Woolandlinenhavealmostvanishedfromthewardrobeofbothsexes，andcottonhastakentheirplace。Shirtsaremadeofbleachedorcolouredcottongoods；thedressesofthewomenarechieflyofcottonprintgoods，andwoollenpetticoatsarerarelytobeseenonthewashline。Themenwearchieflytrousersoffustianorotherheavycottongoods，andjacketsorcoatsofthesame。Fustianhasbecometheproverbialcostumeoftheworking-men，whoarecalled”fustianjackets”，andcallthemselvessoincontrasttothegentlemenwhowearbroadcloth，whichlatterwordsareusedascharacteristicforthemiddle-class。WhenFeargusO’Connor，theChartistleader，cametoManchesterduringtheinsurrectionof1842，heappeared，amidstthedeafeningapplauseoftheworking-men，inafustiansuitofclothing。Hatsaretheuniversalhead-coveringinEngland，evenforworking-men，hatsofthemostdiverseforms，round，high，broad-brimmed，narrow-brimmed，orwithoutbrims——onlytheyoungermeninfactorytownswearingcaps。
Anyonewhodoesnotownahatfoldshimselfalow，squarepapercap。
Thewholeclothingoftheworking-class，evenassumingittobeingoodcondition，islittleadaptedtotheclimate。ThedampairofEngland，withitssuddenchangesoftemperature，morecalculatedthananyothertogiverisetocolds，obligesalmostthewholemiddle-classtowearflannelnexttotheskin，aboutthebody，andflannelscarfsandshirtsareinalmostuniversaluse。Notonlyistheworking-classdeprivedofthisprecaution，itisscarcelyeverinapositiontouseathreadofwoollenclothing；
andtheheavycottongoods，thoughthicker，stiffer，andheavierthanwoollenclothes，affordmuchlessprotectionagainstcoldandwet，remaindampmuchlongerbecauseoftheirthicknessandthenatureofthestuff，andhavenothingofthecompactdensityoffulledwoollencloths。And，ifaworking-manoncebuyshimselfawoollencoatforSunday，hemustgetitfromoneofthe”cheapshops”wherehefindsbad，so-called”Devil’s-dust”
cloth，manufacturedforsaleandnotforuse，andliabletotearorgrowthreadbareinafortnight，orhemustbuyofanoldclothes’-dealerahalf-worncoatwhichhasseenitsbestdays，andlastsbutafewweeks。Moreover，theworking-man’sclothingis，inmostcases，inbadcondition，andthereistheoft-recurringnecessityforplacingthebestpiecesinthepawnbroker’sshop。Butamongverylargenumbers，especiallyamongtheIrish，theprevailingclothingconsistsofperfectragsoftenbeyondallmending，orsopatchedthattheoriginalcolourcannolongerbedetected。YettheEnglishandAnglo-Irishgoonpatching，andhavecarriedthisarttoaremarkablepitch，puttingwoolorbaggingonfustian，orthereverse——it’sallthesametothem。Butthetrue，transplantedIrishhardlyeverpatchexceptintheextremestnecessity，whenthegarmentwouldotherwisefallapart。Ordinarilytheragsoftheshirtprotrudethroughtherentsinthecoatortrousers。
Theywear，asThomasCarlylesays，——[14]”asuitoftatters，thegettingonoroffwhichissaidtobeadifficultoperation，transactedonlyinfestivalsandthehightidesofthecalendar。”TheIrishhaveintroduced，too，thecustom，previouslyunknowninEngland，ofgoingbarefoot。Ineverymanufacturingtownthereisnowtobeseenamultitudeofpeople，especiallywomenandchildren，goingaboutbarefoot，andtheirexampleisgraduallybeingadoptedbythepoorerEnglish。
Aswithclothing，sowithfood。Theworkersgetwhatistoobadfortheproperty-holdingclass。InthegreattownsofEnglandeverythingmaybehadofthebest，butitcostsmoney；andtheworkman，whomustkeephouseonacoupleofpence，cannotaffordmuchexpense。Moreover，heusuallyreceiveshiswagesonSaturdayevening，for，althoughabeginninghasbeenmadeinthepaymentofwagesonFriday，thisexcellentarrangementisbynomeansuniversal；andsohecomestomarketatfiveorevenseveno’clock，whilethebuyersofthemiddle-classhavehadthefirstchoiceduringthemorning，whenthemarketteemswiththebestofeverything。Butwhentheworkersreachit，thebesthasvanished，and，ifitwasstillthere，theywouldprobablynotbeabletobuyit。