Butinspiteofallthis，theywhohavesomekindofashelterarefortunate，fortunateincomparisonwiththeutterlyhomeless。InLondonfiftythousandhumanbeingsgetupeverymorning，notknowingwheretheyaretolaytheirheadsatnight。Theluckiestofthismultitude，thosewhosucceedinkeepingapennyortwountilevening，enteralodging-house，suchasaboundineverygreatcity，wheretheyfindabed。Butwhatabed！Thesehousesarefilledwithbedsfromcellartogarret，four，five，sixbedsinaroom；
asmanyascanbecrowdedin。Intoeverybedfour，five，orsixhumanbeingsarepiled，asmanyascanbepackedin，sickandwell，youngandold，drunkandsober，menandwomen，justastheycome，indiscriminately。Thencomestrife，blows，wounds，or，ifthesebedfellowsagree，somuchtheworse；
theftsarearrangedandthingsdonewhichourlanguage，grownmorehumanethanourdeeds，refusestorecord。Andthosewhocannotpayforsucharefuge？Theysleepwheretheyfindaplace，inpassages，arcades，incornerswherethepoliceandtheownersleavethemundisturbed。Afewindividualsfindtheirwaytotherefugeswhicharemanaged，hereandthere，byprivatecharity，otherssleeponthebenchesintheparkscloseunderthewindowsofQueenVictoria。LetusheartheLondonTimes:”ItappearsfromthereportoftheproceedingsatMarlboroughStreetPoliceCourtinourcolumnsofyesterday，thatthereisanaveragenumberof50humanbeingsofallages，whohuddletogetherintheparkseverynight，havingnoothershelterthanwhatissuppliedbythetreesandafewhollowsoftheembankment。Ofthese，themajorityareyounggirlswhohavebeenseducedfromthecountrybythesoldiersandturnedlooseontheworldinallthedestitutionoffriendlesspenury，andalltherecklessnessofearlyvice。”Thisistrulyhorrible！Poortheremustbeeverywhere。Indigencewillfinditswayandsetupitshideousstateintheheartofagreatandluxuriouscity。Amidthethousandnarrowlanesandby-streetsofapopulousmetropolistheremustalways，wefear，bemuchsuffering——muchthatoffendstheeye——muchthatlurksunseen。”Butthatwithintheprecinctsofwealth，gaiety，andfashion，nightheregalgrandeurofSt。James。closeonthepalatialsplendourofBayswater，ontheconfinesoftheoldandnewaristocraticquarters，inadistrictwherethecautiousrefinementofmoderndesignhasrefrainedfromcreatingonesingletenementforpoverty；
whichseems，asitwere，dedicatedtotheexclusiveenjoymentofwealth。
thattherewant，andfamine，anddisease，andviceshouldstalkinalltheirkindredhorrors，consumingbodybybody，soulbysoul！”Itisindeedamonstrousstateofthings！Enjoymentthemostabsolute，thatbodilyease，intellectualexcitement，orthemoreinnocentpleasuresofsensecansupplytoman’scraving，broughtinclosecontactwiththemostunmitigatedmisery！Wealth，fromitsbrightsaloons，laughing——aninsolentlyheedlesslaugh——attheunknownwoundsofwant！Pleasure，cruellybutunconsciouslymockingthepainthatmoansbelow！Allcontrarythingsmockingoneanother——allcontrary，savethevicewhichtemptsandthevicewhichistempted！”Butletallmenrememberthis——thatwithinthemostcourtlyprecinctsoftherichestcityofGod’searth，theremaybefound，nightafternight，winterafterwinter，women——younginyears——oldinsinandsuffering——outcastsfromsociety——ROTTINGFROMFAMINE，FILTH，ANDDISEASE。Letthemrememberthis，andlearnnottotheorisebuttoact。Godknows，thereismuchroomforactionnowadays。”[5]Ihavereferredtotherefugesforthehomeless。Howgreatlyovercrowdedtheseare，twoexamplesmayshow。AnewlyerectedRefugefortheHouselessinUpperOgleStreet，thatcanshelterthreehundredpersonseverynight，hasreceivedsinceitsopening，January27thtoMarch17th，1844，2，740
personsforoneormorenights；and，althoughtheseasonwasgrowingmorefavourable，thenumberofapplicantsinthis，aswellasintheasylumsofWhitecrossStreetandWapping，wasstronglyontheincrease，andacrowdofthehomelesshadtobesentawayeverynightforwantofroom。Inanotherrefuge，theCentralAsyluminPlayhouseYard，thereweresuppliedonanaverage460bedsnightly，duringthefirstthreemonthsoftheyear1844，6，681personsbeingsheltered，and96，141portionsofbreadweredistributed。
YetthecommitteeofdirectorsdeclarethisinstitutionbegantomeetthepressureoftheneedytoalimitedextentonlywhentheEasternAsylumalsowasopened。
LetusleaveLondonandexaminetheothergreatcitiesofthethreekingdomsintheirorder。LetustakeDublinfirst，acitytheapproachtowhichfromtheseaisascharmingasthatofLondonisimposing。TheBayofDublinisthemostbeautifulofthewholeBritishIslandKingdom，andisevencomparedbytheIrishwiththeBayofNaples。Thecity，too，possessesgreatattractions，anditsaristocraticdistrictsarebetterandmoretastefullylaidoutthanthoseofanyotherBritishcity。Bywayofcompensation，howeverthepoorerdistrictsofDublinareamongthemosthideousandrepulsivetobeseenintheworld。True，theIrishcharacter，whichundersomecircumstances，iscomfortableonlyinthedirt，hassomeshareinthis；butaswefindthousandsofIrishinevergreatcityinEnglandandScotland，andaseverypoorpopulationmustgraduallysinkintothesameuncleanliness，thewretchednessofDublinisnothingspecific，nothingpeculiartoDublin，butsomethingcommontoallgreattowns。ThepoorquartersofDublinareextremelyextensive，andthefilth，theuninhabitablenessofthehousesandtheneglectofthestreetssurpassalldescription。Someideaofthemannerinwhichthepoorareherecrowdedtogethermaybeformedfromthefactthat，in1817，accordingtothereportoftheInspectorofWorkhouses，[6]1，318personslivedin52houseswith390roomsinBarrackStreet，and1，997personsin71houseswith393roomsinandnearChurchStreet；that:”foullanes，courts，andyards，areinterposedbetweenthisandtheadjoiningstreets……Therearemanycellarswhichhavenolightbutfromthedoor……Insomeofthesecellarstheinhabitantssleeponthefloorswhichareallearthen；butingeneral，theyhavebedsteads……
Nicholson’sCourt……contains151personsin28smallapartments……theirstateisverymiserable，therebeingonlytwobedsteadsandtwoblanketsinthewholecourt。”ThepovertyissogreatinDublin，thatasinglebenevolentinstitution，theMendicityAssociation，givesreliefto2，500personsoronepercentofthepopulationdaily，receivingandfeedingthemforthedayanddismissingthematnight。
Dr。AlisondescribesasimilarstateofthingsinEdinburgh，whosesuperbsituation，whichhaswonitthetitleofthemodernAthens，andwhosebrilliantaristocraticquarterintheNewTown，contraststronglywiththefoulwretchednessofthepoorintheOldTown。AlisonassertsthatthisextensivequarterisasfilthyandhorribleastheworstdistrictsofDublin，whiletheMendicityAssociationwouldhaveasgreataproportionofneedypersonstoassistinEdinburghasintheIrishcapital。Heasserts，indeed，thatthepoorinScotland，especiallyinEdinburghandGlasgow，areworseoffthaninanyotherregionofthethreekingdoms，andthatthepoorestarenotIrish，butScotch。ThepreacheroftheOldChurchofEdinburgh，Dr。Lee，testifiedin1836，beforetheCommissionofReligiousInstruction，that:”Ihaveneverseensuchaconcentrationofmiseryasinthisparish，”wherethepeoplearewithoutfurniture，withouteverything。”I
frequentlyseethesameroomoccupiedbytwomarriedcoupler。Ihavebeeninonedayinsevenhouseswheretherewasnobed，insomeofthemnotevenstraw。Ifoundpeopleofeightyyearsofagelyingontheboards。
Manysleepinthesameclotheswhichtheywearduringtheday。ImaymentionthecaseoftwoScotchfamilieslivinginacellar，whohadcomefromthecountrywithinafewmonths……Sincetheycametheyhadhadtwochildrendead，andanotherapparentlydying。Therewasalittlebundleofdirtystrawinonecorner，foronefamily，andinanotherfortheother。Intheplacetheyinhabititisimpossibleatnoondaytodistinguishthefeaturesofthehumanfacewithoutartificiallight——Itwouldalmostmakeaheartofadamantbleedtoseesuchanaccumulationofmiseryinacountrylikethis。”IntheEdinburghMedicalandSurgicalJournal，Dr。Hennenreportsasimilarstateofthings。FromaParliamentaryReport，[7]itisevidentthatinthedwellingsofthepoorofEdinburghawantofcleanlinessreigns，suchasmustbeexpectedundertheseconditions。Onthebed-postschickensroostatnight，dogsandhorsessharethedwellingsofhumanbeings，andthenaturalconsequenceisashockingstench，withfilthandswarmsofvermin。TheprevailingconstructionofEdinburghfavourstheseatrociousconditionsasfaraspossible。TheOldTownisbuiltuponbothslopesofahill，alongthecrestofwhichrunstheHighStreet。OutoftheHighStreetthereopendownwardsmultitudesofnarrow，crookedalleys，calledwyndsfromtheirmanyturnings，andthesewyndsformtheproletariandistrictofthecity。ThehousesoftheScotchcities，ingeneral，arefiveorsix-storiedbuildings，likethoseofParis，andincontrastwithEnglandwhere，sofaraspossible，eachfamilyhasaseparatehouse。Thecrowdingofhumanbeingsuponalimitedareaisthusintensified……thehouse，”saysanEnglishjournalinanarticleuponthesanitaryconditionoftheworking-peopleincities，”areoftensoclosetogether，thatpersonsmaystepfromthewindowofonehousetothatofthehouseopposite——sohigh，piledstoryafterstory，thatthelightcanscarcelypenetratetothecourtbeneath。Inthispartofthetownthereareneithersewersnoranyprivateconvenienceswhateverbelongingtothedwellings；andhencetheexcrementitiousandotherrefuseofatleast50，000
