INENGLAND
TOTHEWORKING-CLASSESOFGREAT-BRITAIN
WorkingMen！
ToyouIdedicateawork，inwhichIhavetriedtolaybeforemyGermanCountrymenafaithfulpictureofyourcondition，ofyoursufferingsandstruggles，ofyourhopesandprospects。Ihavelivedlongenoughamidstyoutoknowsomethingaboutyourcircumstances；Ihavedevotedtotheirknowledgemymostseriousattention，Ihavestudiedthevariousofficialandnon-officialdocumentsasfarasIwasabletogetholdofthem——
Ihavenotbeensatisfiedwiththis，Iwantedmorethanamereabstractknowledgeofmysubject，Iwantedtoseeyouinyourownhomes，toobserveyouinyoureverydaylife，tochatwithyouonyourconditionandgrievances，towitnessyourstrugglesagainstthesocialandpoliticalpowerofyouroppressors。Ihavedoneso:Iforsookthecompanyandthedinner-parties，theport-wineandchampagneofthemiddle-classes，anddevotedmyleisure-hoursalmostexclusivelytotheintercoursewithplainWorking-Men；Iambothgladandproudofhavingdoneso。Glad，becausethusIwasinducedtospendmanyahappyhourinobtainingaknowledgeoftherealitiesoflife——
manyanhour，whichelsewouldhavebeenwastedinfashionabletalkandtiresomeetiquette；proud，becausethusIgotanopportunityofdoingjusticetoanoppressedandcalumniatedclassofmenwhowithalltheirfaultsandunderallthedisadvantagesoftheirsituation，yetcommandtherespectofeveryonebutanEnglishmoney-monger；proud，too，becausethusIwasplacedinapositiontosavetheEnglishpeoplefromthegrowingcontemptwhichontheContinenthasbeenthenecessaryconsequenceofthebrutallyselfishpolicyandgeneralbehaviourofyourrulingmiddle-class。
Having，atthesametime，ampleopportunitytowatchthemiddle-classes，youropponents，Isooncametotheconclusionthatyouareright，perfectlyrightinexpectingnosupportwhateverfromthem。Theirinterestisdiametricallyopposedtoyours，thoughtheyalwayswilltrytomaintainthecontraryandtomakeyoubelieveintheirmostheartysympathywithyourfates。
Theirdoingsgivethemthelie。Ihopetohavecollectedmorethansufficientevidenceofthefact，that——betheirwordswhattheyplease——themiddle-classesintendinrealitynothingelsebuttoenrichthemselvesbyyourlabourwhiletheycansellitsproduce，andtoabandonyoutostarvationassoonastheycannotmakeaprofitbythisindirecttradeinhumanflesh。Whathavetheydonetoprovetheirprofessedgoodwilltowardsyou？Havetheyeverpaidanyseriousattentiontoyourgrievances？Havetheydonemorethanpayingtheexpensesofhalf-a-dozencommissionsofinquiry，whosevoluminousreportsaredamnedtoeverlastingslumberamongheapsofwastepaperontheshelvesoftheHomeOffice？Havetheyevendoneasmuchastocompilefromthoserottingblue-booksasinglereadablebookfromwhicheverybodymighteasilygetsomeinformationontheconditionofthegreatmajorityof”free-bornBritons”？Nottheyindeed，thosearethingstheydonotliketospeakof——theyhaveleftittoaforeignertoinformthecivilisedworldofthedegradingsituationyouhavetolivein。
Aforeignertothem，nottoyou，Ihope。ThoughmyEnglishmaynotbepure，yet，Ihope，youwillfinditplainEnglish。NoworkingmaninEngland——norinFranceeither，by-the-by——evertreatedmeasaforeigner。WiththegreatestpleasureIobservedyoutobefreefromthatblastingcurse，nationalprejudiceandnationalpride，whichafterallmeansnothingbutwholesaleselfishness——Iobservedyoutosympathisewitheveryonewhoearnestlyapplieshispowerstohumanprogress——mayhebeanEnglishmanornot——toadmireeverythinggreatandgood，whethernursedonyournativesoilornot——IfoundyoutobemorethanmereEnglishmen，membersofasingle，isolatednation，IfoundyoutobeMen，membersofthegreatanduniversalfamilyofMankind，whoknowtheirinterestandthatofallthehumanracetobethesame。
Andassuch，asmembersofthisFamilyof”OneandIndivisible”Mankind，asHumanBeingsinthemostemphaticalmeaningoftheword，assuchI，andmanyothersontheContinent，hailyourprogressineverydirectionandwishyouspeedysuccess。
Goonthen，asyouhavedonehitherto。Muchremainstobeundergone；
befirm，beundaunted——yoursuccessiscertain，andnostepyouwillhavetotakeinyouronwardmarchwillbelosttoourcommoncause，thecauseofHumanity！
Barmen(RhenanPrussia)
March15th，1845FrederickEngelsConditionsoftheWorking-ClassinEngland-prefaceF。EngelsTHECONDITIONS
OFTHEWORKING-CLASS
INENGLAND
PREFACE
ThebookprefacedbythefollowingpagestreatsofasubjectwhichI
originallyintendedtodealwithinasinglechapterofamorecomprehensiveworkonthesocialhistoryofEngland。However，theimportanceofthatsubjectsoonmadeitnecessaryformetoinvestigateitseparately。
Theconditionoftheworking-classistherealbasisandpointofdepartureofallsocialmovementsofthepresentbecauseitisthehighestandmostunconcealedpinnacleofthesocialmiseryexistinginourday。FrenchandGermanworking-classCommunismareitsdirect，FourierismandEnglishSocialism，aswellastheCommunismoftheGermaneducatedbourgeoisie，areitsindirectproducts。Aknowledgeofproletarianconditionsisabsolutelynecessarytobeabletoprovidesolidgroundforsocialisttheories，ontheonehand，andforjudgmentsabouttheirrighttoexist，ontheother；andtoputanendtoallsentimentaldreamsandfanciesproandcon。Butproletarianconditionsexistintheirclassicalform，intheirperfection，onlyintheBritishEmpire，particularlyinEnglandproper。Besides，onlyinEnglandhasthenecessarymaterialbeensocompletelycollectedandputonrecordbyofficialenquiriesasisessentialforanyintheleastexhaustivepresentationofthesubject。
Twenty-onemonthsIhadtheopportunitytobecomeacquaintedwiththeEnglishproletariat，itsstrivings，itssorrowsanditsjoys，toseethemfromnear，frompersonalobservationandpersonalintercourse，andatthesametimetosupplementmyobservationsbyrecoursetotherequisiteauthenticsources。What1haveseen，heardandreadhasbeenworkedupinthepresentbook。IampreparedtoseenotonlymystandpointattackedinmanyquartersbutalsothefactsIhavecited，particularlywhenthebookgetsintothehandsoftheEnglish。IknowequallywellthathereandthereImaybeprovedwronginsomeparticularofnoimportance，somethingthatinviewofthecomprehensivenatureofthesubjectanditsfar-reachingassumptionsevenanEnglishmanmightbeunabletoavoid；somuchthemoresosinceeveninEnglandthereexistsasyetnotasinglepieceofwritingwhich，likemine，takesupalltheworkers。Butwithoutamoment’shesitationIchallengetheEnglishbourgeoisietoprovethateveninasingleinstanceofanyconsequencefortheexpositionofmypointofviewasawholeI
havebeenguiltyofanyinaccuracy，andtoproveitbydataasauthenticasmine。
AdescriptionoftheclassicalformwhichtheconditionsofexistenceoftheproletariathaveassumedinBritainisveryimportant，particularlyforGermanyandpreciselyatthepresentmoment。GermanSocialismandCommunismhaveproceeded，morethananyother，fromtheoreticalpremises；weGermantheoreticiansstillknewmuchtoolittleoftherealworldtobedrivendirectlybytherealrelationstoreformsofthis”badreality”。AtanyratealmostnoneoftheavowedchampionsofsuchreformsarrivedatCommunismotherwisethanbywayoftheFeuerbachiandissolutionofHegelianspeculation。
Therealconditionsofthelifeoftheproletariataresolittleknownamongusthateventhewell-meaning”societiesfortheupliftoftheworking-classes”，inwhichourbourgeoisieisnowmistreatingthesocialquestion，constantlystartoutfromthemostridiculousandpreposterousjudgmentsconcerningtheconditionoftheworkers。WeGermansmorethananybodyelsestandinneedofaknowledgeofthefactsconcerningthisquestion。AndwhiletheconditionsofexistenceofGermany’sproletariathavenotassumedtheclassicalformthattheyhaveinEngland，weneverthelesshave，atbottom，thesamesocialorder，whichsoonerorlatermustnecessarilyreachthesamedegreeofacutenessasithasalreadyattainedacrosstheNorthSea，unlesstheintelligenceofthenationbringsaboutintimetheadoptionofmeasuresthatwillprovideanewbasisforthewholesocialsystem。Theroot-causeswhoseeffectinEnglandhasbeenthemiseryandoppressionoftheproletariatexistalsoinGermanyandinthelongrunmustengenderthesameresults。
Inthemeantime，however，theestablishedfactofwretchedconditionsinEnglandwillimpelustoestablishalsothefactofwretchedconditionsinGermanyandwillprovideuswithayardstickwherewithtomeasuretheirextentandthemagnitudeofthedanger——broughttolightbytheSilesianandBohemiandisturbances——whichdirectlythreatensthetranquillityofGermanyfromthatquarter。
Finally，therearestilltworemarksIwishtomake。Firstly，thatI
