeensetfreeandorganizedonavastscale，fortheactivitiesinwhichwomenmostexcelarethoseinspiredbysympathywithchildrenandwiththeweakorsufferingclasses。
TothecontinentalEuropean，accustomedtoasocietyinwhichthefunctionsandconventionsofmenandwomenaresharplydistinguishedanddefinedbytradition，itseemsthatAmericansbreakdownanaturalandsalutarydifferentiation，makingwomenmasculineandmenfemininebyatooindiscriminateassociationandcompetition。Nodoubtthereissomegroundfordistinctstandardsandeducation，andinthegeneralcrumblingoftraditionsandswayofasomewhatdoctrinaireideaofequalitysome“achieveddistinctions“ofvaluemayhavebeenlostsightof。Likeothersocialdifferentiations，however，thisisonethatcannolongerbedeterminedbyauthority，butmustworkitselfoutinafreeplayofexperiment。AsMr。Ellissays，“Thehopeofourfuturecivilizationliesinthedevelopment，inequalfreedom，ofboththemasculineandfeminineelementsinlife。”[3]
Perhaps，also，themasculineelement，asbeingonthewholemorerationalandstable，shouldbethemainsourceofgovernment，keepinginordertheemotionalitymorecommonlydominantinwomen：anditmayappearthatthiscontrollingfunctionisill-performedinAmerica。It，(365)shouldberemembered，however，thatwithustheemancipationofwomencomeschieflyfrommaleinitiativeandisavoluntaryfosteringofdasewigWeiblicheoutofloveandrespectforit。AndalsothatmostEuropeansocietiesgovernwomenlbycoercivelawsorconventionsand，inthelowerclasses，evenbyblows。Americanshavealmostwhollyforegonetheseextrinsicaids，aimingatahigherorvoluntarydiscipline，andifAmericanwomenare，afterall，quiteaswellguided，onthewhole，asthoseofEurope，itisnomeanachievement。Thereareingeneraltwosortsofforces，onepersonalandoneinstitutional，whichholdpeopletogetherinwedlock。BythepersonalImeanthosewhichspringmoredirectlyfromnaturalimpulse，andmayberoughlysummedupasaffectionandcommoninterestinchildren。Theinstitutionalarethosethatcomemorefromthelargerorganizationofsociety，suchaseconomicinterdependenceofhusbandandwife，orthestateofpublicsentiment，traditionandlaw。
Asregardsaffection，presentconditionsshouldapparentlybefavorabletothestrengthofthebond。Sincepersonalchoiceissolittleinterferedwith，andthewholematterconductedwithaviewtocongeniality，itwouldseemthatahighdegreeofcongenialitymust，onthewhole，besecured。
And，indeed，thisiswithoutmuchdoubtthecase：nowhereprobably，istheresolargeaproportionofcouplesli-vingtogetherinloveandconfidenceasinthosecountrieswheremarriageismostfree。Evenifseriousfrictionarises，thefactthateachhaschosentheotherwithoutconstraintfavorsasenseofresponsibilityforthe，(366)relation，andadeterminationtomakeitsucceedthatmightbelackinginanarrangedmarriage。Weknowthatifwedonotmarryhappilyitisourownfault，andthemorecharacterandself-respect~ehasethemore~etrytomakethebestofourventure。Therecanhardlybeageneralfeelingthatmarriageisonethingandloveanother，suchasmayprevailundertheruleofconvenance。
Yetitisnotinconsistenttosaythatthisaimatloveincreasesdivorce。
Thetheorybeingthatthecontractingpartiesaretobemadehappy，then，iftheyarenot，itseemstofollowthattherelationisafailureandshouldcease：thebrightertheidealthedarkerthefactbycontrast。Whereinterestandcustomrulemarriagethosewhoenterintoitmaynotexpectcongeniality，or，iftheydo，theyfeelthatitissecondaryanddonotdreamofdivorcebecauseitisnotachieved。Thewomanmarriesbecauseherparentstellherto，becausemarriageishercareer，andbecauseshedesiresaweddingandtobemistressofahousehold;themanbecausehewantsahouseholdandchildrenandisnotindifferenttothedowry。Thesetangibleaims，ofwhichonecanbefairlysecurebeforehand，givestabilitywhereloveproveswanting。