personsis，duringthenight，thrownintothegutters，causing(inspiteofthescavengers’dailylabours)anamountofsolidfilthandfoetidexhalationdisgustingtobothsightandsmell，aswellasexceedinglyprejudicialtohealth。Canitbewonderedthat，insuchlocalities，health，morals，andcommondecencyshouldbeatonceneglected？No；allwhoknowtheprivateconditionoftheinhabitantswillbeartestimonytotheimmenseamountoftheirdisease，misery，anddemoralisation。Societyinthesequartershassunktoastateindescribablyvileandwretched……Thedwellingsofthepoorerclassesaregenerallyveryfilthy，apparentlyneversubjectedtoanycleaningprocesswhatever，consisting，inmostcases，ofasingleroom，ill-ventilatedandyetcold，owingtobroken，ill-fittingwindows，sometimesdampandpartiallyunderground，andalwaysscantilyfurnishedandaltogethercomfortless，heapsofstrawoftenservingforbeds，inwhichawholefamily——maleandfemale，youngandold，arehuddledtogetherinrevoltingconfusion。Thesuppliesofwaterareobtainedonlyfromthepublicpumps，andthetroubleofprocuringitofcoursefavourstheaccumulationofallkindsofabominations。”Intheothergreatseaporttownstheprospectisnobetter。Liverpool，withallitscommerce，wealth，andgrandeuryettreatsitsworkerswiththesamebarbarity。Afullfifthofthepopulation，morethan45，000humanbeings，liveinnarrow，dark，damp，badly-ventilatedcellardwellings，ofwhichthereare7，862inthecity。Besidesthesecellardwellingsthereare2，270courts，smallspacesbuiltuponallfoursidesandhavingbutoneentrance，anarrow，coveredpassage-way，thewholeordinarilyverydirtyandinhabitedexclusivelybyproletarians。OfsuchcourtsweshallhavemoretosaywhenwecometoManchester。InBristol，ononeoccasion，2，800familieswerevisited，ofwhom46percentoccupiedbutoneroomeach。
Preciselythesamestateofthingsprevailsinthefactorytowns。InNottinghamthereareinall11，000houses，ofwhichbetween7，000and8，000
arebuiltbacktobackwitharearparty-wallsothatnothroughventilationispossible，whileasingleprivyusuallyservesforseveralhouses。Duringaninvestigationmadeashorttimesince，manyrowsofhouseswerefoundtohavebeenbuiltovershallowdrainscoveredonlybytheboardsoftheground-floor。InLeicester，Derby，andSheffield，itisnobetter。OfBirmingham，thearticleabovecitedfromtheArtisanstates:”Intheolderpartsofthetowntherearemanyinferiorstreetsandcourts，whicharedirtyandneglected，filledwithstagnantwaterandheapsofrefuse。ThecourtsofBirminghamareverynumerousineverydirection，exceeding2，000，andcomprisingtheresidenceofalargeportionoftheworking-classes。Theyareforthemostpartnarrow，filthy，ill-ventilated。
andbadlydrained，containingfromeighttotwentyhouseseach，thehousesbeingbuiltagainstsomeothertenementandtheendofthecourtsbeingprettyconstantlyoccupiedbyashpits，etc。，thefilthofwhichwoulddefydescription。Itisbutjust，however，toremarkthatthecourtsofmoremoderndatearebuiltinamorerationalmanner，andkepttolerablyrespectable；
andthecottages，eveninoldcourts，arefarlesscrowdedthaninManchesterandLiverpool，theresultofwhichis，thattheinhabitants，inepidemicseasons，havebeenmuchlessvisitedbydeaththanthoseofWolverhampton，Dudley，andBilston，atonlyafewmilesdistance。Cellarresidences，also，areunknowninBirmingham，thoughsomefeware，veryimproperly，usedasworkshops。Thelowlodging-housesareprettynumerous(somewhatexceeding400)，chieflyincourtsnearthecentreofthetown；theyarealmostalwaysloathsomelyfilthyandclose，theresortsofbeggars，trampers，thievesandprostitutes，whohere，regardlessalikeofdecencyorcomfort，eat，drink，smokeandsleepinanatmosphereunendurablebyallexceptthedegraded，besottedinmates。”GlasgowisinmanyrespectssimilartoEdinburgh，possessingthesamewynds，thesametallhouses。OfthiscitytheArtisanobserves:Theworking-classformsheresome78percentofthewholepopulation(about300，000)，andlivesinpartsofthecity”which，inabjectwretchedness，exceedthelowestpurlieusofSt。Giles’orWhitechapel，thelibertiesofDublin，orthewyndsofEdinburgh。Suchlocalitiesexistmostabundantlyintheheartofthecity——southoftheIrongateandwestoftheSaltmarket，aswellasintheCalton，offtheHighStreet，etc——
endlesslabyrinthsofnarrowlanesorwynds，intowhichalmostateverystepdebouchecourtsorclosesformedbyold，ill-ventilated，toweringhousescrumblingtodecay，destituteofwaterandcrowdedwithinhabitants，comprisingthreeorfourfamilies(perhapstwentypersons)oneachflat，andsometimeseachflatletoutinlodgingsthatconfine——wedarenotsayaccommodate——fromfifteentotwentypersonsinasingleroom。Thesedistrictsareoccupiedbythepoorest，mostdepraved，andmostworthlessportionofthepopulation，andtheymaybeconsideredasthefruitfulsourceofthosepestilentialfeverswhichthencespreadtheirdestructiveravagesoverthewholeofGlasgow。”LetushearhowJ。C。Symons，GovernmentCommissionerfortheinvestigationoftheconditionofthehand-weavers，describestheseportionsofthecity:[8]”Ihaveseenhumandegradationinsomeofitsworstphases，bothinEnglandandabroad，butIdidnotbelieveuntilIvisitedthewyndsofGlasgow，thatsolargeanamountoffilth，crime，misery，anddiseaseexistedinanycivilisedcountry。Inthelowerlodging-housesten，twelve，andsometimestwentypersonsofbothsexesandallagessleeppromiscuouslyonthefloorindifferentdegreesofnakedness。Theseplacesare，generally，asregardsdirt，dampanddecay，suchasnopersonwouldstablehishorsein。”Andinanotherplace:”ThewyndsofGlasgowhouseafluctuatingpopulationofbetween15，000and30，000persons。Thisdistrictiscomposedofmanynarrowstreetsandsquarecourtsandinthemiddleofeachcourtthereisadung-hill。
Althoughtheoutwardappearanceoftheseplaceswasrevolting，Iwasneverthelessquiteunpreparedforthefilthandmiserythatweretobefoundinside。
Insomeofthesebedroomswe[i。e。PoliceSuperintendentCaptainMillerandSymons]visitedatnightwefoundawholemassofhumanitystretchedoutonthefloor。Therewereoften15to20menandwomenhuddledtogether，somebeingclothedandothersnaked。Theirbedwasaheapofmustystrawmixedwithrags。Therewashardlyanyfurniturethereandtheonlythingwhichgavetheseholestheappearanceofadwellingwasfireburningonthehearth。Thievingandprostitutionarethemainsourcesofincomeofthesepeople。NooneseemstohavetakenthetroubletocleanouttheseAugeanstables，thispandemonium，thisnucleusofcrime，filthandpestilenceinthesecondcityoftheempire。Adetailedinvestigationofthemostwretchedslumsofothertownshasneverrevealedanythinghalfsobadasthisconcentrationofmoraliniquity，physicaldegradationandgrossovercrowding……
InthispartofGlasgowmostofthehouseshavebeencondemnedbytheCourtofGuildasdilapidatedanduninhabitable——butitisjustthesedwellingswhicharefilledtooverflowing，because，bylawnorentcanbechargedonthem。”ThegreatmanufacturingdistrictinthecentreoftheBritishIslands，thethicklypeopledstretchofWestYorkshireandSouthLancashire，withitsnumerousfactorytowns，yieldsnothingtotheothergreatmanufacturingcentres。ThewooldistrictoftheWestRidingofYorkshireisacharmingregion，abeautifulgreenhillcountry，whoseelevationsgrowmoreruggedtowardsthewestuntiltheyreachtheirhighestpointintheboldridgeofBlackstoneEdge，thewatershedbetweentheIrishSeaandtheGermanOcean，ThevalleysoftheAire，alongwhichstretchesLeeds，andoftheCalder，throughwhichtheManchester-Leedsrailwayruns，areamongthemostattractiveinEngland，andarestrewninalldirectionswiththefactories，villages，andtowns。ThehousesofroughgreystonelooksoneatandcleanincomparisonwiththeblackenedbrickbuildingsofLancashire，thatitisapleasuretolookatthem。Butoncomingintothetownsthemselves，onefindslittletorejoiceover。Leedslies，astheArtisandescribesit，andasIfoundconfirmeduponexamination:”onasloperunningdowntowardstheriverAire，whichmeandersabouta-mile-and-a-halfthroughthetown，andisliabletooverflowsduringthawsorafterheavyrains。Thehigherorwesterndistrictsarecleanforsolargeatown，butthelowerpartscontiguoustotheriveranditsbecksorrivuletsaredirty，confined，and，inthemselves，sufficienttoshortenlife，especiallyinfantlife；addtothisthedisgustingstateofthelowerpartsofthetownaboutKirk-gate。March-lane，Cross-streetandRichmond-road，principallyowingtoageneralwantofpavinganddraining，irregularityofbuilding，theabundanceofcourtsandblindalleys，aswellasthealmosttotalabsenceofthecommonestmeansforpromotingcleanliness，andwehavethenquitesufficientdatatoaccountforthesurplusmortalityintheseunhappyregionsoffilthandmisery……InconsequenceofthefloodsfromtheAire”(which，itmustbeadded，likeallotherriversintheserviceofmanufacture，flowsintothecityatoneendclearandtransparent，andflowsoutattheotherendthick，black，andfoul，smellingofallpossiblerefuse)，”thedwelling-housesandcellarsarenotinfrequentlysoinundatedthatthewaterhastobepumpedoutbyhand-pumps，ontothesurfaceofthestreets；andatsuchtimes，evenwheretherearesewers，thewaterrisesthroughthemintothecellars，[9]creatingmiasmaticexhalations，stronglychargedwithsulphurettedhydrogen，andleavingoffensiverefuse，exceedinglyprejudicialtohumanhealth。