haveusedthewordMittelklasseallalonginthesenseoftheEnglishwordmiddle-class(ormiddle-classes，asissaidalmostalways)。LiketheFrenchwordbourgeoisieitmeansthepossessingclass，specificallythatpossessingclasswhichisdifferentiatedfromtheso-calledaristocracy——theclasswhichinFranceandEnglandisdirectlyandinGermany，figuringas”publicopinion”，indirectlyinpossessionofpoliticalpower。Similarly，Ihavecontinuallyusedtheexpressionsworkingmen(Arbeiter)andproletarians，working-class，propertylessclassandproletariatasequivalents。
Secondly，thatinthecaseofmostofthequotationsIhaveindicatedthepartytowhichtherespectiveauthorsbelong，becauseinnearlyeveryinstancetheLiberalstrytoemphasisethedistressintheruralareasandtoargueawaythatwhichexistsinthefactorydistricts，whiletheConservatives，conversely，acknowledgethemiseryinthefactorydistrictsbutdisclaimanyknowledgeofitintheagriculturalareas。Forthesamereason，wheneverIlackedofficialdocumentsfordescribingtheconditionoftheindustrialworkers，IalwayspreferredtopresentprooffromLiberalsourcesinordertodefeattheliberalbourgeoisiebycastingtheirownwordsintheirteeth。IcitedToriesorChartistsinmysupportonlywhenIcouldconfirmtheircorrectnessfrompersonalobservationorwasconvincedofthetruthfulnessofthefactsquotedbecauseofthepersonalorliteraryreputationoftheauthoritiesIreferredto。
Barmen，March15，1845F。EngelsConditionsoftheWorking-ClassinEngland-introF。EngelsTHECONDITIONS
OFTHEWORKING-CLASS
INENGLAND
INTRODUCTION
ThehistoryoftheproletariatinEnglandbeginswiththesecondhalfofthelastcentury，withtheinventionofthesteam-engineandofmachineryforworkingcotton。Theseinventionsgaverise，asiswellknown，toanindustrialrevolution，arevolutionwhichalteredthewholecivilsociety；
one，thehistoricalimportanceofwhichisonlynowbeginningtoberecognised。
Englandistheclassicsoilofthistransformation，whichwasallthemightier，themoresilentlyitproceeded；andEnglandis，therefore，theclassiclandofitschiefproductalso，theproletariat。OnlyinEnglandcantheproletariatbestudiedinallitsrelationsandfromallsides。
Wehavenot，hereandnow，todealwiththehistoryofthisrevolution，norwithitsvastimportanceforthepresentandthefuture。Suchadelineationmustbereservedforafuture，morecomprehensivework。Forthemoment，wemustlimitourselvestothelittlethatisnecessaryforunderstandingthefactsthatfollow，forcomprehendingthepresentstateoftheEnglishproletariat。
Beforetheintroductionofmachinery，thespinningandweavingofrawmaterialswascarriedonintheworkingman’shome。Wifeanddaughterspuntheyarnthatthefatherwoveorthattheysold，ifhedidnotworkituphimself。Theseweaverfamilieslivedinthecountryintheneighbourhoodofthetowns，andcouldgetonfairlywellwiththeirwages，becausethehomemarketwasalmosttheonlyoneandthecrushingpowerofcompetitionthatcamelater，withtheconquestofforeignmarketsandtheextensionoftrade，didnotyetpressuponwages。Therewas，further，aconstantincreaseinthedemandforthehomemarket，keepingpacewiththeslowincreaseinpopulationandemployingalltheworkers；andtherewasalsotheimpossibilityofvigorouscompetitionoftheworkersamongthemselves，consequentupontheruraldispersionoftheirhomes。Soitwasthattheweaverwasusuallyinapositiontolaybysomething，andrentalittlepieceofland，thathecultivatedinhisleisurehours，ofwhichhehadasmanyashechosetotake，sincehecouldweavewheneverandaslongashepleased。True，hewasabadfarmerandmanagedhislandinefficiently，oftenobtainingbutpoorcrops；nevertheless，hewasnoproletarian，hehadastakeinthecountry，hewaspermanentlysettled，andstoodonestephigherinsocietythantheEnglishworkmanoftoday。
Sotheworkersvegetatedthroughoutapassablycomfortableexistence，leadingarighteousandpeacefullifeinallpietyandprobity；andtheirmaterialpositionwasfarbetterthanthatoftheirsuccessors。Theydidnotneedtooverwork；theydidnomorethantheychosetodo，andyetearnedwhattheyneeded。Theyhadleisureforhealthfulworkingardenorfield，workwhich，initself，wasrecreationforthem，andtheycouldtakepartbesidesintherecreationsandgamesoftheirneighbours，andallthesegames——bowling，cricket，football，etc。，contributedtotheirphysicalhealthandvigour。Theywere，forthemostpart，strong，well-builtpeople，inwhosephysiquelittleornodifferencefromthatoftheirpeasantneighbourswasdiscoverable。Theirchildrengrewupinthefreshcountryair，and，iftheycouldhelptheirparentsatwork，itwasonlyoccasionally；whileofeightortwelvehoursworkforthemtherewasnoquestion。
Whatthemoralandintellectualcharacterofthisclasswasmaybeguessed。
Shutofffromthetowns，whichtheyneverentered，theiryarnandwovenstuffbeingdeliveredtotravellingagentsforpaymentofwages——soshutoffthatoldpeoplewholivedquiteintheneighborhoodofthetownneverwentthitheruntiltheywererobbedoftheirtradebytheintroductionofmachineryandobligedtolookabouttheminthetownsforwork——theweaversstooduponthemoralandintellectualplaneoftheyeomenwithwhomtheywereusuallyimmediatelyconnectedthroughtheirlittleholdings。
Theyregardedtheirsquire，thegreatestlandholderoftheregion，astheirnaturalsuperior；theyaskedadviceofhim，laidtheirsmalldisputesbeforehimforsettlement，andgavehimallhonour，asthispatriarchalrelationinvolved。Theywere”respectable”people，goodhusbandsandfathers，ledmorallivesbecausetheyhadnotemptationtobeimmoral，therebeingnogroggeriesorlowhousesintheirvicinity，andbecausethehost，atwhoseinntheynowandthenquenchedtheirthirst，wasalsoarespectableman，usuallyalargetenant-farmerwhotookprideinhisgoodorder，goodbeer，andearlyhours。Theyhadtheirchildrenthewholedayathome，andbroughtthemupinobedienceandthefearofGod；thepatriarchalrelationshipremainedundisturbedsolongasthechildrenwereunmarried。Theyoungpeoplegrewupinidyllicsimplicityandintimacywiththeirplaymatesuntiltheymarried；andeventhoughsexualintercoursebeforemarriagealmostunfailinglytookplace，thishappenedonlywhenthemoralobligationofmarriagewasrecognisedonbothsides，andasubsequentweddingmadeeverythinggood。Inshort，theEnglishindustrialworkersofthosedayslivedandthoughtafterthefashionstilltobefoundhereandthereinGermany，inretirementandseclusion，withoutmentalactivityandwithoutviolentfluctuationsintheirpositioninlife。Theycouldrarelyreadandfarmorerarelywrite；wentregularlytochurch，nevertalkedpolitics，neverconspired，neverthought，delightedinphysicalexercises，listenedwithinheritedreverencewhentheBiblewasread，andwere，intheirunquestioninghumility，exceedinglywell-disposedtowardsthe”superior”classes。Butintellectually，theyweredead；livedonlyfortheirpetty，privateinterest，fortheirloomsandgardens，andknewnothingofthemightymovementwhich，beyondtheirhorizon，wassweepingthroughmankind。Theywerecomfortableintheirsilentvegetation，andbutfortheindustrialrevolutiontheywouldneverhaveemergedfromthisexistence，which，cosilyromanticasitwas，wasneverthelessnotworthyofhumanbeings。Intruth，theywerenothumanbeings；theyweremerelytoilingmachinesintheserviceofthefewaristocratswhohadguidedhistorydowntothattime。Theindustrialrevolutionhassimplycarriedthisouttoitslogicalendbymakingtheworkersmachinespureandsimple，takingfromthemthelasttraceofindependentactivity，andsoforcingthemtothinkanddemandapositionworthyofmen。AsinFrancepolitics，soinEnglandmanufactureandthemovementofcivilsocietyingeneraldrewintothewhirlofhistorythelastclasseswhichhadremainedsunkinapatheticindifferencetotheuniversalinterestsofmankind。
ThefirstinventionwhichgaverisetoaradicalchangeinthestateoftheEnglishworkerswasthejenny，inventedintheyear1764byaweaver，JamesHargreaves，ofStanhill，nearBlackburn，inNorthLancashire。Thismachinewastheroughbeginningofthelaterinventedmule，andwasmovedbyhand。Insteadofonespindleliketheordinaryspinning-wheel，itcarriedsixteenoreighteenmanipulatedbyasingleworkman。Thisinventionmadeitpossibletodelivermoreyarnthanheretofore。Whereas，thoughoneweaverhademployedthreespinners，therehadneverbeenenoughyarn，andtheweaverhadoftenbeenobligedtowaitforit，therewasnowmoreyarntobehadthancouldbewovenbytheavailableworkers。Thedemandforwovengoods，alreadyincreasing，roseyetmoreinconsequenceofthecheapnessofthesegoods，whichcheapness，inturn，wastheoutcomeofthediminishedcostofproducingtheyarn。Moreweaverswereneeded，andweavers’wagesrose。Nowthattheweavercouldearnmoreathisloom，hegraduallyabandonedhisfarming，andgavehiswholetimetoweaving。Atthattimeafamilyoffourgrownpersonsandtwochildren(whoweresettospooling)couldearn，witheighthours’dailywork，fourpoundssterlinginaweek，andoftenmoreiftradewasgoodandworkpressed。Ithappenedoftenenoughthatasingleweaverearnedtwopoundsaweekathisloom。Bydegreestheclassoffarmingweaverswhollydisappeared，andwasmergedinthenewlyarisingclassofweaverswholivedwhollyuponwages，hadnopropertywhatever，noteventhepretendedpropertyofaholding，andsobecameworkingmen，proletarians。Moreover，theoldrelationbetweenspinnerandweaverwasdestroyed。Hitherto，sofarasthishadbeenpossible，yarnhadbeenspunandwovenunderoneroof。Nowthatthejennyaswellastheloomrequiredastronghand，menbegantospin，andwholefamilieslivedbyspinning，whileotherslaidtheantiquated，supersededspinning-wheelaside；and，iftheyhadnotmeansofpurchasingajenny，wereforcedtoliveuponthewagesofthefatheralone。Thusbeganwithspinningandweavingthatdivisionoflabourwhichhassincebeensoinfinitelyperfected。