Andwhilefreedominwell-orderedmindstendstowardresponsibilityandtheendeavortomakethebestofachosencourse，intheill-ordereditislikelytobecomeanimpulsivenesswhichisdisplayedequallyincontractingandinbreakingoffmarriagewithoutgoodcause。Theconditionsofourtimegiveaneasyreintoundisciplinedwills，andoneindexoftheiractivityisthedivorcerate。Badtraininginchildhoodisalargefactorinthis，neglectedorspoiledchildrenmakingbadhusbandsorwives，and，(367)probablyfurnishingthegreaternumberofthedivorced。Commonobservationseemstoshowthatthelatterareseldompeopleofthoroughlywholesomeantecedents。
Itmaynotbeamisstoaddthatpersonalaffectionisattilebestaninadequatefoundationformarriage。Toexpectthatonepersonshouldmakeanotherhappyorgoodisrequiringtoomuchofhumannature。Bothpartiesoughttobesubjecttosomehigheridea，inreverenceforwhichtheymayriseabovetheirownimperfection：thereoughttobesomethinginthewayofreligioninthecase。AremarkwhichGoethemadeofpoetrymightwellbeappliedtopersonallove：“Itisaverygoodcompanionoflife，butinnowaycompetenttoguideit“;[4]andbecausepeoplehavenohigherthoughttoshelterthemindisappointmentisfrequentlythereasonthatmarriageprovesafailure。
Asregardsinstitutionalbondsthereisofcourseagreatrelaxation。
Thuseconomicinterdependencedeclineswiththeadvanceofspecialization。
Thehomeindustriesaremostlygone，andeveryyearmorethingsareboughtthatusedtobemadeinthehouse。Littleisleftbutcooking，andthat，eitherasataskofthewifeorintheshapeoftheDomesticServiceQuestion，issotroublesomethatmanyareeagertoseeitfollowtherest。Atonetimemarriagewas，forwomen，abouttheonlywaytoarespectablemaintenance，whiletomenagoodhousewifewasequallyaneconomicnecessity。Nowthisistrueonlyofthefarmingpopulation，(368)andlesstrueofthemthanitusedtobeinthetownstheeconomicconsiderationsaremostlyopposedtomarriedlife。
Besidesmakinghusbandandwifelessnecessarytoeachother，thesechangestendtomakemarriedwomenrestless。Nothingworksmoreforsanityandcontentmentthanareasonableamountofnecessaryandabsorbinglabor;
discipliningthemindandgivingoneasenseofbeingofuseintheworld。
Itseemsaparadoxtosaythatidlenessisexhausting，butthereismuchtruthinit，especiallyinthecaseofsensitiveandeagerspirits。Aregularandnecessarytaskreststhewillbygivingitassurance，whiletheabsenceofsuchataskweariesitbyuncertaintyandfutilechoice。Justasapersonwhofollowsatrailthroughthewoodswillgofurtherwithlessexertionthanonewhoisfindinghisway，soweallneedafoundationofroutine，andthelackofthisamongwomenofthericherclassesisachiefcauseoftherestless，exacting，oftenhysterical，spirit，harassingtoitsownerandeveryoneelse，whichtendstowarddiscontent，indiscretionanddivorce。
Theoldtraditionalsubordinationonthepartofthewifehaditsuses，likeotherdecayingstructuresofthepast;andhoweverdistastefultomodernideasoffreedom，wasafactorinholdingthefamilytogether。For，afterall，nosocialorganizationcanbeexpectedtosubsistwithoutsomeregularsystemofgovernment。Wesaythatthemodernfamilyisademocracy;
andthissoundsverywell;butanarchyissometimesamorecorrectdescription。
Awell-ordereddemocracyhasaconstitutionandlaws，prescribingtherightsanddutiesofthevariousmembersofthestate，andprovidingamethodofdeterminingcon-
(369)-troversies：thefamily，exceptaswerecognizewithinreasonablelimitstheauthorityofthehusbandandfather，hasnothingofthesort。
Solongasthemembersareoneinmindandfeelingthereisanunconsciousharmonywhichhasnothingtodowithauthority;butwithevenslightdivergencecomestheneedofdefinitecontrol。Whatwouldhappenonshipboardifthecaptainhadtogovernbymerepersonalascendancy，withoutthebackingofmaritimelawandcustom？Evidentlytherewouldbemutinies，asamongpiratecrews，whichonlyanuncommonlystrongmancouldquell;andthefamilyisofteninasimilarcondition。[5]
Therelaxationofmoralsentimentregardingmarriagebymigrationsandothersortsofdisplacementiseasilytracedinstatistics，whichshowthatdivorceismorefrequentinnewcountries，incities梡eopledbymigration梐ndintheindustrialandcommercialclassesmostaffectedbyeconomicchange。Tohaveaneffectivepublicopinionholdingpeopletotheirdutyitisimportantthatmenshouldlivelonginoneplaceandinonegroup，inheritingtraditionalideasandenforcingthemuponone，(370)another。Allbreakingupofoldassociationsinvolvesan“individualism“