Indeed，duringaseasonofinundationinthespringof1859，sofatalweretheeffectsofsuchanengorgementofthesewers，thattheregistraroftheNorthdistrictmadeareport，thatduringthatquartertherewere，inthatneighbourhood，twobirthstothreedeaths，whilstinalltheotherdistrictstherewerethreetotwodeaths。Otherpopulousdistrictsarewhollywithoutsewers，orsoinadequatelyprovidedastoderivenoadvantagetherefrom。”Insomerowsofhouses，thecellardwellingsareseldomdry”；incertaindistrictsthereareseveralstreetscoveredwithsoftmudafootdeep。”Theinhabitantshavefromtimetotimevainlyattemptedtorepairthesestreetswithshovelfulsofashes；andsoil，refuse-water，etc。，standineveryhole，theretoremainuntilabsorbedbywindorsun……Anordinarycottage，inLeeds，extendsovernomorethanaboutfiveyardssquare，andconsistsusuallyofacellar，asitting-room，andasleepingchamber。Thissmallsizeofthehousescrammedwithhumanbeingsbothdayandnight，isanotherpointdangerousaliketothemoralsandthehealthoftheinhabitants。”Andhowgreatlythesecottagesarecrowded，theReportontheHealthoftheWorking-Classes，quotedabove，bearstestimony:”InLeeds，brothersandsisters，andlodgersofbothsexes，arefoundoccupyingthesamesleeping-roomwiththeparents，andconsequencesoccurwhichhumanityshudderstocontemplate。”So，too，Bradford，which，butsevenmilesfromLeedsatthejunctionofseveralvalleys，liesuponthebanksofasmall，coal-black，foul-smellingstream。Onweek-daysthetownisenvelopedinagreycloudofcoalsmoke，butonafineSundayitoffersasuperbpicture，whenviewedfromthesurroundingheights。YetwithinreignsthesamefilthanddiscomfortasinLeeds。Theolderportionsofthetownarebuiltuponsteephillsides，andarenarrowandirregular。Inthelanes，alleys，andcourtsliefilthanddé；brisinheaps；thehousesareruinous，dirty，andmiserable，andintheimmediatevicinityoftheriverandthevalleybottomIfoundmanyaonewhoseground-floor，half-buriedinthehillside，wastotallyabandoned。Ingeneral，theportionsofthevalleybottominwhichworking-men’scottageshavecrowdedbetweenthetallfactories，areamongtheworst-builtanddirtiestdistrictsofthewholetown。Inthenewerportionsofthis，asofeveryotherfactorytown，thecottagesaremoreregular，beingbuiltinrows，buttheysharehere，too，alltheevilsincidenttothecustomarymethodofprovidingworking-men’sdwellings，evilsofwhichweshallhaveoccasionstospeakmoreparticularlyindiscussingManchester。ThesameistrueoftheremainingtownsoftheWestRiding，especiallyofBarnsley，Halifax，andHuddersfield。
Thelastnamed，thehandsomestbyfarofallthefactorytownsofYorkshireandLancashirebyreasonofitscharmingsituationandmodernarchitecture，hasyetitsbadquarter；foracommitteeappointedbyameetingofcitizenstosurveythetownreportedAugust5th，1844:”ItisnotoriousthattherearewholestreetsinthetownofHuddersfield，andmanycourtsandalleys，whichareneitherflagged，paved，sewered，nordrained；wheregarbageandfilthofeverydescriptionareleftonthesurfacetofermentandrot；wherepoolsofstagnantwaterarealmostconstant，wherethedwellingsadjoiningarethusnecessarilycausedtobeofaninferiorandevenfilthydescription；thuswherediseaseisengendered，andthehealthofthewholetownperilled。”IfwecrossBlackstoneEdgeorpenetrateitwiththerailroad，weenteruponthatclassicsoilonwhichEnglishmanufacturehasachieveditsmasterworkandfromwhichalllabourmovementsemanate，namely，SouthLancashirewithitscentralcityManchester。Againwehavebeautifulhillcountry，slopinggentlyfromthewatershedwestwardstowardstheIrishSea，withthecharminggreenvalleysoftheRibble，theIrwell，theMersey，andtheirtributaries，acountrywhich，ahundredyearsagochieflyswampland，thinlypopulated，isnowsownwithtownsandvillages，andisthemostdenselypopulatedstripofcountryinEngland。InLancashire，andespeciallyinManchester，Englishmanufacturefindsatonceitsstarting-pointanditscentre。TheManchesterExchangeisthethermometerforallthefluctuationsoftrade。
ThemodernartofmanufacturehasreacheditsperfectioninManchester。
InthecottonindustryofSouthLancashire，theapplicationoftheforcesofNature，thesupersedingofhand-labourbymachinery(especiallybythepower-loomandtheself-actingmule)，andthedivisionoflabour，areseenatthehighestpoint；and，ifwerecogniseinthesethreeelementsthatwhichischaracteristicofmodernmanufacture，wemustconfessthatthecottonindustryhasremainedinadvanceofallotherbranchesofindustryfromthebeginningdowntothepresentday。Theeffectsofmodernmanufactureupontheworking-classmustnecessarilydevelopheremostfreelyandperfectly，andthemanufacturingproletariatpresentitselfinitsfullestclassicperfection。Thedegradationtowhichtheapplicationofsteam-power，machineryandthedivisionoflabourreducetheworking-man，andtheattemptsoftheproletariattoriseabovethisabasement，mustlikewisebecarriedtothehighestpointandwiththefullestconsciousness。HencebecauseManchesteristheclassictypeofamodernmanufacturingtown，andbecauseIknowitasintimatelyasmyownnativetown，moreintimatelythanmostofitsresidentsknowit，weshallmakealongerstayhere。
ThetownssurroundingManchestervarylittlefromthecentralcity，sofarastheworking-people’squartersareconcerned，exceptthattheworking-classforms，ifpossible，alargerproportionoftheirpopulation。
ThesetownsarepurelyindustrialandconductalltheirbusinessthroughManchesteruponwhichtheyareineveryrespectdependent，whencetheyareinhabitedonlybyworking-menandpettytradesmen，whileManchesterhasaveryconsiderablecommercialpopulation，especiallyofcommissionand”respectable”retaildealers。HenceBolton，Preston，Wigan，Bury，Rochdale，Middleton，Heywood，Oldham，Ashton，Stalybridge，Stockport，etc。，thoughnearlyalltownsofthirty，fifty，seventytoninetythousandinhabitants，arealmostwhollyworking-people’sdistricts，interspersedonlywithfactories，afewthoroughfareslinedwithshops，andafewlanesalongwhichthegardensandhousesofthemanufacturersarescatteredlikevillas。Thetownsthemselvesarebadlyandirregularlybuiltwithfoulcourts，lanes，andbackalleys，reekingofcoalsmoke，andespeciallydingyfromtheoriginallybrightredbrick，turnedblackwithtime，whichisheretheuniversalbuildingmaterial。Cellardwellingsaregeneralhere；whereveritisinanywaypossible，thesesubterraneandensareconstructed，andaveryconsiderableportionofthepopulationdwellsinthem。
AmongtheworstofthesetownsafterPrestonandOldhamisBolton，elevenmilesnorth-westofManchester。Ithas，sofarasIhavebeenabletoobserveinmyrepeatedvisits，butonemainstreet，averydirtyone，Deansgate，whichservesasamarket，andiseveninthefinestweatheradark，unattractiveholeinspiteofthefactthat，exceptforthefactories，itssidesareformedbylowoneandtwo-storiedhouses。Here，aseverywhere，theolderpartofthetownisespeciallyruinousandmiserable。Adark-colouredbodyofwater，whichleavesthebeholderindoubtwhetheritisabrookoralongstringofstagnantpuddles，flowsthroughthetownandcontributesitssharetothetotalpollutionoftheair，bynomeanspurewithoutit。
ThereisStockport，too，whichliesontheCheshiresideoftheMersey，butbelongsneverthelesstothemanufacturingdistrictofManchester。ItliesinanarrowvalleyalongtheMersey，sothatthestreetsslopedownasteephillononesideandupanequallysteeponeontheother，whiletherailwayfromManchestertoBirminghampassesoverahighviaductabovethecityandthewholevalley。Stockportisrenownedthroughouttheentiredistrictasoneoftheduskiest，smokiestholes，andlooks，indeed，especiallywhenviewedfromtheviaduct，excessivelyrepellent。Butfarmorerepulsivearethecottagesandcellardwellingsoftheworking-class，whichstretchinlongrowsthroughallpartsofthetownfromthevalleybottomtothecrestofthehill。Idonotremembertohaveseensomanycellarsusedasdwellingsinanyothertownofthisdistrict。
Afewmilesnorth-eastofStockportisAshton-under-Lyne，oneofthenewestfactorytownsofthisregion。ItstandsontheslopeofahillatthefootofwhicharethecanalandtheriverTame，andis，ingeneral，builtonthenewer，moreregularplan。Fiveorsixparallelstreetsstretchalongthehill，intersectedatrightanglesbyothersleadingdownintothevalley。Bythismethod，thefactorieswouldbeexcludedfromthetownproper，eveniftheproximityoftheriverandthecanal-waydidnotdrawthemallintothevalleywheretheystandthicklycrowded，belchingforthblacksmokefromtheirchimneys。TothisarrangementAshtonowesamuchmoreattractiveappearancethanthatofmostfactorytowns；thestreetsarebroaderandcleaner，thecottageslooknew，brightred，andcomfortable。