Whiletheindustrialproletariatwasthusdevelopingwiththefirststillveryimperfectmachine，thesamemachinegaverisetotheagriculturalproletariat。Therehad，hitherto，beenavastnumberofsmalllandowners，yeomen，whohadvegetatedinthesameunthinkingquietastheirneighbours，thefarmingweavers。Theycultivatedtheirscrapsoflandquiteaftertheancientandinefficientfashionoftheirancestors，andopposedeverychangewiththeobstinacypeculiartosuchcreaturesofhabit，afterremainingstationaryfromgenerationtogeneration。Amongthemweremanysmallholdersalso，nottenantsinthepresentsenseoftheword，butpeoplewhohadtheirlandhandeddownfromtheirfathers，eitherbyhereditarylease，orbyforceofancientcustom，andhadhithertohelditassecurelyasifithadactuallybeentheirownproperty。Whentheindustrialworkerswithdrewfromagriculture，agreatnumberofsmallholdingsfellidle，anduponthesethenewclassoflargetenantsestablishedthemselves，tenants-at-will，holdingfifty，onehundred，twohundredormoreacres，liabletobeturnedoutattheendoftheyear，butablebyimprovedtillageandlargerfarmingtoincreasetheyieldoftheland。Theycouldselltheirproducemorecheaplythantheyeoman，forwhomnothingremainedwhenhisfarmnolongersupportedhimbuttosellit，procureajennyoraloom，ortakeserviceasanagriculturallabourerintheemployofalargefarmer。Hisinheritedslownessandtheinefficientmethodsofcultivationbequeathedbyhisancestors，andabovewhichhecouldnotrise，lefthimnoalternativewhenforcedtocompetewithmenwhomanagedtheirholdingsonsounderprinciplesandwithalltheadvantagesbestowedbyfarmingonalargescaleandtheinvestmentofcapitalfortheimprovementofthesoil。
Meanwhile，theindustrialmovementdidnotstophere。Singlecapitalistsbegantosetupspinningjenniesingreatbuildingsandtousewater-powerfordrivingthem，soplacingthemselvesinapositiontodiminishthenumberofworkers，andselltheiryarnmorecheaplythansinglespinnerscoulddowhomovedtheirownmachinesbyhand。Therewereconstantimprovementsinthejenny，sothatmachinescontinuallybecameantiquated，andmustbealteredorevenlaidaside；andthoughthecapitalistscouldholdoutbytheapplicationofwater-powerevenwiththeoldmachinery，forthesinglespinnerthiswasimpossible。Andthefactorysystem，thebeginningofwhichwasthusmade，receivedafreshextensionin1767，throughthespinningthrostleinventedbyRichardArkwright，abarber，inPreston，inNorthLancashire。Afterthesteam-engine，thisisthemostimportantmechanicalinventionofthe18thcentury。Itwascalculatedfromthebeginningformechanicalmotivepower，andwasbaseduponwhollynewprinciples。
Bythecombinationofthepeculiaritiesofthejennyandthrostle，SamuelCrompton，ofFirwood，Lancashire，contrivedthemulein1785，andasArkwrightinventedthecardingengine，andpreparatory(”slubbingandroving”)framesaboutthesametime，thefactorysystembecametheprevailingoneforthespinningofcotton。Bymeansoftriflingmodificationsthesemachinesweregraduallyadaptedtothespinningofflax，andsotothesupersedingofhandworkhere，too。Buteventhen，theendwasnotyet。Intheclosingyearsofthelastcentury，Dr。Cartwright，acountryparson，hadinventedthepower-loom，andabout1804hadsofarperfectedit，thatitcouldsuccessfullycompetewiththehand-weaver；andallthismachinerywasmadedoublyimportantbyJamesWatt’ssteam-engine，inventedin1764andusedforsupplyingmotivepowerforspinningsince1785。
Withtheseinventions，sinceimprovedfromyeartoyear，thevictoryofmachine-workoverhand-workinthechiefbranchesofEnglishindustrywaswon；andthehistoryofthelatterfromthattimeforwardsimplyrelateshowthehand-workershavebeendrivenbymachineryfromonepositionafteranother。Theconsequencesofthiswere，ontheonehand，arapidfallinpriceofallmanufacturedcommodities，prosperityofcommerceandmanufacture，theconquestofnearlyalltheunprotectedforeignmarkets，thesuddenmultiplicationofcapitalandnationalwealth；ontheotherhand，astillmorerapidmultiplicationoftheproletariat，thedestructionofallproperty-holdingandofallsecurityofemploymentfortheworking-class，demoralisation，politicalexcitement，andallthosefactssohighlyrepugnanttoEnglishmenincomfortablecircumstances，whichweshallhavetoconsiderinthefollowingpages。Havingalreadyseenwhatatransformationinthesocialconditionofthelowerclassesasinglesuchclumsymachineasthejennyhadwrought，thereisnocauseforsurpriseastothatwhichacompleteandinterdependentsystemoffinelyadjustedmachineryhasbroughtabout，machinerywhichreceivesrawmaterialandturnsoutwovengoods。
Meanwhile，letustracethedevelopmentofEnglishmanufacturers[1]somewhatmoreminutely，beginningwiththecottonindustry。Intheyears1771-1775，therewereannuallyimportedintoEnglandratherlessthan5，000，000
poundsofrawcotton；intheyear1841therewereimported528，000，000
pounds，andtheimportfor1844willreachatleast600，000，000pounds。
In1854Englandexported556，000，000yardsofwovencottongoods，76，500，000
poundsofcottonyarn，andcottonhosierytothevalueof£；1，200，000。
Inthesameyearover8，000，000mulespindleswereatwork，110，000powerand250，000hand-looms，throstlespindlesnotincluded，intheserviceofthecottonindustry；and，accordingtoMcCulloch’sreckoningnearlyamillionandahalfhumanbeingsweresupportedbythisbranch，ofwhombut220，000workedinthemills；thepowerusedinthesemillswassteam，equivalentto53，000horsepower，andwater，equivalentto11，000horsepower。
Atpresentthesefiguresarefarfromadequate，anditmaybesafelyassumedthat，intheyear1845，thepowerandnumberofthemachinesandthenumberoftheworkersisgreaterbyone-halfthanitwasin1834。ThechiefcentreofthisindustryisLancashire，whereitoriginated；ithasthoroughlyrevolutionisedthiscounty，convertingitfromanobscure，ill-cultivatedswampintoabusy，livelyregion，multiplyingitspopulationtenfoldineightyyears，andcausinggiantcitiessuchasLiverpoolandManchester，containingtogether700，000inhabitants，andtheirneighbouringtowns，Boltonwith60，000，Rochdalewith75，000，Oldhamwith50，000，Prestonwith60，000，AshtonandStalybridgewith40，000，andawholelistofothermanufacturingtownstospringupasifbyamagictouch。ThehistoryofSouthLancashirecontainssomeofthegreatestmarvelsofmoderntimes，yetnooneevermentionsthemandallthesemiraclesaretheproductofthecottonindustry。
Glasgow，too，thecentreforthecottondistrictofScotland，forLanarkshireandRenfrewshire，hasincreasedinpopulationfrom30，000to300，000sincetheintroductionoftheindustry。ThehosierymanufactureofNottinghamandDerbyalsoreceivedonefreshimpulsefromthelowerpriceofyarn，andasecondonefromanimprovementofthestockingloom，bymeansofwhichtwostockingscouldbewovenatonce。Themanufactureoflace，too，becameanimportantbranchofindustryaftertheinventionofthelacemachinein1777；soonafterthatdateLindleyinventedthepoint-netmachine，andin1809Heathcoatinventedthebobbinnetmachine，inconsequenceofwhichtheproductionoflacewasgreatlysimplified，andthedemandincreasedproportionatelyinconsequenceofthediminishedcost，sothatnow，atleast200，000personsaresupportedbythisindustry。ItschiefcentresareNottingham，Leicester，andtheWestofEngland，Wiltshire，Devonshire，etc。Acorrespondingextensionhastakenplaceinthebranchesdependentuponthecottonindustry，indyeing，bleaching，andprinting。Bleachingbytheapplicationofchlorineinplaceoftheoxygenoftheatmosphere，dyeingandprintingbytherapiddevelopmentofchemistry，andprintingbyaseriesofmostbrilliantmechanicalinventions，receivedayetgreateradvancewhich，withtheextensionofthesebranchescausedbythegrowthofthecottonindustry，raisedthemtoapreviouslyunknowndegreeofprosperity。
Thesameactivitymanifesteditselfinthemanufactureofwool。ThishadhithertobeentheleadingdepartmentofEnglishindustry，butthequantitiesformerlyproducedareasnothingincomparisonwiththatwhichisnowmanufactured。