whichisnowheremoreactivethaninfamilyrelations。
Thesameprinciplesgotoexplaindiminishedcontrolbythelawandthechurch。ThuswenoticethatthestatesoftheAmericanUnion，havingmadetheirmarriagelawsincomparativeindependenceoftheEnglishtraditionandinharmonywitharelaxingpublicsentiment，havemuchdivorce;whileinCanadatherestraininghandofthattraditionhaskeptthelawconservativeandmadedivorcedifficultandrare。ThesurprisingcontrastinthisregardbetweenthetwosidesoftheDetroitorSt。Lawrenceriversisonlypartlyexplainedbythedifferentsocialtraitsofthepeople。
Christianteachingisthechiefsourceoftheidealofmarriageasasacredandalmostindissolublebond，andchurchorganizationhasbeenthemainagentinenforcingthisideal。TheRomanCatholicchurchhasneveradmittedthepossibilityofabsolutedivorce，andtoherauthority，chiefly，isdueitsabsenceinSpainandItaly;whileinEnglandtheEstablishedChurch，notmuchbehindRomeinstrictness，hasbeenperhapsthechiefcauseofconservatisminEnglishlawandsentiment。AndtheotherProtestantchurches，thoughmoreliberal，areconservativeincomparisonwiththedriftofpopularfeeling。Sothefact，needlesstodiscussinthisconnection，thatthedisciplinaryauthorityofthechurchhasdeclined，makesdirectlyfortheincreaseofdivorce。
Therelaxationofthefamilyisdue，then，tochangesprogressiveonthewhole，butinvolvingmuchincidental，(371)demoralization;beingingeneralthosearisingfromasomewhatrapiddecayofoldtraditionsanddisciplinesandaconsequentdependenceuponhumanimpulseandreason。
Theevilinvolvedislargelyoldevilinanewform;itisnotsomuchthatnewtroubleshavearisenbetweenhusbandandwifeasthatanewremedyissoughtforoldones。Theyquarreledandmarriagevowswerebrokenquiteasmuchinformertimesasnow，asmuchinEnglandtodayasinAmerica：
themaindifferenceisintheoutcome。
Moreover，thematterhasitsbrighterside;fordivorcethoughfullofevils，isassociatedwithabeneficentriseinthestandingofwomen，ofwhichitistoacertaindegreetl~ecause。Thefactthatlawandopinionnowpermitwomentorevoltagainsttheabuseofmaritalpoweroperateswidelyandsubtlytoincreasetheirself-respectandtherespectofothersforthem，andliketherightofworkmentostrike，doesmostofitsgoodwithoutovertexercise。
Endnotes，FrenchandEnglish，357。Philip，chapter28。ManandWoman，396。DieMusedasLebenzwargembegleitet，abereskeineswegszuleitenversteht。Thattheincreaseofdivorcesisduechieflytotheinitiativeofthewifeisseeninthefactthatastheybecomemorenumerousanincreasingproportionisgrantedattheinstanceofthewoman。Undertheoldregimethedivorcingofahusbandwasalmostunknown，thefirsteaseinEnglandoeeurringin1801。(SeetheessayonMarriageandDivoreeinMr。Bryce’sStudiesinHistoryandJurisprudence。)IntheUnitedStatesagreatpreponderancearenowgrantedtowives，andthegreaterthetotalratethegreaterthispreponderance。InthosestateswheretherateishighesttheproportioniBfromtwo-thirdstothree-fourths。Itisnotfarwrongtosaythattheoldideaofdivorcewastoridthehusbandofanunfaithfulwife，thenewistoridthewifeofanuncongenialortroublesomehusband。，CharlesHortonCooley：SocialOrganization：Chapter32：Disorganization：TheChurch，CHAPTERXXXII
DISORGANIZATION：THECHURCH，THEPSYCHOLOGICALVIEWOFRELIGION——THENEEDOFSOCIAL
STRUCTURE——CREEDS——WHYSYMBOLSTENDTOBECOMEFORMAL——TRAITSOFA
GOODSYSTEMOFSYMBOLS——CONTEMPORARYNEEDOFRELIGION——NEWERTENDENCIES
INTHECHURCH
INreligion，too，ourdayisoneofconfusionininstitutionsandfallingbackuponhumannature。Themostnotablebooksofthedayinthisfieldare，firstofall，studiesinreligiouspsychology。Perceivingthatthequestionhascometobeoneoftheverybeingandfunctionofreligion，theyignorethediscussionofparticulardoctrines，politiesorsacraments，andseekafoundationinthenatureofthehumanmind。