Butthemodernsystemofbuildingcottagesforworking-menhasitsowndisadvantages；everystreethasitsconcealedbacklanetowhichanarrowpavedpathleads，andwhichisallthedirtier。And，althoughIsawnobuildings，exceptafewonentering，whichcouldhavebeenmorethanfiftyyearsold，thereareeveninAshtonstreetsinwhichthecottagesaregettingbad，wherethebricksinthehouse-cornersarenolongerfirmbutshiftabout，inwhichthewallshavecracksandwillnotholdthechalkwhitewashinside；streets，whosedirty，smoke-begrimedaspectisnowisedifferentfromthatoftheothertownsofthedistrict，exceptthatinAshtonthisistheexception，nottherule。
AmileeastwardliesStalybridge，alsoontheTame。IncomingoverthehillfromAshton，thetravellerhas，atthetop，bothrightandleft，finelargegardenswithsuperbvilla-likehousesintheirmidst，builtusuallyintheElizabethanstyle，whichistotheGothicpreciselywhattheAnglicanChurchistotheApostolicRomanCatholic。AhundredpacesfartherandStalybridgeshowsitselfinthevalley，insharpcontrastwiththebeautifulcountryseats，insharpcontrastevenwiththemodestcottagesofAshton！
Stalybridgeliesinanarrow，crookedravine，muchnarrowereventhanthevalleyatStockport，andbothsidesofthisravineareoccupiedbyanirregulargroupofcottages，houses，andmills。Onentering，theveryfirstcottagesarenarrow，smoke-begrimed，oldandruinous；andasthefirsthouses，sothewholetown。Afewstreetslieinthenarrowvalleybottom，mostofthemruncriss-cross，pell-mell，uphillanddown，andinnearlyallthehouses，byreasonofthisslopingsituation，theground-floorishalf-buriedintheearth；andwhatmultitudesofcourts，backlanes，andremotenooksariseoutofthisconfusedwayofbuildingmaybeseenfromthehills，whenceonehasthetown，hereandthere，inabird’s-eyeviewalmostatone’sfeet。Addtothistheshockingfilth，andtherepulsiveeffectofStalybridge，inspiteofitsprettysurroundings，maybereadilyimagined。
Butenoughoftheselittletowns。Eachhasitsownpeculiarities，butingeneral，theworking-peopleliveinthemjustasinManchester。HenceIhaveespeciallysketchedonlytheirpeculiarconstruction，andwouldobservethatallmoregeneralobservationsastotheconditionofthelabouringpopulationinManchesterarefullyapplicabletothesesurroundingtownsaswell。
Manchesterliesatthefootofthesouthernslopeofarangeofhills，whichstretchhitherfromOldham，theirlastpeak，Kersallmoor，beingatoncetheracecourseandtheMonsSacerofManchester。ManchesterproperliesontheleftbankoftheIrwell，betweenthatstreamandthetwosmallerones，theIrkandtheMedlock，whichhereemptyintotheIrwell。OntherightbankoftheIrwell，boundedbyasharpcurveoftheriver，liesSalford，andfartherwestwardPendleton；northwardfromtheIrwelllieUpperandLowerBroughton；northwardoftheIrk，CheethamHill；southoftheMedlockliesHulme；farthereastChorltononMedlock；stillfarther，prettywelltotheeastofManchester，Ardwick。ThewholeassemblageofbuildingsiscommonlycalledManchester，andcontainsaboutfourhundredthousandinhabitnts，rathermorethanless。Thetownitselfispeculiarlybuilt，sothatapersonmayliveinitforyears，andgoinandoutdailywithoutcomingintocontactwithaworking-people’squarterorevenwithworkers，thatis，solongasheconfineshimselftohisbusinessortopleasurewalks。Thisariseschieflyfromthefact，thatbyunconscioustacitagreement，aswellaswithoutspokenconsciousdetermination，theworking-people’squartersaresharplyseparatedfromthesectionsofthecityreservedforthemiddle-
class；or，ifthisdoesnotsucceed，theyareconcealedwiththecloakofcharity。Manchestercontains，atitsheart，aratherextendedcommercialdistrict，perhapshalfamilelongandaboutasbroad，andconsistingalmostwhollyofofficesandwarehouses。Nearlythewholedistrictisabandonedbydwellers，andislonelyanddesertedatnight；onlywatchmenandpolicementraverseitsnarrowlaneswiththeirdarklanterns。Thisdistrictiscutthroughbycertainmainthoroughfaresuponwhichthevasttrafficconcentrates，andinwhichthegroundlevelislinedwithbrilliantshops。Inthesestreetstheupperfloorsareoccupied，hereandthere，andthereisagooddealoflifeuponthemuntillateatnight。Withtheexceptionofthiscommercialdistrict，allManchesterproper，allSalfordandHulme，agreatpartofPendletonandChorlton，two-thirdsofArdwick，andsinglestretchesofCheethamHillandBroughtonareallunmixedworking-people’squarters，stretchinglikeagirdle，averagingamileandahalfinbreadth，aroundthecommercialdistrict。Outside，beyondthisgirdle，livestheupperandmiddlebourgeoisie，themiddlebourgeoisieinregularlylaidoutstreetsinthevicinityoftheworkingquarters，especiallyinChorltonandthelowerlyingportionsofCheethamHill；theupperbourgeoisieinremotervillaswithgardensinChorltonandArdwick，oronthebreezyheightsofCheethamHill，Broughton，andPendleton，infree，wholesomecountryair，infine，comfortablehomes，passedonceeveryhalforquarterhourbyomnibusesgoingintothecity。Andthefinestpartofthearrangementisthis，thatthemembersofthismoneyaristocracycantaketheshortestroadthroughthemiddleofallthelabouringdistrictstotheirplacesofbusinesswithouteverseeingthattheyareinthemidstofthegrimymiserythatlurkstotherightandtheleft。ForthethoroughfaresleadingfromtheExchangeinalldirectionsoutofthecityarelined，onbothsides，withanalmostunbrokenseriesofshops，andaresokeptinthehandsofthemiddleandlowerbourgeoisie，which，outofself-interest，caresforadecentandcleanlyexternalappearanceandcancareforit。True，theseshopsbearsomerelationtothedistrictswhichliebehindthem，andaremoreelegantinthecommercialandresidentialquartersthanwhentheyhidegrimyworking-men’sdwellings；buttheysufficetoconcealfromtheeyesofthewealthymenandwomenofstrongstomachsandweaknervesthemiseryandgrimewhichformthecomplementoftheirwealth。’So，forinstance，Deansgate，whichleadsfromtheOldChurchdirectlysouthward，islinedfirstwithmillsandwarehouses，thenwithsecond-rateshopsandalehouses；farthersouth，whenitleavesthecommercialdistrict，withlessinvitingshops，whichgrowdirtierandmoreinterruptedbybeerhousesandgin-palacesthefartheronegoes，untilatthesouthernendtheappearanceoftheshopsleavesnodoubtthatworkersandworkersonlyaretheircustomers。SoMarketStreetrunningsouth-eastfromtheExchange；atfirstbrilliantshopsofthebestsort，withcounting-housesorwarehousesabove；inthecontinuation，Piccadilly，immensehotelsandwarehouses；inthefarthercontinuation，LondonRoad，intheneighbourhoodoftheMedlock，factories，beerhouses，shopsforthehumblerbourgeoisieandtheworkingpopulations；andfromthispointonward，largegardensandvillasofthewealthiermerchantsandmanufacturers。
InthiswayanyonewhoknowsManchestercaninfertheadjoiningdistrictsfromtheappearanceofthethoroughfare，butoneisseldominapositiontocatchfromthestreetaglimpseofthereallabouringdistricts。Iknowverywellthatthishypocriticalplanismoreorlesscommontoallgreatcities；Iknow，too，thattheretaildealersareforcedbythenatureoftheirbusinesstotakepossessionofthegreathighways；Iknowthattherearemoregoodbuildingsthanbadonesuponsuchstreetseverywhere，andthatthevalueoflandisgreaternearthemthaninremoterdistricts；
butatthesametimeIhaveneverseensosystematicashuttingoutoftheworking-classfromthethoroughfares，sotenderaconcealmentofeverythingwhichmightaffronttheeyeandthenervesofthebourgeoisie，asinManchester。
Andyet，inotherrespects，Manchesterislessbuiltaccordingtoaplan，afterofficialsregulations，ismoreanoutgrowthofaccidentthananyothercity；andwhenIconsiderinthisconnectiontheeagerassurancesofthemiddle-class，thattheworking-classisdoingfamously，IcannothelpfeelingthattheLiberalmanufacturers，the”BigWigs”ofManchester，arenotsoinnocentafterall，inthematterofthisshamefulmethodofconstruction。
Imaymentionjustherethatthemillsalmostalladjointheriversorthedifferentcanalsthatramifythroughoutthecity，beforeIproceedatoncetodescribethelabouringquarters。Firstofall，thereistheOldTownofManchester，whichliesbetweenthenorthernboundaryofthecommercialdistrictandtheIrk。Herethestreets，eventhebetterones，arenarrowandwinding，asToddStreet，LongMillgate，WithyGrove，andShudeHill，thehousesdirty，old，andtumble-down，andtheconstructionofthesidestreetsutterlyhorrible。GoingfromtheOldChurchtoLongMillgate，thestrollerhasatoncearowofold-fashionedhousesattheright，ofwhichnotonehaskeptitsoriginallevel；theseareremnantsoftheoldpre-manufacturingManchester，whoseformerinhabitantshaveremovedwiththeirdescendantsintobetter-builtdistricts，andhaveleftthehouses，whichwerenotgoodenoughforthem，toapopulationstronglymixedwithIrishblood。Hereoneisinanalmostundisguisedworking-men’squarter，foreventheshopsandbeerhouseshardlytakethetroubletoexhibitatriflingdegreeofcleanliness。Butallthisisnothingincomparisonwiththecourtsandlaneswhichliebehind，towhichaccesscanbegainedonlythroughcoveredpassages，inwhichnotwohumanbeingscanpassatthesametime。Oftheirregularcrammingtogetherofdwellingsinwayswhichdefyallrationalplan，ofthetangleinwhichtheyarecrowdedliterallyoneupontheother，itisimpossibletoconveyanidea。AnditisnotthebuildingssurvivingfromtheoldtimesofManchesterwhicharetoblameforthis；theconfusionhasonlyrecentlyreacheditsheightwheneveryscrapofspaceleftbytheoldwayofbuildinghasbeenfilledupandpatchedoveruntilnotafootoflandislefttobefurtheroccupied。