In1782thewholewoolcropoftheprecedingthreeyearslayunusedforwantofworkers，andwouldhavecontinuedsotolieifthenewlyinventedmachineryhadnotcometoitsassistanceandspunit。Theadaptationofthismachinerytothespinningofwoolwasmostsuccessfullyaccomplished。
Thenbeganthesamesuddendevelopmentinthewooldistrictswhichwehavealreadyseeninthecottondistricts。In1738therewere75，000piecesofwoollenclothproducedintheWestRidingofYorkshire；in1817therewere490，000pieces，andsorapidwastheextensionoftheindustrythatin1854，450，000morepieceswereproducedthanin1825。In1801，101，000，000
poundsofwool(7，000，000poundsof。itimported)wereworkedup；in1855，180，000，000poundswereworkedup，ofwhich42，000，000poundswereimported。
TheprincipalcentreofthisindustryistheWestRidingofYorkshire，where，especiallyatBradford，longEnglishwoolisconvertedintoworstedyarns，etc。，whileintheothercities，Leeds，Halifax，Huddersfield，etc。，shortwoolisconvertedintohard-spunyarnandcloth。ThencometheadjacentpartofLancashire，theregionofRochdale，whereinadditiontothecottonindustrymuchflannelisproduced，andtheWestofEngland，whichsuppliesthefinestcloths。Herealsothegrowthofpopulationisworthyofobservation:in1801andin1831
Bradfordcontained29，00077，000inhabitantsHalifax”63，000”130，000”
Huddersfield”15，000”34，000”
Leeds”53，000”125，000”
AndthewholeWestRiding”564，000”980，000”Apopulationwhich，since1851，musthaveincreasedatleast20to25percentfurther。In1835thespinningofwoolemployedintheUnitedKingdom1，515mills，with71，500workers，theselastbeingbutasmallportionofthemultitudewhoaresupporteddirectlyorindirectlybythemanufactureofwool，andexcludingnearlyallweavers。
Progressinthelinentradedevelopedlater，becausethenatureoftherawmaterialmadetheapplicationofspinningmachineryverydifficult。
AttemptshadbeenmadeinthelastyearsofthelastcenturyinScotland，buttheFrenchmanGirard，whointroducedflaxspinningin1810，wasthefirstwhosucceededpractically，andevenGirard’smachinesfirstattainedonBritishsoiltheimportancetheydeservedbymeansofimprovementswhichtheyunderwentinEngland，andoftheiruniversalapplicationinLeeds，Dundee，andBelfast。FromthistimetheBritishlinentraderapidlyextended。
In1814，5，000tonsofflaxwereimported，in1835，nearly19，000tonsofflaxand3，400tonsofhemp。TheexportofIrishlinentoGreatBritainrosefrom52，000，000yardsin1800to55，000，000in1825，ofwhichalargepartwasre-exported。TheexportofEnglishandScotchwovenlinengoodsrosefrom24，000，000yardsin1820to51，000，000yardsin1833。Thenumberofflaxspinningestablishmentsin1855was547，employing33，000workers，ofwhichone-halfwereintheSouthofScotland，morethan60intheWestRidingofYorkshire，Leeds，anditsenvirons，25inBelfast，Ireland，andtherestinDorsetandLancashire。WeavingiscarriedonintheSouthofScotland，hereandthereinEngland，butprincipallyinIreland。
WithlikesuccessdidtheEnglishturntheirattentiontothemanufactureofsilk。RawmaterialwasimportedfromSouthernEuropeandAsiareadyspun，andthechieflabourlayinthetwistingoffinethreads。Until1824
theheavyimportduty，fourshillingsperpoundonrawmaterial，greatlyretardedthedevelopmentoftheEnglishsilkindustry，whileonlythemarketsofEnglandandtheColonieswereprotectedforit。Inthatyearthedutywasreducedtoonepenny，andthenumberofmillsatoncelargelyincreased。
Inasingleyearthenumberofthrowingspindlesrosefrom780，000to1，180，000；
and，althoughthecommercialcrisisof1825crippledthisbranchofindustryforthemoment，yetin1827morewasproducedthanever，themechanicalskillandexperienceoftheEnglishhavingsecuredtheirtwistingmachinerythesupremacyovertheawkwarddevicesoftheircompetitors。In1855theBritishEmpirepossessed265twistingmills，employing50，000workers，locatedchieflyinCheshire，inMacclesfield，Congleton，andthesurroundingdistricts，andinManchesterandSomersetshire。Besidesthese，therearenumerousmillsforworkingupwaste，fromwhichapeculiararticleknownasspunsilkismanufactured，withwhichtheEnglishsupplyeventheParisandLyonsweavers。TheweavingofthesilksotwistedandspuniscarriedoninPaisleyandelsewhereinScotland，andinSpitalfields，London，butalsoinManchesterandelsewhere。
NoristhegiganticadvanceachievedinEnglishmanufacturesince1760
restrictedtotheproductionofclothingmaterials。Theimpulse，oncegiven，wascommunicatedtoallbranchesofindustrialactivity，andamultitudeofinventionswhollyunrelatedtothoseherecitedreceiveddoubleimportancefromthefactthattheyweremadeinthemidstoftheuniversalmovement。
Butassoonastheimmeasurableimportanceofmechanicalpowerwaspracticallydemonstrated，everyenergywasconcentratedintheefforttoexploitthispowerinalldirections，andtoexploititintheinterestofindividualinventorsandmanufacturers；andthedemandformachinery，fuel，andmaterialscalledamassofworkersandanumberoftradesintoredoubledactivity。
Thesteam-enginefirstgaveimportancetothebroadcoal-fieldsofEngland；
theproductionofmachinerybegannowforthefirsttime，andwithitaroseanewinterestintheironmineswhichsuppliedrawmaterialforit。TheincreasedconsumptionofwoolstimulatedEnglishsheepbreeding，andthegrowingimportationofwool，flax，andsilkcalledforthanextensionoftheBritishoceancarryingtrade。Greatestofallwasthegrowthofproductionofiron。TherichirondepositsoftheEnglishhillshadhithertobeenlittledeveloped；ironhadalwaysbeensmeltedbymeansofcharcoal，whichbecamegraduallymoreexpensiveasagricultureimprovedandforestswerecutaway。Thebeginningoftheuseofcokeinironsmeltinghadbeenmadeinthelastcentury，andin1780anewmethodwasinventedofconvertingintoavailablewrought-ironcoke-smeltediron，whichuptothattimehadbeenconvertibleintocast-irononly。Thisprocess，knownas”puddling”，consistedinwithdrawingthecarbonwhichhadmixedwiththeironduringtheprocessofsmelting，andopenedawhollynewfieldfortheproductionofEnglishiron。Smeltingfurnaceswerebuiltfiftytimeslargerthanbefore，theprocessofsmeltingwassimplifiedbytheintroductionofhotblasts，andironcouldthusbeproducedsocheaplythatamultitudeofobjectswhichhadbeforebeenmadeofstoneorwoodwerenowmadeofiron。
In1788，ThomasPaine，thefamousdemocrat，builtinYorkshirethefirstironbridge，whichwasfollowedbyagreatnumberofothers，sothatnownearlyallbridges，especiallyforrailroadtraffic，arebuiltofcast-iron，whileinLondonitselfabridgeacrosstheThames，theSouthwarkbridge，hasbeenbuiltofthismaterial。Ironpillars，supportsformachinery，etc。，areuniversallyused，andsincetheintroductionofgas-lightingandrailroads，newoutletsforEnglishironproductsareopened。Nailsandscrewsgraduallycametobemadebymachinery。Huntsman，aSheffielder，discoveredin1740amethodforcastingsteel，bywhichmuchlabourwassaved，andtheproductionofwhollynewcheapgoodsrenderedpracticable；
andthroughthegreaterpurityofthematerialplacedatitsdisposal，andthemoreperfecttools，newmachineryandminutedivisionoflabour，themetaltradeofEnglandnowfirstattainedimportance。ThepopulationofBirminghamgrewfrom73，000in1801to200，000in1844；thatofSheffieldfrom46，000in1801to110，000in1844，andtheconsumptionofcoalinthelattercityalonereachedin1856，515，000tons。In1805therewereexported4，500tonsofironproductsand4，600tonsofpig-iron；in1854，16，200tonsofironproductsand107，000tonsofpig-iron，whilethewholeironproduct，reachingin1740but17，000tons，hadrisenin1854tonearly700，000tons。Thesmeltingofpig-ironaloneconsumesyearlymorethan5，000，000tonsofcoal，andtheimportancewhichcoal-mininghasattainedinthecourseofthelast60yearscanscarcelybeconceived。AlltheEnglishandScotchdepositsarenowworked，andtheminesofNorthumberlandandDurhamaloneyieldannuallymorethan5，000，000tonsforshipping，andemployfrom40to50，000men。AccordingtotheDurhamChronicle，therewereworkedinthesetwocounties:In1755，14mines；in1800，40mines；in1856，76
mines；in1845，150mines。
Moreover，allminesarenowmuchmoreenergeticallyworkedthanformerly。
Asimilarlyincreasedactivitywasappliedtotheworkingoftin，copper，andlead，andalongsideoftheextensionofglassmanufacturearoseanewbranchofindustryintheproductionofpottery，renderedimportantbytheeffortsofJosiahWedgwood，about1765。Thisinventorplacedthewholemanufactureofstonewareonascientificbasis，introducedbettertaste，andfoundedthepotteriesofNorthStaffordshire，adistrictofeightEnglishmilessquare，which，formerlyadesertwaste，isnowsownwithworksanddwellings，andsupportsmorethan60，000people。