Idonotwishtofollowtheseresearchesindetail：theirgeneraloutcomeisreassuring。Theyseemtoshowthatreligionisaneedofhumannature，centring，perhaps，inthecravingtomakelifeseemrationalandgood。Asthoughtitisbeliefregardingthepowerunderlyinglifeandourrelationtoit;ourconceptionsofGodandofotherdivineagentsservingassymbols梒hanginglikeothersymbolswiththegeneralstateofthought梠fthishiddenreality。Asfeelingitisavariousbodyofpassionandsentimentassociatedwiththisbelief;suchasthesenseofsinandofreconciliation;
dread，awe，reverence，loveand，(373)faith。Andreligiousactionissuchasexpresses，inonewayoranother，thissortofthoughtandfeeling。
Likeallourhigherlife，religionlivesonlybycommunicationandinfluence。Itssentimentsareplantedininstinct，butthesoilinwhichtheygrowissomesortoffosteringcommunitylife。Higherthought梒allitintellectual，spiritual，orwhatyouwill梔oesnotcometousbyanyshortandeasyroad，itsnaturebeingtorequirepreparationandoutlay，tobethedifficultandculminatingproductofhumangrowth。Andthisisquiteasmuchagrowthofthesocialorderasofindividuals，fortheindividualcutofffromthatscaffoldingofsuggestionthattheaspirationoftheracehasgraduallypreparedforhimissuretobelawlessandsensual：
hisspiritualimpulsecanhardlybemorethanafutileunrest，justastheuntaughtimpulseofspeechinadeafpersonproducesonlyinarticulatecries。Muchhasbeensaidofnaturalreligion;butifthismeansareligionachieveddenovobytheindividualmind，thereisnosuchthing，allreligionandreligioussentimentbeingmoreorlessdistinctlytraditional。
Wefind，then，thatthereligiouslifealwaysrestsuponasomewhatelaboratesocialstructure梟otnecessarilyachurch，butsomethingwhichdoesinfactwhatthechurchaimstodo。Thehighersentimentsnowpossibletousaresubtlyevokedandnourishedbylanguage，music，ritualandothertime-wroughtsymbols。Andevenmoreobviouslyareideas梠fGodandofthelargerbeing，ofreligiousobservance，governmentandduty梞attersofcommunalandseculargrowth。
Therootproblemofthechurch梐s，inasense，ofall，(374)organization梚stogettheuseofthesymbolwithouttheabuse。Wecannotholdourmindstothehigherlifewithoutaformofthought;andformsofthoughtcomebytraditionsandusageswhichareapttoenchainthespirit。“Woeuntotheethoustreamofhumancustom“;criesSt。Augustine，“Whoshallstaythycourse？Howlongshallitbebeforethouartdriedup？HowlongwiltthoucarrydownthesonsofEveintothathugeandformidableocean，whicheventhosewhoareembarkedontheTreecanscarcepassover？”[1]
Theiconoclasticfervoragainstformalismthatusefullybreaksoutfromtimetotimeshouldnotmakeusimaginethatreligioncandispensewithinstitutions。Thereisinreligiousthoughtatpresentmuchofakindofanarchismwhich，inthejustifiablerevoltagainstthepretensionsofauthority，isinclinedtooverlooktheimportanceoftraditionandstructure。
PerhapswemayciteEmersonasananarchistofthissort;hesawthenecessityofinstitutions，butwasinclinedbytemperamentandexperiencetodistrustthem，andtodwellalmostwhollyuponfreedom。
Isitnotthefact，however，thattheprogressofreligionhasbeenlessintheperceptionofnewtruththaninbringingithometothemanybyorganization？Thereisperhapslittleinreligiousthoughtthatwasnotadequatelyexpressedbyoccasionalthinkersmillenniumsago;
thegainhasbeeninworkingthisthoughtintothecorporatelife。Thegreatreligions桞uddhism，Judaism，Christianity，Mohammedanism梐renothingifnotsystems;thatistosay，althoughbasedonprimaryneedsofhumannature，theirverybeingaswidespreadreligionsconsists，(375)inasocialstructure，adaptedtothechangingstateofsociety，throughwhichtheseneedsaremetandfostered。ThustheappealofChristianitytothehumanmindmaybesaidtohaverested，inallperiodspartlyonthesymbolicpowerofapersonality梥oidealizedandinterpretedastobeineffectasystemaswellasaman梐ndpartlyonachangingbutalwayselaboratestructureofdoctrines，ritual，polity，preachingandthelike。Takeawaythesesymbolsandthereisnothingdistinctiveleft。