ToconfirmmystatementIhavedrawnhereasmallsectionoftheplanofManchester——nottheworstspotandnotone-tenthofthewholeOldTown。
Thisdrawingwillsufficetocharacterisetheirrationalmannerinwhichtheentiredistrictwasbuilt，particularlythepartneartheIrk。
ThesouthbankoftheIrkishereverysteepandbetweenfifteenandthirtyfeethigh。Onthisdeclivitoushillsidethereareplantedthreerowsofhouses，ofwhichthelowestrisedirectlyoutoftheriver，whilethefrontwallsofthehigheststandonthecrestofthehillinLongMillgate。
Amongthemaremillsontheriver，inshort，themethodofconstructionisascrowdedanddisorderlyhereasinthelowerpartofLongMillgate。
Rightandleftamultitudeofcoveredpassagesleadfromthemainstreetintonumerouscourts，andhewhoturnsinthithergetsintoafilthanddisgustinggrime，theequalofwhichisnottobefound——especiallyinthecourtswhichleaddowntotheIrk，andwhichcontainunqualifiedlythemosthorribledwellingswhichIhaveyetbeheld。Inoneofthesecourtstherestandsdirectlyattheentrance，attheendofthecoveredpassage，aprivywithoutadoor，sodirtythattheinhabitantscanpassintoandoutofthecourtonlybypassingthroughfoulpoolsofstagnanturineandexcrement。ThisisthefirstcourtontheIrkaboveDucieBridge——incaseanyoneshouldcaretolookintoit。Belowitontheriverthereareseveraltannerieswhichfillthewholeneighbourhoodwiththestenchofanimalputrefaction。BelowDucieBridgetheonlyentrancetomostofthehousesisbymeansofnarrow，dirtystairsandoverheapsofrefuseandfilth。ThefirstcourtbelowDucieBridge，knownasAllen’sCourt，wasinsuchastateatthetimeofthecholerathatthesanitarypoliceordereditevacuated，swept，anddisinfectedwithchlorideoflime。Dr。Kaygivesaterribledescriptionofthestateofthiscourtatthattime。[10]Sincethen，itseemstohavebeenpartiallytornawayandrebuilt；atleastlookingdownfromDucieBridge，thepasser-byseesseveralruinedwallsandheapsofdebriswithsomenewerhouses。Theviewfromthisbridge，mercifullyconcealedfrommortalsofsmallstaturebyaparapetashighasaman，ischaracteristicforthewholedistrict。Atthebottomflows，orratherstagnates，theIrk，anarrow，coal-black，foul-smellingstream，fullofdebrisandrefuse，whichitdepositson。theshallowerrightbank。Indryweather，alongstringofthemostdisgusting，blackish-green，slimepoolsareleftstandingonthisbank，fromthedepthsofwhichbubblesofmiasmaticgasconstantlyariseandgiveforthastenchunendurableevenonthebridgefortyorfiftyfeetabovethesurfaceofthestream。Butbesidesthis，thestreamitselfischeckedeveryfewpacesbyhighweirs，behindwhichslimeandrefuseaccumulateandrotinthickmasses。Abovethebridgearetanneries，bonemills，andgasworks，fromwhichalldrainsandrefusefindtheirwayintotheIrk，whichreceivesfurtherthecontentsofalltheneighbouringsewersandprivies。Itmaybeeasilyimagined，therefore，whatsortofresiduethestreamdeposits。Belowthebridgeyoulookuponthepilesofdé；bris，therefuse，filth，andoffalfromthecourtsonthesteepleftbank；hereeachhouseispackedclosebehinditsneighbourandapieceofeachisvisible，allblack，smoky，crumbling，ancient，withbrokenpanesandwindow-frames。Thebackgroundisfurnishedbyoldbarrack-likefactorybuildings。Onthelowerrightbankstandsalongrowofhousesandmills；thesecondhousebeingaruinwithoutaroof，piledwithdé；bris；thethirdstandssolowthatthelowestfloorisuninhabitable，andthereforewithoutwindowsordoors。Herethebackgroundembracesthepauperburial-ground，thestationoftheLiverpoolandLeedsrailway，and，intherearofthis，theWorkhouse，the”Poor-LawBastille”ofManchester，which，likeacitadel，looksthreateninglydownfrombehinditshighwallsandparapetsonthehilltop，upontheworking-people’aquarterbelow。
AboveDucieBridge，theleftbankgrowsmoreflatandtherightbanksteeper，buttheconditionofthedwellingsonbothbankgrowsworseratherthanbetter。Hewhoturnstotheleftherefromthemainstreet，LongMillgate，islost；hewandersfromonecourttoanother，turnscountlesscorners，passesnothingbutnarrow，filthynooksandalleys，untilafterafewminuteshehaslostallclue，andknowsnotwhithertoturn。Everywherehalforwhollyruinedbuildings，someofthemactuallyuninhabited，whichmeansagreatdealhere；rarelyawoodenorstonefloortobeseeninthehouses，almostuniformlybroken，ill-fittingwindowsanddoors，andastateoffilth！Everywhereheapsofdé；bris，refuse，andoffal；standingpoolsforgutters，andastenchwhichalonewouldmakeitimpossibleforahumanbeinginanydegreecivilisedtoliveinsuchadistrict。ThenewlybuiltextensionoftheLeedsrailway，whichcrossestheIrkhere，hassweptawaysomeofthesecourtsandlanes，layingotherscompletelyopentoview。
Immediatelyundertherailwaybridgetherestandsacourt，thefilthandhorrorsofwhichsurpassalltheothersbyfar，justbecauseitwashithertososhutoff，sosecludedthatthewaytoitcouldnotbefoundwithoutagooddealoftrouble，Ishouldneverhavediscovereditmyself，withoutthebreaksmadebytherailway，thoughIthoughtIknewthiswholeregionthoroughly。Passingalongaroughbank，amongstakesandwashing-lines，onepenetratesintothischaosofsmallone-storied，one-roomedhuts，inmostofwhichthereisnoartificialfloor；kitchen，livingandsleeping-roomallinone。Insuchahole，scarcelyfivefeetlongbysixbroad，Ifoundtwobeds——andsuchbedsteadsandbeds！——which，withastaircaseandchimney-place，exactlyfilledtheroom。InseveralothersIfoundabsolutelynothing，whilethedoorstoodopen，andtheinhabitantsleanedagainstit。Everywherebeforethedoorsrefuseandoffal；thatanysortofpavementlayunderneathcouldnotbeseenbutonlyfelt，hereandthere，withthefeet。Thiswholecollectionofcattle-shedsforhumanbeingswassurroundedontwosidesbyhousesandafactory，andonthethirdbytheriver，andbesidesthenarrowstairupthebank，anarrowdoorwayaloneledoutintoanotheralmostequallyill-built，ill-keptlabyrinthofdwellings。
Enough！ThewholesideoftheIrkisbuiltinthisway，aplanless，knottedchaosofhouses，moreorlessonthevergeofuninhabitableness，whoseuncleaninteriorsfullycorrespondwiththeirfilthyexternalsurroundings。
Andhowcouldthepeoplebecleanwithnoproperopportunityforsatisfyingthemostnaturalandordinarywants？Priviesaresorareherethattheyareeitherfilledupeveryday，oraretooremoteformostoftheinhabitantstouse。HowcanpeoplewashwhentheyhaveonlythedirtyIrkwaterathand，whilepumpsandwaterpipescanbefoundindecentpartsofthecityalone？Intruth，itcannotbechargedtotheaccountofthesehelotsofmodernsocietyiftheirdwellingsarenotmorecleanlythanthepig-stieswhicharehereandtheretobeseenamongthem。ThelandlordsarenotashamedtoletdwellingslikethesixorsevencellarsonthequaydirectlybelowScotlandBridge，thefloorsofwhichstandatleasttwofeetbelowthelow-waterleveloftheIrkthatflowsnotsixfeetawayfromthem；orliketheupperfloorofthecorner-houseontheoppositeshoredirectlyabovethebridge，wheretheground-floor，utterlyuninhabitable，standsdeprivedofallfittingsfordoorsandwindows，acasebynomeansrareinthisregion，whenthisopenground-floorisusedasaprivybythewholeneighbourhoodforwantofotherfacilities！
IfweleavetheIrkandpenetrateoncemoreontheoppositesidefromLongMillgateintothemidstoftheworking-men’sdwellings，weshallcomeintoasomewhatnewerquarter，whichstretchesfromSt。Michael’sChurchtoWithyGroveandShudeHill。Herethereissomewhatbetterorder。Inplaceofthechaosofbuildings，wefindatleastlongstraightlanesandalleysorcourts，builtaccordingtoaplanandusuallysquare。Butif，intheformercase，everyhousewasbuiltaccordingtocaprice，hereeachlaneandcourtissobuilt，withoutreferencetothesituationoftheadjoiningones。Thelanesrunnowinthisdirection，nowinthat，whileeverytwominutesthewanderergetsintoablindalley，or，onturningacorner，findshimselfbackwherehestartedfrom；certainlynoonewhohasnotlivedaconsiderabletimeinthislabyrinthcanfindhiswaythroughit。
IfImayusethewordatallinspeakingofthisdistrict，theventilationofthesestreetsandcourtsis，inconsequenceofthisconfusion，quiteasimperfectasintheIrkregion；andifthisquartermay，nevertheless，besaidtohavesomeadvantageoverthatoftheIrk，thehousesbeingnewerandthestreetsoccasionallyhavinggutters，nearlyeveryhousehas，ontheotherhand，acellardwelling，whichisrarelyfoundintheIrkdistrict，byreasonofthegreaterageandmorecarelessconstructionofthehouses。