Intothisuniversalwhirlofactivityeverythingwasdrawn。Agriculturemadeacorrespondingadvance。Notonlydidlandedpropertypass，aswehavealreadyseen，intothehandsofnewownersandcultivators，agriculturewasaffectedinstillanotherway。Thegreatholdersappliedcapitaltotheimprovementofthesoil，toredownneedlessfences，drained，manured，employedbettertools，andappliedarotationofcrops。Theprogressofsciencecametotheirassistancealso；SirHumphryDavyappliedchemistrytoagriculturewithsuccess，andthedevelopmentofmechanicalsciencebestowedamultitudeofadvantagesuponthelargefarmer。Further，inconsequenceoftheincreaseofpopulation，thedemandforagriculturalproductsincreasedinsuchmeasurethatfrom1760to1854，6，840，540acresofwastelandwerereclaimed；and，inspiteofthis，Englandwastransformedfromagrainexportingtoagrainimportingcountry。
Thesameactivitywasdevelopedintheestablishmentofcommunication。
From1818to1829，therewerebuiltinEnglandandWales，1，000Englishmilesofroadwayofthewidthprescribedbylaw，60feet，andnearlyalltheoldroadswerereconstructedonthenewsystemofMcAdam。InScotland，theDepartmentofPublicWorksbuiltsince1805nearly900milesofroadwayandmorethan1，000bridges，bywhichthepopulationoftheHighlandswassuddenlyplacedwithinreachofcivilisation。TheHighlandershadhithertobeenchieflypoachersandsmugglers；theynowbecamefarmersandhand-workers。
And，thoughGaelicschoolswereorganisedforthepurposeofmaintainingtheGaeliclanguage，yetGaelic-CelticcustomsandspeecharerapidlyvanishingbeforetheapproachofEnglishcivilisation。So，too，inIreland；betweenthecountiesofCork，Limerick，andKerry，layhithertoawildernesswhollywithoutpassableroads，andserving，byreasonofitsinaccessibility，astherefugeofallcriminalsandthechiefprotectionoftheCelticIrishnationalityintheSouthofIreland。Ithasnowbeencutthroughbypublicroads，andcivilisationhasthusgainedadmissioneventothissavageregion。
ThewholeBritishEmpire，andespeciallyEngland，which，sixtyyearsago，hadasbadroadsasGermanyorFrancethenhad，isnowcoveredbyanetworkofthefinestroadways；andthese，too，likealmosteverythingelseinEngland，aretheworkofprivateenterprise，theStatehavingdoneverylittleinthisdirection。
Before1755Englandpossessedalmostnocanals。InthatyearacanalwasbuiltinLancashirefromSankeyBrooktoSt。Helen’s；andin1759，JamesBrindleybuiltthefirstimportantone，theDukeofBridgewater’sCanalfromManchesterandthecoal-minesofthedistricttothemouthoftheMerseypassing，nearBarton，byaqueduct，overtheriverIrwell。FromthisachievementdatesthecanalbuildingofEngland，towhichBrindleyfirstgaveimportance。Canalswerenowbuilt，andriversmadenavigableinalldirections。InEnglandalone，thereare2，200milesofcanalsand1，800milesofnavigableriver。InScotland，theCaledonianCanalwascutdirectlyacrossthecountry，andinIrelandseveralcanalswerebuilt。
Theseimprovements，too，liketherailroadsandroadways，arenearlyalltheworkofprivateindividualsandcompanies。
Therailroadshavebeenonlyrecentlybuilt。ThefirstgreatonewasopenedfromLiverpooltoManchesterin1830，sincewhichallthegreatcitieshavebeenconnectedbyrail。LondonwithSouthampton，Brighton，Dover，Colchester，Exeter，andBirmingham；BirminghamwithGloucester，Liverpool，Lancaster(viaNewtonandWigan，andviaManchesterandBolton)；
alsowithLeeds(viaManchesterandHalifax，andviaLeicester，Derby，andSheffield)；LeedswithHullandNewcastle(viaYork)。Therearealsomanyminorlinesbuildingorprojected，whichwillsoonmakeitpossibletotravelfromEdinburghtoLondoninoneday。
Asithadtransformedthemeansofcommunicationbyland，sodidtheintroductionofsteamrevolutionisetravelbysea。Thefirststeamboatwaslaunchedin1807，intheHudson，inNorthAmerica；thefirstintheBritishEmpire，in1811，ontheClyde。Sincethen，morethan600havebeenbuiltinEngland；andin1836morethan500wereplyingtoandfromBritishports。
Such，inbrief，isthehistoryofEnglishindustrialdevelopmentinthepastsixtyyears，ahistorywhichhasnocounterpartintheannalsofhumanity。Sixty，eightyyearsago，Englandwasacountrylikeeveryother，withsmalltowns，fewandsimpleindustries，andathinbutproportionallylargeagriculturalpopulation。Todayitisacountrylikenoother，withacapitaloftwoandahalfmillioninhabitants；withvastmanufacturingcities；withanindustrythatsuppliestheworld，andproducesalmosteverythingbymeansofthemostcomplexmachinery；withanindustrious，intelligent，densepopulation，ofwhichtwo-thirdsareemployedintradeandcommerce，andcomposedofclasseswhollydifferent；forming，infact，withothercustomsandotherneeds，adifferentnationfromtheEnglandofthosedays。
TheindustrialrevolutionisofthesameimportanceforEnglandasthepoliticalrevolutionforFrance，andthephilosophicalrevolutionforGermany；
andthedifferencebetweenEnglandin1760andin1844isatleastasgreatasthatbetweenFranceundertheancienré；gimeandduringtherevolutionofJuly。ButthemightiestresultofthisindustrialtransformationistheEnglishproletariat。
Wehavealreadyseenhowtheproletariatwascalledintoexistencebytheintroductionofmachinery。Therapidextensionofmanufacturedemandedhands，wagesrose，andtroopsofworkmenmigratedfromtheagriculturaldistrictstothetowns。Populationmultipliedenormously，andnearlyalltheincreasetookplaceintheproletariat。Further，Irelandhadentereduponanorderlydevelopmentonlysincethebeginningoftheeighteenthcentury。There，too，thepopulation，morethandecimatedbyEnglishcrueltyinearlierdisturbances，nowrapidlymultiplied，especiallyaftertheadvanceinmanufacturebegantodrawmassesofIrishmentowardsEngland。ThusarosethegreatmanufacturingandcommercialcitiesoftheBritishEmpire，inwhichatleastthree-fourthsofthepopulationbelongtotheworking-class，whilethelowermiddle-classconsistsonlyofsmallshop-keepers，andveryveryfewhandicraftsmen。For，thoughtherisingmanufacturefirstattainedimportancebytransformingtoolsintomachines，work-roomsintofactories，andconsequently，thetoilinglowermiddle-classintothetoilingproletariat，andtheformerlargemerchantsintomanufacturers，thoughthelowermiddle-classwasthusearlycrushedout，andthepopulationreducedtothetwoopposingelements，workersandcapitalists，thishappenedoutsideofthedomainofmanufactureproper，intheprovinceofhandicraftandretailtradeaswell。Intheplaceoftheformermastersandapprentices，camegreatcapitalistsandworking-menwhohadnoprospectofrisingabovetheirclass。Hand-workwascarriedonafterthefashionoffactorywork，thedivisionoflabourwasstrictlyapplied，andsmallemployerswhocouldnotcompetewithgreatestablishmentswereforceddownintotheproletariat。Atthesametimethedestructionoftheformerorganisationofhand-work，andthedisappearanceofthelowermiddle-classdeprivedtheworkingmanofallpossibilityofrisingintothemiddle-classhimself。Hithertohehadalwayshadtheprospectofestablishinghimselfsomewhereasmasterartificer，perhapsemployingjourneymenandapprentices；butnow，whenmasterartificerswerecrowdedoutbymanufacturers，whenlargecapitalhadbecomenecessaryforcarryingonworkindependently，theworking-classbecame，forthefirsttime，anintegral，permanentclassofthepopulation，whereasithadformerlyoftenbeenmerelyatransitionleadingtothebourgeoisie。Now，hewhowasborntotoilhadnootherprospectthanthatofremainingatoilerallhislife。
Now，forthefirsttime，therefore，theproletariatwasinapositiontoundertakeanindependentmovement。
Inthiswaywerebroughttogetherthosevastmassesofworking-menwhonowfillthewholeBritishEmpire，whosesocialconditionforcesitselfeverydaymoreandmoreupontheattentionofthecivilisedworld。
Theconditionoftheworking-classistheconditionofthevastmajorityoftheEnglishpeople。Thequestion:Whatistobecomeofthosedestitutemillions，whoconsumetodaywhattheyearnedyesterday；whohavecreatedthegreatnessofEnglandbytheirinventionsandtheirtoil；whobecomewitheverypassingdaymoreconsciousoftheirmight，anddemand，withdailyincreasingurgency，theirshareoftheadvantagesofsociety？——