Andifthewholeistogoon，thesystemofsymbols，againrenewed，mustgoon，too。Nomoreinreligionthaninanyotherphaseoflifecanwehaveaninsidewithoutanoutside，essencewithoutform。
Theexistingcreeds，formulatedinapreviousstateofthought，havelostthatrelativetruththeyoncehadandarenow，formostofus，notcreedsatall，sincetheyareincredible;butcreedsofsomesortwemusthave。Acreedmay，perhaps，bedefinedasasettledwayofthinkingaboutmatterswhicharebeyondthereachofpositiveknowledge，butwhichthemindmustandwillthinkofinsomeway梟otably，ofcourse，aboutthelargerlifeandourrelationtoit。Forthemajority，whoarenotmetaphysicians，itismerewasteanddistractiontostruggleunaidedwiththeseproblems;weneedachartinthissea，apracticableformofthoughttoliveby。Thatcompetentmenshoulddevisesuchformsofthought，consistentwiththestateofknowledge，andthatothersymbolsshouldgrowupaboutthem，isasnaturalandusefulasanyotherkindofinvention。
Weneedtobelieve，andweshallbelievewhatwecan。JohnAddingtonSymondsdeclared，(376)that“healthofsoulresultsfrompossessingacreed，“
andhisownsufferingsintryingtomakeoneoutofthescatteredmaterialsofhistimearetypicalofthoseofagreatnumberofsensitiveminds，manyofwhomhavebeenharassedintodespairanddegradation。[2]Withoutsomeregularandcommonserviceoftheideal，somethinginthewayofprayerandworship，pessimismandselfishnessarealmostsuretoencroachuponus。
Thosewhoteachtruthinitsmereabstractnesscannevertakemuchholdofthegeneralmind，andsuccessawaitsateachingwhichisintellectuallysound(thatis，consistentwiththeclearerthoughtoftheday)，andatthesametimeable，byawealthoffitsymbols，tomakeitselfathomeinallsortsofplainminds。Anditisjustthisthatisapttobedestructivelywantinginatimeofintellectualandsocialchange。
Whyisitthatthesymbolencroachesandpersistsbeyonditsfunction？Evidentlyjustbecauseitisexternal，capableofimitationandrepetitionwithoutfreshthoughtandlife，sothatallthatisinertandmechanicalclingstoit。Alldullandsensualpersons，alldullandsensualmoodsinanyperson，seetheformandnotthesubstance。Thespirit，theidea，thesentiment，isplainlyenoughtherealitywhenoneisawaketoseeit，buthoweasilyweloseourholduponitandcometothinkthattherealisthetangible。Thesymbolisalwaysatcommand：wecanalwaysattendchurch，gotomass，reciteprayers，contributemoney，andthelike;butkindness，hope，reverence，humility，courage，havenostringattachedtothem;theycomeandgoasthespiritmoves;thereisnoinsuranceonthem。
(377)Justasintheschoolsweteachfactsandformulasratherthanmeanings，becausetheformercanbereceivedbyallandreadilytested，soreligionbecomesexternalinseekingtnbecomeuniversalltisperhapshardlynecessarytorecalltheapplicationofthistoChristianity。Jesushimselfhadnosystem：hefeltandtaughtthehumansentimentsthatunderlyreligionandtheconductthatexpressesthem。TheSermonontheMountappearsparadoxicalonlytosluggish，sensual，formalstatesofmindandtheinstitutionsthatembodythem。Inourtimesofclearerinsightitisgoodsenseandgoodpsychology，expressingthatenlargementoftheindividualtoembracethelifeofotherswhichtakesplaceatsuchtimes。ThisnaturalChristianity，however，i;insecureinthebestpeople，andmostofushaveonlyafleetingexperienceofit;
sotheteacherswhowishedtomakeapopularsystem，validforallsortsofpersonsandmoods，wereledtovulgarizeitbygroundingitonmiraclesandmysticauthorityandenforcingitbysensualrewardsandpunishments。
TheperennialtruthofwhatChristtaughtcomespreciselyfromthefactthatitwasnotasystem，butanintuitionandexpressionofhighersentimentstheneedofwhichi~acentralandenduringelementinourbestexperience。Itisthisthathasmadeitpossible，ineveryage，togobacktohislifeandwordsandfindthemstillaliveandpotent，fittovitalizerenewedsystems。Thesystemmakersdidwell，too，buttheirworkwastransient。
Agoodsystemofsymbolsisonewhich，onthewhole，standstothegrouportotheindividualforahigherlife：
(378)meritinthismatterbeingrelativetotheparticularstateofmindthatthesymbolistoserve。Itisquitetruethat？