Asfortherest，thefilth，dé；bris，andoffalheaps，andthepoolsinthestreetsarecommontobothquarters，andinthedistrictnowunderdiscussion，anotherfeaturemostinjurioustothecleanlinessoftheinhabitants，isthemultitudeofpigswalkingaboutinallthealleys，rootingintotheoffalheaps，orkeptimprisonedinsmallpens。Here，asinmostoftheworking-men’squartersofManchester，thepork-raisersrentthecourtsandbuildpig-pensinthem。Inalmosteverycourtoneorevenseveralsuchpensmaybefound，intowhichtheinhabitantsofthecourtthrowallrefuseandoffal，whencetheswinegrowfat；andtheatmosphere，confinedonallfoursides，isutterlycorruptedbyputrefyinganimalandvegetablesubstances。Throughthisquarter，abroadandmeasurablydecentstreethasbeencut，MillersStreet，andthebackgroundhasbeenprettysuccessfullyconcealed。Butifanyoneshouldbeledbycuriositytopassthroughoneofthenumerouspassageswhichleadintothecourts，hewillfindthispiggeryrepeatedateverytwentypaces。
SuchistheOldTownofManchester，andonre-readingmydescription，Iamforcedtoadmitthatinsteadofbeingexaggerated，itisfarfromblackenoughtoconveyatrueimpressionofthefilth，ruin，anduninhabitableness，thedefianceofallconsiderationsofcleanliness，ventilation，andhealthwhichcharacterisetheconstructionofthissingledistrict，containingatleasttwentytothirtythousandinhabitants。AndsuchadistrictexistsintheheartofthesecondcityofEngland，thefirstmanufacturingcityoftheworld。Ifanyonewishestoseeinhowlittlespaceahumanbeingcanmove，howlittleair——andsuchair！——hecanbreathe，howlittleofcivilisationhemayshareandyetlive，itisonlynecessarytotravelhither。True，thisistheOldTown，andthepeopleofManchesteremphasisethefactwheneveranyonementionstothemthefrightfulconditionofthisHelluponEarth；butwhatdoesthatprove？Everythingwhichherearouseshorrorandindignationisofrecentorigin，belongstotheindustrialepoch。Thecoupleofhundredhouses，whichbelongtooldManchester，havebeenlongsinceabandonedbytheiroriginalinhabitants；
theindustrialepochalonehascrammedintothemtheswarmsofworkerswhomtheynowshelter；theindustrialepochalonehasbuiltupeveryspotbetweentheseoldhousestowinacoveringforthemasseswhomithasconjuredhitherfromtheagriculturaldistrictsandfromIreland；theindustrialepochaloneenablestheownersofthesecattleshedstorentthemforhighpricestohumanbeings，toplunderthepovertyoftheworkers，tounderminethehealthofthousands，inorderthattheyalone，theowners，maygrowrich。Intheindustrialepochalonehasitbecomepossiblethattheworkerscarcelyfreedfromfeudalservitudecouldbeusedasmerematerial，amerechattel；thathemustlethimselfbecrowdedintoadwellingtoobadforeveryother，whichheforhishard-earnedwagesbuystherighttoletgoutterlytoruin。Thismanufacturehasachieved，which，withouttheseworkers，thispoverty，thisslaverycouldnothavelived。True，theoriginalconstructionofthisquarterwasbad，littlegoodcouldhavebeenmadeoutofit；but，havethelandowners，hasthemunicipalitydoneanythingtoimproveitwhenrebuilding？Onthecontrary，whereveranookorcornerwasfree，ahousehasbeenrunup；whereasuperfluouspassageremained，ithasbeenbuiltup；thevalueoflandrosewiththeblossomingoutofmanufacture，andthemoreitrose，themoremadlywastheworkofbuildingupcarriedon，withoutreferencetothehealthorcomfortoftheinhabitants，withsolereferencetothehighestpossibleprofitontheprinciplethatnoholeissobadbutthatsomepoorcreaturemusttakeitwhocanpayfornothingbetter。However，itistheOldTown，andwiththisreflectionthebourgeoisieiscomforted。Letussee，therefore，howmuchbetteritisintheNewTown。
TheNewTown，knownalsoasIrishTown，stretchesupahillofclay，beyondtheOldTown，betweentheIrkandSt。George’sRoad。Hereallthefeaturesofacityarelost。Singlerowsofhousesorgroupsofstreetsstand，hereandthere，likelittlevillagesonthenaked，notevengrass-grownclaysoil；thehouses，orrathercottages，areinbadorder，neverrepaired，filthy，withdamp，unclean，cellardwellings；thelanesareneitherpavednorsuppliedwithsewers，butharbournumerouscoloniesofswinepennedinsmallstiesoryards，orwanderingunrestrainedthroughtheneighbourhood。Themudinthestreetsissodeepthatthereisneverachance，exceptinthedryestweather，ofwalkingwithoutsinkingintoitankledeepateverystep。InthevicinityofSt。George’sRoad，theseparategroupsofbuildingsapproacheachothermoreclosely，endinginacontinuationoflanes，blindalleys，backlanesandcourts，whichgrowmoreandmorecrowdedandirregularthenearertheyapproachtheheartofthetown。True，theyarehereoftenerpavedorsuppliedwithpavedsidewalksandgutters；butthefilth，thebadorderofthehouses，andespeciallyofthecellars，remainthesame。
Itmaynotbeoutofplacetomakesomegeneralobservationsjusthereastothecustomaryconstructionofworking-men’squartersinManchester。
WehaveseenhowintheOldTownpureaccidentdeterminedthegroupingofthehousesingeneral。Everyhouseisbuiltwithoutreferencetoanyother，andthescrapsofspacebetweenthemarecalledcourtsforwantofanothername。Inthesomewhatnewerportionsofthesamequarter，andinotherworking-men’squarters，datingfromtheearlydaysofindustrialactivity，asomewhatmoreorderlyarrangementmaybefound。Thespacebetweentwostreetsisdividedintomoreregular，usuallysquarecourts。
Thesecourtswerebuiltinthiswayfromthebeginning，andcommunicatewiththestreetsbymeansofcoveredpassages。Ifthetotallyplanlessconstructionisinjurioustothehealthoftheworkersbypreventingventilation，thismethodofshuttingthemupincourtssurroundedonallsidesbybuildingsisfarmoreso。Theairsimplycannotescape；thechimneysofthehousesarethesoledrainsfortheimprisonedatmosphereofthecourts，andtheyservethepurposeonlysolongasfireiskeptburning。[11]Moreover，thehousessurroundingsuchcourtsareusuallybuiltbacktoback，havingtherearwallincommon；andthisalonesufficestopreventanysufficientthroughventilation。And，asthepolicechargedwithcareofthestreetsdoesnottroubleitselfabouttheconditionofthesecourts，aseverythingquietlylieswhereitisthrown，thereisnocauseforwonderatthefilthandheapsofashesandoffaltobefoundhere。Ihavebeenincourts，inMillersStreet，atleasthalfafootbelowthelevelofthethoroughfare，andwithouttheslightestdrainageforthewaterthataccumulatesintheminrainyweather！
Morerecentlyanotherdifferentmethodofbuildingwasadopted，andhasnowbecomegeneral。Working-men’scottagesarealmostneverbuiltsingly，butalwaysbythedozenorscore；asinglecontractorbuildinguponeortwostreetsatatime。Thesearethenarrangedasfollows:Onefrontisformedofcottagesofthebestclass，sofortunateastopossessabackdoorandsmallcourt，andthesecommandthehighestrent。Intherearofthesecottagesrunsanarrowalley，thebackstreet，builtupatbothends，intowhicheitheranarrowroadwayoracoveredpassageleadsfromoneside。Thecottageswhichfacethisbackstreetcommandleastrent，andaremostneglected。Thesehavetheirrearwallsincommonwiththethirdrowofcottages，whichfaceasecondstreetandcommandlessrentthanthefirstrowandmorethanthesecond。Thestreetsarelaidoutsomewhatinthefollowingmanner:
Bythismethodofconstruction，comparativelygoodventilationcanbeobtainedforthefirstrowofcottages，andthethirdrowisnoworseoffthanintheformermethod。Themiddlerow，ontheotherhand，isatleastasbadlyventilatedasthehousesinthecourts，andthebackstreetisalwaysinthesamefilthy，disgustingconditionasthey。Thecontractorspreferthismethodbecauseitsavesthemspace，andfurnishesthemeansoffleecingbetter-paidworkersthroughthehigherrentsofthecottagesinthefirstandthirdrows。
ThesethreedifferentformsofcottagebuildingarefoundalloverManchesterandthroughoutLancashireandYorkshire，oftenmixeduptogether，butusuallyseparateenoughtoindicatetherelativeageofpartsoftowns。Thethirdsystem，thatofthebackalleys，prevailslargelyinthegreatworking-men’sdistricteastofSt。George’sRoadandAncoatsStreet，andistheonemostoftenfoundintheotherworking-men’squartersofManchesteranditssuburbs。
Inthelast-mentionedbroaddistrictincludedunderthenameAncoats，standthelargestmillsofManchesterliningthecanals，colossalsixandseven-storiedbuildingstoweringwiththeirslenderchimneysfarabovethelowcottagesoftheworkers。Thepopulationofthedistrictconsists，therefore，chieflyofmill-hands，andintheworststreets，ofhand-weavers。
Thestreetsnearesttheheartofthetownaretheoldest，andconsequentlytheworst；theyare，however，paved，andsuppliedwithdrains。AmongthemIincludethosenearesttoandparallelwithOldhamRoadandGreatAncoatsStreet。Farthertothenorth-eastliemanynewlybuilt-upstreets；herethecottageslookneatandcleanly，doorsandwindowsarenewandfreshlypainted，theroomswithinnewlywhitewashed；thestreetsthemselvesarebetteraired，thevacantbuildinglotsbetweenthemlargerandmorenumerous。