This，sincetheReformBill，hasbecomethenationalquestion。AllParliamentarydebates，ofanyimportance，maybereducedtothis；and，thoughtheEnglishmiddle-classwillnotasyetadmitit，thoughtheytrytoevadethisgreatquestion，andtorepresenttheirownparticularinterestsasthetrulynationalones，theiractionisutterlyuseless。WitheverysessionofParliamenttheworking-classgainsground，theinterestsofthemiddle-classdiminishinimportance；and，inspiteofthefactthatthemiddle-classisthechief，infact，theonlypowerinParliament，thelastsessionof1844wasacontinuousdebateuponsubjectsaffectingtheworking-class，thePoorReliefBill，theFactoryAct，theMasters’andServants’Act’，andThomasDuncombe，therepresentativeoftheworking-menintheHouseofCommons，wasthegreatmanofthesession；whiletheLiberalmiddle-classwithitsmotionforrepealingtheCornLaws，andtheRadicalmiddle-classwithitsresolutionforrefusingthetaxes，playedpitiableroles。EventhedebatesaboutIrelandwereatbottomdebatesabouttheIrishproletariat，andthemeansofcomingtoitsassistance。Itishightime，too，fortheEnglishmiddle-classtomakesomeconcessionstotheworking-menwhonolongerpleadbutthreaten，forinashorttimeitmaybetoolate。
Inspiteofallthis，theEnglishmiddle-class，especiallythemanufacturingclass，whichisenricheddirectlybymeansofthepovertyoftheworkers，persistsinignoringthispoverty。Thisclass，feelingitselfthemightyrepresentativeclassofthenation，isashamedtolaythesorespotofEnglandbarebeforetheeyesoftheworld；willnotconfess，eventoitself，thattheworkersareindistress，becauseit，theproperty-holding，manufacturingclass，mustbearthemoralresponsibilityforthisdistress。HencethescornfulsmilewhichintelligentEnglishmen(andthey，themiddle-class，aloneareknownontheContinent)assumewhenanyonebeginstospeakoftheconditionoftheworking-class；hencetheutterignoranceonthepartofthewholemiddle-classofeverythingwhichconcernstheworkers；hencetheridiculousblunderswhichmenofthisclass，inandoutofParliament，makewhenthepositionoftheproletariatcomesunderdiscussion；hencetheabsurdfreedomfromanxiety，withwhichthemiddle-classdwellsuponasoilthatishoneycombed，andmayanydaycollapse，thespeedycollapseofwhichisascertainasamathematicalormechanicaldemonstration；hencethemiraclethattheEnglishhaveasyetnosinglebookupontheconditionoftheirworkers，althoughtheyhavebeenexaminingandmendingtheoldstateofthingsnooneknowshowmanyyears。Hencealsothedeepwrathofthewholeworking-class，fromGlasgowtoLondon，againsttherich，bywhomtheyaresystematicallyplunderedandmercilesslylefttotheirfate，awrathwhichbeforetoolongatimegoesby，atimealmostwithinthepowerofmantopredict，mustbreakoutintoarevolutionincomparisonwithwhichtheFrenchRevolution，andtheyear1794，willprovetohavebeenchild’splay。NOTES
1。AccordingtoPorter’sProgressoftheNation，London，1856，Vol。I；1858，Vol。II；1843，Vol。III(officialdata)，andothersources，chieflyofficial——NotebyEngels——
(1892)Thehistoricaloutlineoftheindustrialrevolutiongivenaboveisnotexactincertaindetails；butin1843-44nobettersourceswereavailable——AddedbyEngelsintheGermaneditionof1892。ReturntoTextConditionsoftheWorking-ClassinEngland-industrialproletariatF。EngelsTHECONDITIONS
OFTHEWORKING-CLASS
INENGLAND
THEINDUSTRIALPROLETARIAT
Theorderofourinvestigationofthedifferentsectionsoftheproletariatfollowsnaturallyfromtheforegoinghistoryofitsrise。Thefirstproletarianswereconnectedwithmanufacture，wereengenderedbyit，andaccordingly，thoseemployedinmanufacture，intheworkingupofrawmaterials，willfirstclaimourattention。Theproductionofrawmaterialsandoffuelformanufactureattainedimportanceonlyinconsequenceoftheindustrialchange，andengenderedanewproletariat，thecoalandmetalminers。Then，inthethirdplace，manufactureinfluencedagriculture，andinthefourth，theconditionofIreland；andthefractionsoftheproletariatbelongingtoeach，willfindtheirplaceaccordingly。Weshallfind，too，thatwiththepossibleexceptionoftheIrish，thedegreeofintelligenceofthevariousworkersisindirectproportiontotheirrelationtomanufacture；
andthatthefactory-handsaremostenlightenedastotheirowninterests，theminerssomewhatlessso，theagriculturallabourersscarcelyatall。
Weshallfindthesameorderagainamongtheindustrialworkers，andshallseehowthefactory-hands，eldestchildrenoftheindustrialrevolution，havefromthebeginningtothepresentdayformedthenucleusoftheLabourMovement，andhowtheothershavejoinedthismovementjustinproportionastheirhandicrafthasbeeninvadedbytheprogressofmachinery。WeshallthuslearnfromtheexamplewhichEnglandoffers，fromtheequalpacewhichtheLabourMovementhaskeptwiththemovementofindustrialdevelopment，thehistoricalsignificanceofmanufacture。
Since，however，atthepresentmoment，prettymuchthewholeindustrialproletariatisinvolvedinthemovement，andtheconditionoftheseparatesectionshasmuchincommon，becausetheyallareindustrial，weshallhavefirsttoexaminetheconditionoftheindustrialproletariatasawhole，inorderlatertonoticemoreparticularlyeachseparatedivisionwithitsownpeculiarities。
Ithasbeenalreadysuggestedthatmanufacturecentralisespropertyinthehandsofthefew。ItrequireslargecapitalwithwhichtoerectthecolossalestablishmentsthatruinthepettytradingbourgeoisieandwithwhichtopressintoitsservicetheforcesofNature，sodrivingthehand-labouroftheindependentworkmanoutofthemarket。Thedivisionoflabour，theapplicationofwaterandespeciallysteam，andtheapplicationofmachinery，arethethreegreatleverswithwhichmanufacture，sincethemiddleofthelastcentury，hasbeenbusyputtingtheworldoutofjoint。Manufacture，onasmallscale，createdthemiddle-class；onalargescale，itcreatedtheworking-class，andraisedtheelectofthemiddle-classtothethrone，butonlytooverthrowthemthemoresurelywhenthetimecomes。Meanwhile，itisanundeniedandeasilyexplainedfactthatthenumerouspettymiddle-classofthe”goodoldtimes”hasbeenannihilatedbymanufacture，andresolvedintorichcapitalistsontheonehandandpoorworkersontheother。[2]
Thecentralisingtendencyofmanufacturedoesnot，however，stophere。
Populationbecomescentralisedjustascapitaldoes；and，verynaturally，sincethehumanbeing，theworker，isregardedinmanufacturesimplyasapieceofcapitalfortheuseofwhichthemanufacturerpaysinterestunderthenameofwages。Amanufacturingestablishmentrequiresmanyworkersemployedtogetherinasinglebuilding，livingneareachotherandformingavillageofthemselvesinthecaseofagood-sizedfactory。Theyhaveneedsforsatisfyingwhichotherpeoplearenecessary；handicraftsmen，shoemakers，tailors，bakers，carpenters，stonemasons，settleathand。Theinhabitantsofthevillage，especiallytheyoungergeneration，accustomthemselvestofactorywork，growskilfulinit，andwhenthefirstmillcannolongeremploythemall，wagesfall，andtheimmigrationoffreshmanufacturersistheconsequence。Sothevillagegrowsintoasmalltown，andthesmalltownintoalargeone。Thegreaterthetown，thegreateritsadvantages。Itoffersroads，railroads，canals；thechoiceofskilledlabourincreasesconstantly，newestablishmentscanbebuiltmorecheaply，becauseofthecompetitionamongbuildersandmachinistswhoareathand，thaninremotecountrydistricts，whithertimber，machinery，builders，andoperativesmustbebrought；itoffersamarkettowhichbuyerscrowd，anddirectcommunicationwiththemarketssupplyingrawmaterialordemandingfinishedgoods。Hencethemarvellouslyrapidgrowthofthegreatmanufacturingtowns。Thecountry，ontheotherhand，hadtheadvantagethatwagesareusuallylowerthanintown，andsotownandcountryareinconstantcompetition；
and，iftheadvantageisonthesideofthetowntoday，wagessinksolowinthecountrytomorrowthatnewinvestmentsaremostprofitablymadethere。
Butthecentralisingtendencyofmanufacturecontinuesinfullforce，andeverynewfactorybuiltinthecountrybearsinitthegermofamanufacturingtown。Ifitwerepossibleforthismadrushofmanufacturetogoonatthisrateforanothercentury，everymanufacturingdistrictofEnglandwouldbeonegreatmanufacturingtown，andManchesterandLiverpoolwouldmeetatWarringtonorNewton；forincommerce，too，thiscentralisationofthepopulationworksinpreciselythesameway，andhenceitisthatoneortwogreatharbours，suchasHullandLiverpool，BristolandLondon，monopolisealmostthewholemaritimecommerceofGreatBritain。
Sincecommerceandmanufactureattaintheirmostcompletedevelopmentinthesegreattowns，theirinfluenceupontheproletariatisalsomostclearlyobservablehere。Herethecentralisationofpropertyhasreachedthehighestpoint；herethemoralsandcustomsofthegoodoldtimesaremostcompletelyobliterateded；hereithasgonesofarthatthenameMerryOldEnglandconveysnomeaning，forOldEnglanditselfisunknowntomemoryandtothetalesofourgrandfathers。Hence，too，thereexisthereonlyarichandapoorclass，forthelowermiddle-classvanishesmorecompletelywitheverypassingday。Thustheclassformerlymoststablehasbecomethemostrestlessone。Itconsiststodayofafewremnantsofapasttime，andanumberofpeopleeagertomakefortunes，industrialMicawbersandspeculatorsofwhomonemayamassafortune，whileninety-ninebecomeinsolvent，andmorethanhalfoftheninety-ninelivebyperpetuallyrepeatedfailure。