“EachagemustworshipitsownthoughtofGod，Moreorlessearthy，clarifyingstillWithsubsidencecontinuousofthedregs。”[3]
Crudemenmusthavecrudesymbols梕ven“rodorcandyforchild-mindedmen“[4]梑uttheseshouldbeeducational，leadingupfromlowerformsofthoughttohigher。Asystemthatkeepsmeninsensualismwhentheyarecapableofrisingaboveit，orindogmatismwhentheyarereadytothink，isasbadasonethatdoesnotreachtheirmindsatall。
Atthepresenttimeallfinalityinreligiousformulasisdiscreditedphilosophicallybytheideaofevolutionandoftheconsequentrelativityofallhighertruth，while，practically，freediscussionhassoaccustomedpeopletoconflictingviewsthattheexclusiveandintolerantadvocacyofdogmaisscarcelypossibletotheintelligent。Itistrue，ofcourse，thatphilosophicalbreadthandfreediscussionhaveflourishedbefore，onlytobesweptunderbytheforcesmakingforauthority;buttheywereneversorootedingeneralconditions梠fcommunicationandpersonalfreedom梐stheyarenow。Itseemsfairlycertainthattheformulasofreligionwillhenceforwardbeheldwithatleastasubconsciousnessoftheirprovisionalcharacter。
Thecreedsofthefuturearelikely，also，tobesimple。
Inallinstitutionsthereisnowadaysatendencytoexchangeformulasforprinciples，asbeingmoreflexibleandso，(379)moreenduring。Theneareryoucangettouniversalhumannaturewithoutabandoningconcretenessthebetter。Thereiscomingtobeaclearerdistinctionoffunctionsbetweenmetaphysicsandworship，whichmayenableeachtobeenjoyedtotheutmostwithoutbeingunnecessarilymixedwiththeother。
Thelessintellectualareligioussymbolisthebetter，becauseitlessconfinesthemind。Personalityisthebestsymbolofall;
andafterthatmusic，art，poetry，festivityandceremonyaremoreenduringandlessperiloussymbolsthanformulasofbelief。Sentimentschangelikeideas，butnotsomuchandnotsoevidently;andtheessentialexercisesofreligionforthemassofmenarethosewhichawakenhighersentiment，especiallythosegoodworks，inwhich，chiefly，thefounderofChristianityandhisrealfollowershaveexpressedtheirreligiousimpulse。Thesealsoaresymbols，andthemostpotentandleastillusiveofall。
Itisindeedageneraltruththatsentimentisnearertothecoreoflifethandefinablethought。Astherimofawheelwhirlsaboutitscentre，soideasandinstitutionswhirlaboutthepivotalsentimentsofhumannature。Todefineathingistoinstitutionizeit，todrawitforthfromthepregnantobscurityofthesoulandshowjusthowitappearsinthetransientcolorofourparticularwayofthinking。Definitionsare，intheirnature，short-lived。
Weneedreligion，probably，asmuchasanyagecanhaveneededit。Theprevalentconfusion，“thetumultofthetimedisconsolate，“
isfeltineverymindnotwhollyinertasagreaterorlessdistractionofthought，feelingandwill;
(380)andweneedtobetaughthowtolivewithjoyandcalminthepresenceofinevitableperplexities。Acertainnaturalphlegmisagreatadvantageinthesedays，andbetterstill，ifwecouldgetit，wouldbereligiousassurance。NeverwasitmoreurgentormoredifficulttojustifythewaysofGodtomen。Ourmaterialbettermentisagreatthing，andourcomparativefreedomagreater，buttheseratherincreasethandiminishtheneedofahigherdisciplineinthemindthatistousethemprofitably：
themoreopportunitiesthemoreproblems。Socialbettermentisliketheadvanceofscienceinthateachachievementopensupnewrequirements。
Thereisnoprospectthattheworldwilleversatisfyus，andthestructureoflifeisforeverincompletewithoutsomethingtosatisfytheneedofthespiritforideasandsentimentsthattranscendandreconcileallparticularaimswhatsoever。Mediaevalreligionistoounworldly，nodoubt，forouruse，butallrealreligionhasitsunworldlyside，andThomasaKempisandtherestwererightinholdingthatnosortoftangibleachievementcanlongassuagethehumansoul。
Stillmoreevidentistheneedofreligionintheformof“socialsalvation，“ofthemoralawakeningandleadershipofthepublicmind。Societyisinwantofthis，andtheagencythatsuppliesthewantwillhavethepowerthatgoeswithfunction梚fnotthechurch，thensomesecularandperhapshostileagency，likesocialism，whichisalreadyarivaltothechurchfortheallegianceofthereligiousspirit。