Butthiscanbesaidofaminorityofthehousesonly，whilecellardwellingsaretobefoundunderalmosteverycottage；manystreetsareunpavedandwithoutsewers；and，worsethanall，thisneatappearanceisallpretence，apretencewhichvanisheswithinthefirsttenyears。Fortheconstructionofthecottagesindividuallyisnolesstobecondemnedthantheplanofthestreets。Allsuchcottageslookneatandsubstantialatfirst；theirmassivebrickwallsdeceivetheeye，and，onpassingthroughanewlybuiltworking-men’sstreet，withoutrememberingthebackalleysandtheconstructionofthehousesthemselves，oneisinclinedtoagreewiththeassertionoftheLiberalmanufacturersthattheworkingpopulationisnowheresowellhousedasinEngland。Butoncloserexamination，itbecomesevidentthatthewallsofthesecottagesareasthinasitispossibletomakethem。
Theouterwalls，thoseofthecellar，whichbeartheweightoftheground-floorandroof，areonewholebrickthickatmost，thebrickslyingwiththeirlongsidestouching；
butIhaveseenmanyacottageofthesameheight，someinprocessofbuilding，whoseouterwallswerebutone-halfbrickthick，thebrickslyingnotsidewisebutlengthwise，theirnarrowendstouching。
Theobjectofthisistosparematerial，butthereisalsoanotherreasonforit；namely，thefactthatthecontractorsneverownthelandbutleaseit，accordingtotheEnglishcustom，fortwenty，thirty，forty，fifty，orninety-nineyears，attheexpirationofwhichtimeitfalls，witheverythinguponit，backintothepossessionoftheoriginalholder，whopaysnothinginreturnforimprovementsuponit。Theimprovementsarethereforesocalculatedbythelesseeastobeworthaslittleaspossibleattheexpirationofthestipulatedterm。Andassuchcottagesareoftenbuiltbuttwentyorthirtyyearsbeforetheexpirationoftheterm，itmayeasilybeimaginedthatthecontractorsmakenounnecessaryexpendituresuponthem。Moreover，thesecontractors，usuallycarpentersandbuilders，ormanufacturers，spendlittleornothinginrepairs，partlytoavoiddiminishingtheirrentreceipts，andpartlyinviewoftheap-proachingsurrenderoftheimprovementtothelandowner；whileinconsequenceofcommercialcrisesandthelossofworkthatfollowsthem，wholestreetsoftenstandempty，thecottagesfallingrapidlyintoruinanduninhabitableness。Itiscalculatedingeneralthatworking-men’scottageslastonlyfortyyearsontheaverage。Thissoundsstrangelyenoughwhenoneseesthebeautiful，massivewallsofnewlybuiltones，whichseemtogivepromiseoflastingacoupleofcenturies；butthefactremainsthattheniggardlinessoftheoriginalexpenditure，theneglectofallrepairs，thefrequentperiodsofemptiness，theconstantchangeofinhabitants，andthedestructioncarriedonbythedwellersduringthefinaltenyears，usuallyIrishfamilies，whodonothesitatetousethewoodenportionsforfirewood——allthis，takentogether，accomplishesthecompleteruinofthecottagesbytheendoffortyyears。HenceitcomesthatAncoats，builtchieflysincethesuddengrowthofmanufacture，chieflyindeedwithinthepresentcentury，containsavastnumberofruinoushouses，mostofthembeing，infact，inthelaststagesofinhabitableness。Iwillnotdwellupontheamountofcapitalthuswasted，thesmalladditionalexpenditureupontheoriginalimprovementanduponrepairswhichwouldsufficetokeepthiswholedistrictclean，decent，andinhabitableforyearstogether。Ihavetodealherewiththestateofthehousesandtheirinhabitants，anditmustbeadmittedthatnomoreinjuriousanddemoralisingmethodofhousingtheworkershasyetbeendiscoveredthanpreciselythis。
Theworking-manisconstrainedtooccupysuchruinousdwellingsbecausehecannotpayforothers，andbecausetherearenoothersinthevicinityofhismill；perhaps，too，becausetheybelongtotheemployer，whoengageshimonlyonconditionofhistakingsuchacottage。Thecalculationwithreferencetothefortyyears’durationofthecottageis，ofcourse，notalwaysperfectlystrict；for，ifthedwellingsareinathicklybuilt-upportionofthetown，andthereisagoodprospectoffindingsteadyoccupantsforthem，whiletheground-rentishigh，thecontractorsdoalittlesomethingtokeepthecottagesinhabitableaftertheexpirationofthefortyyears。
Theyneverdoanythingmore，however，thanisabsolutelyunavoidable，andthedwellingssorepairedaretheworstofall。Occasionallywhenanepidemicthreatens，theotherwisesleepyconscienceofthesanitarypoliceisalittlestirred，raidsaremadeintotheworking-men’sdistricts，wholerowsofcellarsandcottagesareclosed，ashappenedinthecaseofseverallanesnearOldhamRoad；butthisdoesnotlastlong:thecondemnedcottagessoonfindoccupantsagain，theownersaremuchbetteroffbylettingthem，andthesanitarypolicewon’tcomeagainsosoon。Theseeastandnorth-eastsidesofManchesteraretheonlyonesonwhichthebourgeoisiehasnotbuilt，becausetenorelevenmonthsoftheyearthewestandsouth-westwinddrivesthesmokeofallthefactorieshither，andthattheworking-peoplealonemaybreathe。
SouthwardfromGreatAncoatsStreet，liesagreat，straggling，working-men’squarter，ahilly，barrenstretchofland，occupiedbydetached，irregularlybuiltrowsofhousesorsquares，betweenthese，emptybuildinglots，uneven，clayey，withoutgrassandscarcelypassableinwetweather。Thecottagesareallfilthyandold，andrecalltheNewTowntomind。ThestretchcutthroughbytheBirminghamrailwayisthemostthicklybuilt-upandtheworst。HereflowstheMedlockwithcountlesswindingsthroughavalley，whichis，inplaces，onalevelwiththevalleyoftheIrk。Alongbothsidesofthestream，whichiscoal-black，stagnantandfoul，stretchesabroadbeltoffactoriesandworking-men’sdwellings，thelatterallintheworstcondition。Thebankischieflydeclivitousandisbuiltovertothewater’sedge，justaswesawalongtheIrk；whilethehousesareequallybad，whetherbuiltontheManchestersideorinArdwick，Chorlton，orHulme。Butthemosthorriblespot(ifIshoulddescribealltheseparatespotsindetailIshouldnevercometotheend)liesontheManchesterside，immediatelysouth-westofOxfordRoad，andisknownasLittleIreland。
Inaratherdeephole，inacurveoftheMedlockandsurroundedonallfoursidesbytallfactoriesandhighembankments，coveredwithbuildings，standtwogroupsofabouttwohundredcottages，builtchieflybacktoback，inwhichliveaboutfourthousandhumanbeings，mostofthemIrish。Thecottagesareold，dirty，andofthesmallestsort，thestreetsuneven，fallenintorutsandinpartwithoutdrainsorpavement；massesofrefuse，offalandsickeningfilthlieamongstandingpoolsinalldirections；theatmosphereispoisonedbytheeffluviafromthese，andladenanddarkenedbythesmokeofadozentallfactorychimneys。Ahordeofraggedwomenandchildrenswarmabouthere，asfilthyastheswinethatthriveuponthegarbageheapsandinthepuddles。Inshort，thewholerookeryfurnishessuchahatefulandrepulsivespectacleascanhardlybeequalledintheworstcourtontheIrk。Theracethatlivesintheseruinouscottages，behindbrokenwindows，mendedwithoilskin，sprungdoors，androttendoorposts，orindark，wetcellars，inmeasurelessfilthandstench，inthisatmospherepennedinasifwithapurpose，thisracemustreallyhavereachedtheloweststageofhumanity。Thisistheimpressionandthelineofthoughtwhichtheexteriorofthisdistrictforcesuponthebeholder。Butwhatmustonethinkwhenhehearsthatineachofthesepens，containingatmosttworooms，agarretandperhapsacellar，ontheaveragetwentyhumanbeingslive；thatinthewholeregion，foreachonehundredandtwentypersons，oneusuallyinaccessibleprivyisprovided；andthatinspiteofallthepreachingsofthephysicians，inspiteoftheexcitementintowhichthecholeraepidemicplungedthesanitarypolicebyreasonoftheconditionofLittleIreland，inspiteofeverything，inthisyearofgrace1844，itisinalmostthesamestateasin1831！Dr。Kayassertsthatnotonlythecellarsbutthefirstfloorsofallthehousesinthisdistrictaredamp；thatanumberofcellarsoncefilledupwithearthhavenowbeenemptiedandareoccupiedoncemorebyIrishpeople；thatinonecellarthewaterconstantlywellsupthroughaholestoppedwithclay，thecellarlyingbelowtheriverlevel，sothatitsoccupant，ahand-loomweaver，hadtobaleoutthewaterfromhisdwellingeverymorningandpouritintothestreet！
Fartherdown，ontheleftsideoftheMedlock，liesHulme，whichproperlyspeaking，isonegreatworking-people’sdistrict，theconditionofwhichcoincidesalmostexactlywiththatofAncoats；themorethicklybuilt-upregionschieflybadandapproachingruin，thelesspopulousofmoremodernstructure，butgenerallysunkinfilth。OntheothersideoftheMedlock，inManchesterproper，liesasecondgreatworking-men’sdistrictwhichstretchesonbothsidesofDeansgateasfarasthebusinessquarter，andincertainpartsrivalstheOldTown。Especiallyintheimmediatevicinityofthebusinessquarter，betweenBridgeandQuayStreets，PrincessandPeterStreets，thecrowdedconstructionexceedsinplacesthenarrowestcourtsoftheOldTown。Herearelongnarrowlanesbetweenwhichruncontracted，crookedcourtsandpassages，theentrancestowhicharesoirregularthattheexploreriscaughtinablindalleyateveryfewsteps，orcomesoutwhereheleastexpectsto，unlessheknowseverycourtandeveryalleyexactlyandseparately。AccordingtoDr。Kay，themostdemoralisedclassofallManchesterlivedintheseruinousandfilthydistricts，peoplewhoseoccupationsarethievingandprostitutionand，toallappearances，hisassertionisstilltrueatthepresentmoment。Whenthesanitarypolicemadeitsexpeditionhitherin1851，itfoundtheuncleannessasgreatasinLittleIrelandoralongtheIrk(thatitisnotmuchbettertoday，I