Butinthesetownstheproletariansaretheinfinitemajority，andhowtheyfare，whatinfluencethegreattownexercisesuponthem，wehavenowtoinvestigate。NOTES
2。Compareonthispointmy”OutlinesofaCritiqueofPoliticalEconomy”intheDeutsch-Franzö；sischeJahrbü；cher。Inthisessay”freecompetition”isthestarting-point；butindustryisonlythepracticeoffreecompetitionandthelatterisonlytheprincipleonwhichindustryisbased——NotebyEngels。ReturntoTextpart2，ConditionoftheWorkingClassinEnglandF。Engel’sTHECONDITIONS
OFTHEWORKING-CLASS
INENGLANDTHEGREATTOWNS
Atown，suchasLondon，whereamanmaywanderforhourstogetherwithoutreachingthebeginningoftheend，withoutmeetingtheslightesthintwhichcouldleadtotheinferencethatthereisopencountrywithinreach，isastrangething。Thiscolossalcentralisation，thisheapingtogetheroftwoandahalfmillionsofhumanbeingsatonepoint，hasmultipliedthepowerofthistwoandahalfmillionsahundredfold；hasraisedLondontothecommercialcapitaloftheworld，createdthegiantdocksandassembledthethousandvesselsthatcontinuallycovertheThames。IknownothingmoreimposingthantheviewwhichtheThamesoffersduringtheascentfromtheseatoLondonBridge。Themassesofbuildings，thewharvesonbothsides，especiallyfromWoolwichupwards，thecountlessshipsalongbothshores，crowdingevercloserandclosertogether，until，atlast，onlyanarrowpassageremainsinthemiddleoftheriver，apassagethroughwhichhundredsofsteamersshootbyoneanother；allthisissovast，soimpressive，thatamancannotcollecthimself，butislostinthemarvelofEngland’sgreatnessbeforehesetsfootuponEnglishsoil。[3]
Butthesacrificeswhichallthishascostbecomeapparentlater。Afterroamingthestreetsofthecapitaladayortwo，makingheadwaywithdifficultythroughthehumanturmoilandtheendlesslinesofvehicles，aftervisitingtheslumsofthemetropolis，onerealisesforthefirsttimethattheseLondonershavebeenforcedtosacrificethebestqualitiesoftheirhumannature，tobringtopassallthemarvelsofcivilisationwhichcrowdtheircity；thatahundredpowerswhichslumberedwithinthemhaveremainedinactive，havebeensuppressedinorderthatafewmightbedevelopedmorefullyandmultiplythroughunionwiththoseofothers。Theveryturmoilofthestreetshassomethingrepulsive，somethingagainstwhichhumannaturerebels。
Thehundredsofthousandsofallclassesandrankscrowdingpasteachother，aretheynotallhumanbeingswiththesamequalitiesandpowers，andwiththesameinterestinbeinghappy？Andhavetheynot，intheend，toseekhappinessinthesameway，bythesamemeans？Andstilltheycrowdbyoneanotherasthoughtheyhadnothingincommon，nothingtodowithoneanother，andtheironlyagreementisthetacitone，thateachkeeptohisownsideofthepavement，soasnottodelaytheopposingstreamsofthecrowd，whileitoccurstonomantohonouranotherwithsomuchasaglance。Thebrutalindifference，theunfeelingisolationofeachinhisprivateinterest，becomesthemorerepellentandoffensive，themoretheseindividualsarecrowdedtogether，withinalimitedspace。And，howevermuchonemaybeawarethatthisisolationoftheindividual，thisnarrowself-seeking，isthefundamentalprincipleofoursocietyeverywhere，itisnowheresoshamelesslybarefaced，soself-consciousasjusthereinthecrowdingofthegreatcity。Thedissolutionofmankindintomonads，ofwhicheachonehasaseparateprinciple，theworldofatoms，isherecarriedouttoitsutmostextreme。
Henceitcomes，too，thatthesocialwar，thewarofeachagainstall，ishereopenlydeclared。JustasinStirner’srecentbook，peopleregardeachotheronlyasusefulobjects；eachexploitstheother，andtheendofitallisthatthestrongertreadstheweakerunderfoot；andthatthepowerfulfew，thecapitalists，seizeeverythingforthemselves，whiletotheweakmany，thepoor，scarcelyabareexistenceremains。
WhatistrueofLondon，istrueofManchester，Birmingham，Leeds，istrueofallgreattowns。Everywherebarbarousindifference，hardegotismononehand，andnamelessmiseryontheother，everywheresocialwarfare，everyman’shouseinastateofsiege，everywherereciprocalplunderingundertheprotectionofthelaw，andallsoshameless，soopenlyavowedthatoneshrinksbeforetheconsequencesofoursocialstateastheymanifestthemselveshereundisguised，andcanonlywonderthatthewholecrazyfabricstillhangstogether。
Sincecapital，thedirectorindirectcontrolofthemeansofsubsistenceandproduction，istheweaponwithwhichthissocialwarfareiscarriedon，itisclearthatallthedisadvantagesofsuchastatemustfalluponthepoor。Forhimnomanhastheslightestconcern。Castintothewhirlpool，hemuststrugglethroughaswellashecan。Ifheissohappyastofindwork，i。e。，ifthebourgeoisiedoeshimthefavourtoenrichitselfbymeansofhim，wagesawaithimwhichscarcelysufficetokeepbodyandsoultogether；ifhecangetnoworkhemaysteal，ifheisnotafraidofthepolice，orstarve，inwhichcasethepolicewilltakecarethathedoessoinaquietandinoffensivemanner。DuringmyresidenceinEngland，atleasttwentyorthirtypersonshavediedofsimplestarvationunderthemostrevoltingcircumstances，andajuryhasrarelybeenfoundpossessedofthecouragetospeaktheplaintruthinthematter。Letthetestimonyofthewitnessesbeneversoclearandunequivocal，thebourgeoisie，fromwhichthejuryisselected，alwaysfindssomebackdoorthroughwhichtoescapethefrightfulverdict，deathfromstarvation。Thebourgeoisiedarenotspeakthetruthinthesecases，foritwouldspeakitsowncondemnation。
Butindirectly，farmorethandirectly，manyhavediedofstarvation，wherelong-continuedwantofpropernourishmenthascalledforthfatalillness，whenithasproducedsuchdebilitythatcauseswhichmightotherwisehaveremainedinoperativebroughtonsevereillnessanddeath。TheEnglishworking-mencallthis”socialmurder”，andaccuseourwholesocietyofperpetratingthiscrimeperpetually。Aretheywrong？
True，itisonlyindividualswhostarve，butwhatsecurityhastheworking-manthatitmaynotbehisturntomorrow？Whoassureshimemployment，whovouchesforitthat，ifforanyreasonornoreasonhislordandmasterdischargeshimtomorrow，hecanstrugglealongwiththosedependentuponhim，untilhemayfindsomeoneelse”togivehimbread”？Whoguaranteesthatwillingnesstoworkshallsufficetoobtainwork，thatuprightness，industry，thrift，andtherestofthevirtuesrecommendedbythebourgeoisie，arereallyhisroadtohappiness？Noone。Heknowsthathehassomethingtodayandthatitdoesnotdependuponhimselfwhetherheshallhavesomethingtomorrow。
Heknowsthateverybreezethatblows，everywhimofhisemployer，everybadturnoftrademayhurlhimbackintothefiercewhirlpoolfromwhichhehastemporarilysavedhimself，andinwhichitishardandoftenimpossibletokeephisheadabovewater。Heknowsthat，thoughhemayhavethemeansoflivingtoday，itisveryuncertainwhetherheshalltomorrow。
Meanwhile，letusproceedtoamoredetailedinvestigationofthepositioninwhichthesocialwarhasplacedthenon-possessingclass。Letusseewhatpayforhisworksocietydoesgivetheworking-manintheformofdwelling，clothing，food，whatsortofsubsistenceitgrantsthosewhocontributemosttothemaintenanceofsociety；and，first，letusconsiderthedwellings。
Everygreatcityhasoneormoreslums，wheretheworking-classiscrowdedtogether。True，povertyoftendwellsinhiddenalleysclosetothepalacesoftherich；but，ingeneral，aseparateterritoryhasbeenassignedtoit，where，removedfromthesightofthehappierclasses，itmaystrugglealongasitcan。TheseslumsareprettyequallyarrangedinallthegreattownsofEngland，theworsthousesintheworstquartersofthetowns；
usuallyone-ortwo-storiedcottagesinlongrows，perhapswithcellarsusedasdwellings，almostalwaysirregularlybuilt。Thesehousesofthreeorfourroomsandakitchensform，throughoutEngland，somepartsofLondonexcepted，thegeneraldwellingsoftheworking-class。Thestreetsaregenerallyunpaved，rough，dirty，filledwithvegetableandanimalrefuse，withoutsewersorgutters，butsuppliedwithfoul，stagnantpoolsinstead。Moreover，ventilationisimpededbythebad，confusedmethodofbuildingofthewholequarter，andsincemanyhumanbeingsherelivecrowdedintoasmallspace，theatmospherethatprevailsintheseworking-men’squartersmayreadilybeimagined。Further，thestreetsserveasdryinggroundsinfineweather；
linesarestretchedacrossfromhousetohouse，andhungwithwetclothing。