Perhaps，also，therewasneveranageinwhichtherewas。morevital，hopefulreligiousaspirationandendeavor，(381)thanthepresent梟otwithstandingthatsomanyareastray。Itis，ofcourse，agreatadvantageofthedeclineofformsthatwhatsurvivesisthemorelikelytobereal。Thechurchisbeingtransformedinthepersonsofitsyoungerandmoreadaptivemembers，andtheoutcomecanbenothingelsethanagradualreadjustmentofthetraditiontotherealspiritualneedsofthetime。Itisnotablethattheseverestcriticsoftheinstitutionarereformerswithinitsownbody，andtheirzealoverlooksnothinginthewayofapathyordecadence。
Asamatterofhistoricalcomparisontheirreligionofourtimeisoftenexaggerated。Anyreaderofhistorymayperceivethatformalism，materialismandinfidelityhaveflourishedinallepochs，andasregardsAmericaweareassuredbyMr。BrycethatChristianityinfluencesconductmoreherethaninanyothermoderncountry，andfarmorethanintheso-calledagesoffaith。[5]InfactitisjustbecausethisageisChristianinitsaspirationsthatwehearsomuchoftheinadequacyofthechurch。Peoplearetakingreligionseriouslyanddemandingtruefunctioninitsinstruments。
Thechurchispossiblymovingtowardadifferentiatedunity，inwhichthecommonelementwillbemainlysentiment梥uchsentimentsasjustice，kindness，libertyandservice。Thesearesufficientforgood-willandcooperation，andleaveroomforallthedifferentiationofideasandmethodsthatthediversityofliferequires。
Withwhateverfaultsthechurchisoneofthegreatachievementsofcivilization。Likethebodyofscienceoroursystemoftransportationandmanufacture，itis，(382)thecumulativeoutcomeofhumaninventionandendeavor，andisprobablyinnomoredangerofperishingthantheseare。Ifcertainpartsofitbreakupweshallnodoubtfindthattheirsoundmaterialsareincorporatedintonewstructures。
Endnotes，Confessions，booki，chap。16。SeehislifebyH。F。Brown，passim。J。R。Lowell，TheCathedral。Ibid，TheAmericanCommonwealth，chap。80。，CharlesHortonCooley：SocialOrganization：Chapter33：Disorganization：Other，Traditions，CHAPTERXXXIII
DISORGANIZATION：OTHERTRADITIONS，DISORDERINTHEECONOMICSYSTEM——INEDUCATION——
INHIGHERCULTURE——INTHEFINEARTS
Thissameidea，ofconfusionandinefficiencyinsocialactionsarisingfromthebreakingupofoldstructures，mightfindillustrationinalmostanyphaseoflifewhichonemightchoosetoinvestigate。Theeconomicsystem，forexample，isinastatesomewhatanalogoustothatofthefamilyandthechurch，andindeedthe“industrialrevolution“isthechiefseatofthosephasesofdecayandreconstructionwhichmostaffectthedailylifeofthepeople。
Locationitself梩obeginwithman’sattachmenttothesoil梙asbeensowidelydisturbedthatpossiblyamajorityofthepeopleofthecivilizedworldareofrecentmigratoryorigin;theythemselvesortheirparentshavingmovedfromonelandtoanotherorfromcountrytocity。Withthisgoesaseveringoftraditionsandamixtureofideasandraces。
Stillmoresubversive，perhaps，isthechangeinoccupations，whichispracticallyuniversal，sothatscarcelyanywherewillyoufindpeopledoingthethingswhichtheirgrandparentsdid。Thequiettransmissionofhandicraftsinfamiliesandneighborhoods，nevermuchinterruptedbefore，isnowcutoff，andtheyoungaredriventolookfornewtrades。Noristhismerelyonechange，to，(384)whichtheworldmayadaptitselfonceforall，butaseries，aslide，towhichthereisnoapparentterm。Seldomistheskilllearnedinyouthavailableinage，andthousandsofmenhaveseenonetradeafteranotherknockedoutoftheirhandsbytheunforeseenmovementofinvention。Eventheagriculturist，heretoforethesymbolfortraditionalism，hashadtosupplehismindtonewdevices。
Ineednotpointoutindetailhowtheoldlegalandethicalrelations梩hewholesocialstructureindeed梠findustryhavemostlybrokendown;howthecraftsmanhaslostcontrolofhistoolsandisstrugglingtoregainitthroughassociations;howvastandnovelformsofcombinationhaveappeared;howmenofallclassesaredemoralizedbythelackofstandardsofeconomicjustice;thesearefamiliarmatterswhichImentiononlytoshowtheirrelationtotheprincipleunderdiscussion。