cantestify)；andamongotheritems，theyfoundinParliamentStreetforthreehundredandeightypersons，andinParliamentPassageforthirtythicklypopulatedhouses，butasingleprivy。
IfwecrosstheIrwelltoSalford，wefindonapeninsulaformedbytheriveratownofeightythousandinhabitants，which，properlyspeaking，isonelargeworking-men’squarter，penetratedbyasinglewideavenue。
Salford，oncemoreimportantthanManchester，wasthentheleadingtownofthesurroundingdistricttowhichitstillgivesitsname，SalfordHundred。
Henceitisthatanoldandthereforeveryunwholesome，dirty，andruinouslocalityistobefoundhere，lyingoppositetheOldChurchofManchester，andinasbadaconditionastheOldTownontheothersideoftheIrwell。
Fartherawayfromtheriverliesthenewerportion，whichis，however，alreadybeyondthelimitofitsfortyyearsofcottagelife，andthereforeruinousenough。AllSalfordisbuiltincourtsornarrowlanes，sonarrow，thattheyremindmeofthenarrowestIhaveeverseen，thelittlelanesofGenoa。TheaverageconstructionofSalfordisinthisrespectmuchworsethanthatofManchester，andso，too，inrespecttocleanliness。If，inManchester，thepolice，fromtimetotime，everysixortenyears，makesaraidupontheworking-people’sdistricts，closestheworstdwellings，andcausesthefilthiestspotsintheseAugeanstablestobecleansed，inSalforditseemstohavedoneabsolutelynothing。ThenarrowsidelanesandcourtsofChapelStreet，Greengate，andGravelLanehavecertainlyneverbeencleansedsincetheywerebuilt。Oflate，theLiverpoolrailwayhasbeencarriedthroughthemiddleofthem，overahighviaduct，andhasabolishedmanyofthefilthiestnooks；butwhatdoesthatavail？Whoeverpassesoverthisviaductandlooksdown，seesfilthandwretchednessenough；
and，ifanyonetakesthetroubletopassthroughtheselanesandglancethroughtheopendoorsandwindowsintothehousesandcellars，hecanconvincehimselfafreshwitheverystepthattheworkersofSalfordliveindwellingsinwhichcleanlinessandcomfortareimpossible。ExactlythesamestateofaffairsisfoundinthemoredistantregionsofSalford，inIslington，alongRegentRoad，andbackoftheBoltonrailway。Theworking-men’sdwellingsbetweenOldfieldRoadandCrossLane，whereamassofcourtsandalleysaretobefoundintheworstpossiblestate，viewiththedwellingsoftheOldTowninfilthandovercrowding。InthisdistrictIfoundaman，apparentlyaboutsixtyyearsold，livinginacow-stable。Hehadconstructedasortofchimneyforhissquarepen，whichhadneitherwindows，floor，norceiling，hadobtainedabedsteadandlivedthere，thoughtheraindrippedthroughhisrottenroof。Thismanwastoooldandweakforregularwork，andsupportedhimselfbyremovingmanurewithahand-cart；thedung-heapslaynextdoortohispalace！
Sucharethevariousworking-people’squartersofManchesterasIhadoccasiontoobservethempersonallyduringtwentymonths。Ifwebrieflyformulatetheresultofourwanderings，wemustadmitthat350，000working-peopleofManchesteranditsenvironslive，almostallofthem，inwretched，damp，filthycottages，thatthestreetswhichsurroundthemareusuallyinthemostmiserableandfilthycondition，laidoutwithouttheslightestreferencetoventilation，withreferencesolelytotheprofitsecuredbythecontractor。
Inaword，wemustconfessthatintheworking-men’sdwellingsofManchester，nocleanliness，noconvenience，andconsequentlynocomfortablefamilylifeispossible；thatinsuchdwellingsonlyaphysicallydegeneraterace，robbedofallhumanity，degraded，reducedmorallyandphysicallytobestiality，couldfeelcomfortableandathome。AndIamnotaloneinmakingthisassertion。
WehaveseenthatDr。Kaygivespreciselythesamedescription；and，thoughitissuperfluous，IquotefurtherthewordsofaLiberal，recognisedandhighlyvaluedasanauthoritybythemanufacturers，andafanaticalopponentofallindependentmovementsoftheworkers:[12]”ButwhenIwentthroughtheir[i。e。，theManchesteroperatives’]
habitationsinIrishTown，andAncoats，andLittleIreland，myonlywonderwasthattolerablehealthcouldbemaintainedbytheinmatesofsuchhouses。
Thesetowns，forsuchtheyareinextentandpopulation，havebeenerectedbysmallspeculatorswithanutterdisregardtoeverythingexceptimmediateprofit。Acarpenterandabricklayerclubtobuyapatchofground[i。e。，theyleaseitforanumberofyears]，andcoveritwithwhattheycallhouses。Inoneplacewesawawholestreetfollowingthecourseofaditch，inordertohavedeepercellars(cellarsforpeople，notforlumber)withouttheexpenseofexcavations。Notahouseinthisstreetescapedcholera。
Andgenerallyspeaking，throughoutthesesuburbsthestreetsareunpaved，withadung-hillorapondinthemiddle；thehousesbuiltbacktoback，withoutventilationordrainage；andwholefamiliesoccupyacornerofacellarorofagarret。”Ihavealreadyreferredtotheunusualactivitywhichthesanitarypolicemanifestedduringthecholeravisitation。Whentheepidemicwasapproaching，auniversalterrorseizedthebourgeoisieofthecity。Peoplerememberedtheunwholesomedwellingsofthepoor，andtrembledbeforethecertaintythateachoftheseslumswouldbecomeacentrefortheplague，whenceitwouldspreaddesolationinalldirectionsthroughthehousesofthepropertiedclass。AHealthCommissionwasappointedatoncetoinvestigatethesedistricts，andreportupontheirconditiontotheTownCouncil。Dr。Kay，himselfamemberofthisCommission，whovisitedinpersoneveryseparatepolicedistrictexceptone，theeleventh，quotesextractsfromtheirreports:
Therewereinspected，inall，6，951houses——naturallyinManchesterproperalone，Salfordandtheothersuburbsbeingexcluded。Ofthese，2，565urgentlyneededwhitewashingwithin；960wereoutofrepair，959hadinsufficientdrains；1，455weredamp；452werebadlyventilated；2，221werewithoutprivies。Ofthe687streetsinspected，248wereunpaved，53butpartiallypaved，112ill-ventilated，352containingstandingpools，heapsofdebris，refuse，etc。TocleansesuchanAugeanstablebeforethearrivalofthecholerawas，ofcourse，outofthequestion。Afewoftheworstnookswerethereforecleansed，andeverythingelseleftasbefore……Inthecleansedspots，asLittleIrelandproves，theoldfilthyconditionwasnaturallyrestoredinacoupleofmonths。Astotheinternalconditionofthesehouses，thesameCommissionreportsastateofthingssimilartothatwhichwehavealreadymetwithinLondon，Edinburgh，andothercities。”AwholeIrishfamilyisoftenaccommodatedonasinglebed，andsometimesaheapoffilthystrawandacoveringofoldsackinghidetheminoneundistinguishedheap，debasedalikebypenury，wantofeconomyanddissolutehabits。Frequentlytheinspectorsfoundtwofamiliescrowdedintoonesmallhouse，containingonlytwoapartments，oneinwhichtheyslept，andanotherinwhichtheyeat；andoftenmorethanonefamilylivedinadampcellar，containingonlyoneroom，inwhosepestilentialatmospherefromtwelvetosixteenpersonswerecrowded。Tothesefertilesourcesofdiseaseweresometimesaddedthekeepingofthepigsandotheranimalsinthehouse，withothernuisancesofthemostrevoltingcharacter。”Wemustaddthatmanyfamilies，whohadbutoneroomforthemselves，receiveboardersandlodgersinit，thatsuchlodgersofbothsexesbynomeansrarelysleepinthesamebedwiththemarriedcouple；andthatthesinglecaseofamanandhiswifeandhisadultsister-in-lawsleepinginonebedwasfound，accordingtothe”ReportontheSanitaryConditionoftheLabouringPopulation”，sixtimesrepeatedinManchester。Commonlodging-houses，too，areverynumerous；Dr。Kaygivestheirnumberin1851as267inManchesterproper，andtheymusthaveincreasedgreatlysincethen。Eachofthesereceivesfromtwentytothirtyguests，sothattheyshelteralltold，nightly，fromfivetoseventhousandhumanbeings。Thecharacterofthehousesandtheirguestsisthesameasinothercities。Fivetosevenbedsineachroomlieonthefloor——withoutbedsteads，andonthesesleep，mixedindiscriminately，asmanypersonsasapply。WhatphysicalandmoralatmospherereignsintheseholesIneednotstate。Eachofthesehousesisafocusofcrime，thesceneofdeedsagainstwhichhumannaturerevolts，whichwouldperhapsneverhavebeenexecutedbutforthisforcedcentralisationofvice。Gaskell[13]givesthenumberofpersonslivingincellarsinManchesterproperas20，000。TheWeeklyDispatchgivesthenumber，”accordingtoofficialreports”，astwelvepercentoftheworking-class，whichagreeswithGaskell’snumber；theworkersbeingestimatedat175，000，21，000wouldformtwelvepercentofit。Thecellardwellingsinthesuburbsareatleastasnumerous。sothatthenumberofpersonslivingincellarsinManchester——usingitsnameinthebroadersense——isnotlessthanfortytofiftythousand。Somuchforthedwellingsoftheworkersinthelargestcitiesandtowns。Themannerinwhichtheneedofashelterissatisfiedfurnishesastandardforthemannerinwhichallothernecessitiesaresupplied。Thatinthesefilthyholesaragged，ill-fedpopulationalonecandwellisasafeconclusion，andsuchisthefact。Theclothingoftheworking-people，inthemajorityofcases，isinaverybadcondition。Thematerialusedforitisnotofthebestadapted。