Letusinvestigatesomeoftheslumsintheirorder。Londoncomesfirst，[4]andinLondonthefamousrookeryofSt。Gileswhichisnow，atlast，abouttobepenetratedbyacoupleofbroadstreets。St。Gilesisinthemidstofthemostpopulouspartofthetown，surroundedbybroad，splendidavenuesinwhichthegayworldofLondonidlesabout，intheimmediateneighbourhoodofOxfordStreet，RegentStreet，ofTrafalgarSquareandtheStrand。Itisadisorderlycollectionoftall，three-orfour-storiedhouses，withnarrow，crooked，filthystreets，inwhichthereisquiteasmuchlifeasinthegreatthoroughfaresofthetown，exceptthat，here，peopleoftheworking-classonlyaretobeseen。
Avegetablemarketisheldinthestreet，basketswithvegetablesandfruits，naturallyallbadandhardlyfittouseobstructthesidewalkstillfurther，andfromthese，aswellasfromthefish-dealers’stalls，arisesahorriblesmell。Thehousesareoccupiedfromcellartogarret，filthywithinandwithout，andtheirappearanceissuchthatnohumanbeingcouldpossiblywishtoliveinthem。Butallthisisnothingincomparisonwiththedwellingsinthenarrowcourtsandalleysbetweenthestreets，enteredbycoveredpassagesbetweenthehouses，inwhichthefilthandtotteringruinsurpassalldescription。Scarcelyawholewindow-panecanbefound，thewallsarecrumbling，door-postsandwindow-frameslooseandbroken，doorsofoldboardsnailedtogether，oraltogetherwantinginthisthieves’quarter，wherenodoorsareneeded，therebeingnothingtosteal。Heapsofgarbageandasheslieinalldirections，andthefoulliquidsemptiedbeforethedoorsgatherinstinkingpools。Herelivethepoorestofthepoor，theworstpaidworkerswiththievesandthevictimsofprostitutionindiscriminatelyhuddledtogether，themajorityIrish，orofIrishextraction，andthosewhohavenotyetsunkinthewhirlpoolofmoralruinwhichsurroundsthem，sinkingdailydeeper，losingdailymoreandmoreoftheirpowertoresistthedemoralisinginfluenceofwant，filth，andevilsurroundings。
NorisSt。GilestheonlyLondonslum。Intheimmensetangleofstreets，therearehundredsandthousandsofalleysandcourtslinedwithhousestoobadforanyonetolivein，whocanstillspendanythingwhatsoeveruponadwellingfitforhumanbeings。Closetothesplendidhousesoftherichsuchalurking-placeofthebitterestpovertymayoftenbefound。
So，ashorttimeago，ontheoccasionofacoroner’sinquest，aregionclosetoPortmanSquare，oneoftheveryrespectablesquares，wascharacterisedasanabode”ofamultitudeofIrishdemoralisedbypovertyandfilth”。
So，too，maybefoundinstreets，suchasLongAcreandothers，which，thoughnotfashionable，areyet”respectable”，agreatnumberofcellardwellingsoutofwhichpunychildrenandhalf-starved，raggedwomenemergeintothelightofday。IntheimmediateneighbourhoodofDruryLaneTheatre，thesecondinLondon，aresomeoftheworststreetsofthewholemetropolis，Charles，King，andParkStreets，inwhichthehousesareinhabitedfromcellartogarretexclusivelybypoorfamilies。IntheparishesofSt。JohnandSt。Margarettherelivedin1840，accordingtotheJournaloftheStatisticalSociety，5，566working-men’sfamiliesin5，294”dwellings”(iftheydeservethename！)，men，women，andchildrenthrowntogetherwithoutdistinctionofageorsex，26，850personsalltold；andofthesefamiliesthree-fourthspossessedbutoneroom。InthearistocraticparishofSt。George，HanoverSquare，therelived，accordingtothesameauthority，1，465working-men’sfamilies，nearly6，000persons，undersimilarconditions，andhere，too，morethantwo-thirdsofthewholenumbercrowdedtogetherattherateofonefamilyinoneroom。Andhowthepovertyoftheseunfortunates，amongwhomeventhievesfindnothingtosteal，isexploitedbytheproperty-holdingclassinlawfulways！TheabominabledwellingsinDruryLane，justmentioned，bringinthefollowingrents:twocellardwellings，3s。，oneroom，ground-floor，4s。；second-storey，4s。6d。；third-floor，4s。；garret-room，3s。weekly，sothatthestarvingoccupantsofCharlesStreetalone，paythehouse-ownersayearlytributeof£；2，000，andthe5，566familiesabovementionedinWestminster，ayearlyrentof£；40，000。
Themostextensiveworking-people’sdistrictlieseastoftheTowerinWhitechapelandBethnalGreen，wherethegreatestmassesofLondonworking-peoplelive。LetushearMr。G。Alston，preacherofSt。Philip’s，BethnalGreen，ontheconditionofhisparish。Hesays:”Itcontains1，400houses，inhabitedby2，795families，comprisingapopulationof12，000。Thespacewithinwhichthislargeamountofpopulationarelivingislessthan400yardssquare(1，200feet)，anditisnouncommonthingforamanandhiswife，withfourorfivechildren，andsometimesthegrandfatherandgrandmother，tobefoundlivinginaroomfromtentotwelvefeetsquare，andwhichservesthemforeatingandworkingin。
IbelievethattilltheBishopofLondoncalledtheattentionofthepublictothestateofBethnalGreen，aboutaslittlewasknownattheWest-endofthetownofthismostdestituteparishasthewildsofAustraliaortheislandsoftheSouthSeas。Ifwereallydesiretofindoutthemostdestituteanddeserving，wemustliftthelatchoftheirdoors，andfindthemattheirscantymeal；wemustseethemwhensufferingfromsicknessandwantofwork；andifwedothisfromdaytodayinsuchaneighbourhoodasBethnalGreen，weshallbecomeacquaintedwithamassofwretchednessandmiserysuchasanationlikeourownoughttobeashamedtopermit。
IwasCurateofaparishnearHuddersfieldduringthethreeyearsofthegreatestmanufacturingdistress；butIneverwitnessedsuchathoroughprostrationofthepoorasIhaveseensinceIhavebeeninBethnalGreen。
Thereisnotonefatherofafamilyintenthroughouttheentiredistrictthatpossessesanyclothesbuthisworkingdress，andthattoocommonlyintheworsttatteredcondition；andwithmanythiswretchedclothingformstheironlycoveringatnight，withnothingbetterthanabagofstraworshavingstolieupon。”Theforegoingdescriptionfurnishesanideaoftheaspectoftheinteriorofthedwellings。ButletusfollowtheEnglishofficials，whooccasionallystraythither，intooneortwooftheseworkingmen’shomes。
OntheoccasionofaninquestheldNov。16th，1843，byMr。Carter，coronerforSurrey，uponthebodyofAnnGalway，aged45years，thenewspapersrelatedthefollowingparticularsconcerningthedeceased:ShehadlivedatNo。5WhiteLionCourt，BermondseyStreet，London，withherhusbandandanineteen-year-oldsoninalittleroom，inwhichneitherabedsteadnoranyotherfurniturewastobeseen。Shelaydeadbesidehersonuponaheapoffeatherswhichwerescatteredoverheralmostnakedbody，therebeingneithersheetnorcoverlet。Thefeathersstucksofastoverthewholebodythatthephysiciancouldnotexaminethecorpseuntilitwascleansed，andthenfounditstarvedandscarredfromthebitesofvermin。Partoftheflooroftheroomwastornup，andtheholeusedbythefamilyasaprivy。
OnMonday，Jan。15th，1844，twoboyswerebroughtbeforethepolicemagistratebecause，beinginastarvingcondition，theyhadstolenandimmediatelydevouredahalf-cookedcalf’sfootfromashop。Themagistratefeltcalledupontoinvestigatethecasefurther，andreceivedthefollowingdetailsfromthepoliceman:Themotherofthetwoboyswasthewidowofanex-soldier，afterwardspoliceman，andhadhadaveryhardtimesincethedeathofherhusband，toprovideforherninechildren。ShelivedatNo。2Pool’sPlace，QuakerCourt，Spitalfields，intheutmostpoverty。
Whenthepolicemancametoher，hefoundherwithsixofherchildrenliterallyhuddledtogetherinalittlebackroom，withnofurniturebuttwooldrush-bottomedchairswiththeseatsgone，asmalltablewithtwolegsbroken，abrokencup，andasmalldish。Onthehearthwasscarcelyasparkoffire，andinonecornerlayasmanyoldragsaswouldfillawoman’sapron，whichservedthewholefamilyasabed。Forbedclothingtheyhadonlytheirscantydayclothing。Thepoorwomantoldhimthatshehadbeenforcedtosellherbedsteadtheyearbeforetobuyfood。Herbeddingshehadpawnedwiththevictuallerforfood。Inshort，everythinghadgoneforfood。Themagistrateorderedthewomanaconsiderableprovisionfromthepoor-box。
InFebruary，1844，TheresaBishop，awidow60yearsold，wasrecommended，withhersickdaughter，aged26，tothecompassionofthepolicemagistrateinMarlboroughStreet。ShelivedatNo。5BrownStreet，GrosvenorSquare，inasmallbackroomnolargerthanacloset，inwhichtherewasnotonesinglepieceoffurniture，Inonecornerlaysomeragsuponwhichbothslept；achestservedastableandchair。Themotherearnedalittlebycharring。TheownerofthehousesaidthattheyhadlivedinthiswaysinceMay1843，hadgraduallysoldorpawnedeverythingthattheyhad，andhadstillneverpaidanyrent。Themagistrateassignedthem£；1fromthepoor-box。
IamfarfromassertingthatallLondonworking-peopleliveinsuchwantastheforegoingthreefamilies。Iknowverywellthattenaresomewhatbetteroff，whereoneissototallytroddenunderfootbysociety；butIassertthatthousandsofindustriousandworthypeople——farworthierandmoretoberespectedthantherichofLondon——dofindthemselvesinaconditionunworthyofhumanbeings；andthateveryproletarian，everyone，withoutexception，isexposedtoasimilarfatewithoutanyfaultofhisownandinspiteofeverypossibleeffort。