Ingeneral，modernindustry，progressingchieflyinamechanicalsense，hasattainedamarvellousorganizationinthatsense;
whilethesocialandmoralsideofitremainsinconfusion。Wehaveapromisingplantbuthavenotyetlearnedhowtomakeitturnoutthedesiredproductofrighteousnessandhappiness。
Whereverthereispowerwhichhasoutstrippedthegrowthofmoralandlegalstandardsthereissuretobesomekindofanarchy;
andsoitiswithourcommerceandfinance。Ontheseseaspiracyflourishesalongsideofhonesttrade;and，indeed，asintheseventeenthcentury，manymerchantspracticebothoftheseoccupations。Andtherichesthusgainedoftengotocorruptthestate。
Intheinferiorstrataofthecommercialorderwefindthathumannaturehasbeenhustledandtroddenunder，(385)foot：“Thingsareinthesaddleandricemankind。”
Thehand-worker，theclerkandthesmalltradesman，generallyinsecureinthetenureoftheiroccupationsandhomes，tareanxiousandrestless，whilemanyclassessufferspecialandgrievouswrongssuchasexhaustionandprematureoldage，duetothenervousstrainofcertainkindsofwork，deathandmutilationfrommachinery，lifeinsqualidtenements，andthedebasementofchildrenbybadsurroundingsandprematurework。
Althoughtheindividual，inamerelymechanicalsense，ispartofawiderwholethaneverbefore，hehasoftenlostthatconsciousmembershipinthewholeuponwhichhishumanbreadthdepends：unlessthelargerlifeisamorallife，hegainsnothinginthisregard，andmaylose。
Whenchildrensawthegraingrowinginthefield，watchedthereapingandthreshingandgrindingofit，andthenhelpedtheirmothertomakeitintobread，theirmindshadavitalmembershipintheeconomicprocess;butnowthatthisprocess，byitsveryenlargement，hasbecomeinvisible，mostpersonshavelostthesenseofit。[1]Andthisisatypeofmodernindustryatlarge：theworkman，themanofbusiness，thefarmerandthelawyerarecontributorstothewholebutbeingmorallyisolatedbytheverymagnitudeofthesystem，thewholedoesnotcommonlyliveintheirthought。
Isitnotauniversalexperiencethatwecannotdoanythingwithspiritorsatisfactionunlessweknowwhatitisfor？Noonewhoremembersthetasksofchildhoodwilldoubtthis;anditisstillmyobservationthatsosoonasIloseasenseofthebearingofwhatIamdoingupongen-
(386)-eralaimsandthecommonlife，Igetstaleanddiscouragedandneedafreshview。Yetagreatpartnotonlyofhandlaborbutofprofessionalworkandbusinessisofthischaracter。Theworldhasbecomesocomplicatedthatweknownotwhatwedo，andthussuffernotonlyinourhappinessbutinourmoralsteadfastnessandreligiousfaith。Thereisnoremedyshortofmakinglifeamoralandspiritualaswellasamechanicalwhole。
Educationisanothermatterthatmightbediscussedatmuchlengthfromthispointofview。Thatradicalchangesaretakingplaceinitishardlymoreobviousthanthatthesechangesarenotaltogetherbeneficent。Wemaysayofthisdepartmentasofothersthatthereisaspiritoffreedomandvigorabroad，butthatitsimmediateresultsaresomewhatanarchical。
Theunderlyingreasonforthespecialgrowthofeducationalinstitutionsinourtimeisthefreeandconsciouscharacterofoursystem，whichdemandsacorrespondingindividualtoworkit。Thusdemocracyrequiresliteracy，thatthevotermaylearnwhatheisvotingabout，andthismeansschools。Undertheplanoffreecompetitionthesonneednotfollowhisfather’soccupation，butmaytaketheopenseaoflifeandfindwhateverworksuitshim;andthisrendersobsoletehouseholdinstructionintrades。
Indeed，ourwholelifeissospecializedandsosubjecttochangethatthereisnothingforitbutspecialschools。
Wemayprobablylearnalso，astimegoeson，thattheenlargedsphereofchoiceandthecomplexityoftherelationswithwhichitdealscallforasocialandmoraleducationmorerationalandexplicitthanwehavehadinthe，(387)past。Thereareurgentproblemswithwhichnopowercandealbutaninstructedandorganizedpublicconscience，forthesourceofwhichwemustlook，inpart，topubliceducation。