Thepotatoeswhichtheworkersbuyareusuallypoor，thevegetableswilted，thecheeseoldandofpoorquality，thebaconrancid，themeatlean，tough，takenfromold，oftendiseased，cattle，orsuchashavediedanaturaldeath，andnotfresheventhen，oftenhalfdecayed。Thesellersareusuallysmallhucksterswhobuyupinferiorgoods，andcansellthemcheaplybyreasonoftheirbadness。Thepoorestworkersareforcedtousestillanotherdevicetogettogetherthethingstheyneedwiththeirfewpence。AsnothingcanbesoldonSunday，andallshopsmustbeclosedattwelveo’clockonSaturdaynight，suchthingsaswouldnotkeepuntilMondayaresoldatanypricebetweenteno’clockandmidnight。Butnine-tenthsofwhatissoldatteno’clockispastusingbySundaymorning，yetthesearepreciselytheprovisionswhichmakeuptheSundaydinnerofthepoorestclass。Themeatwhichtheworkersbuyisveryoftenpastusing；buthavingboughtit，theymusteatit。Onthe6thofJanuary，1844(ifIamnotgreatlymistaken)，acourtleetwasheldinManchester，whenelevenmeat-sellerswerefinedforhavingsoldtaintedmeat。Eachofthemhadawholeoxorpig，orseveralsheep，orfromfiftytosixtypoundsofmeat，whichwereallconfiscatedinataintedcondition。Inonecase，fifty-fourstuffedChristmasgeesewereseizedwhichhadprovedunsaleableinLiverpool，andhadbeenforwardedtoManchester，wheretheywerebroughttomarketfoulandrotten。Alltheparticulars，withnamesandfines，werepublishedatthetimeintheManchesterGuardian。
Inthesixweeks，fromJuly1sttoAugust14th[1844]，thesamesheetreportedthreesimilarcases。AccordingtotheGuardianforJuly3rd，apig，weighing200pounds，whichhadbeenfounddeadanddecayed，wascutupandexposedforsalebyabutcheratHeywood，andwasthenseized。AccordingtothenumberforJuly31st，twobutchersatWigan，ofwhomonehadpreviouslybeenconvictedofthesameoffence，werefined£；2and£；4respectively，forexposingtaintedmeatforsale；and，accordingtothenumberforAugust10th，twenty-sixtaintedhamsseizedatadealer’sinBolton，werepubliclyburnt，andthedealerfinedtwentyshillings。Butthesearebynomeansallthecases；theydonotevenformafairaverageforaperiodofsixweeks，accordingtowhichtoformanaveragefortheyear。Thereareoftenseasonsinwhicheverynumberofthesemi-weeklyGuardianmentionsasimilarcasefoundinManchesteroritsvicinity。Andwhenonereflectsuponthemanycaseswhichmustescapedetectionintheextensivemarketsthatstretchalongthefrontofeverymainstreet，undertheslendersupervisionofthemarketinspectors——andhowelsecanoneexplaintheboldnesswithwhichwholeanimalsareexposedforsale？——whenoneconsidershowgreatthetemptationmustbe，inviewoftheincomprehensiblysmallfinesmentionedintheforegoingcases；whenonereflectswhatconditionapieceofmeatmusthavereachedtobeseizedbytheinspectors，itisimpossibletobelievethattheworkersobtaingoodandnourishingmeatasausualthing。Buttheyarevictimisedinyetanotherwaybythemoney-greedofthemiddle-class。
Dealersandmanufacturersadulterateallkindsofprovisionsinanatrociousmanner，andwithouttheslightestregardtothehealthoftheconsumers。
WehaveheardtheManchesterGuardianuponthissubject，letushearanotherorganofthemiddle-class——Idelightinthetestimonyofmyopponents——letusheartheLiverpoolMercury:”Saltbutterismouldedintotheformofpoundsoffreshbutter，andcasedoverwithfresh。Inotherinstancesapoundoffreshisconspicuouslyplacedtobetasted；butthatpoundisnotsold；andinotherinstancessaltbutter，washed，ismouldedandsoldasfresh……Poundedriceandothercheapmaterialsaremixedinsugar，andsoldatfullmonopolyprice。
Achemicalsubstance——therefuseofthesoapmanufactories——isalsomixedwithothersubstancesandsoldassugar……Chicoryismixedingoodcoffee。Chicory，orsomesimilarlycheapsubstance，isskilfullymouldedintotheformofthecoffeeberry，andismixedwiththebulkveryliberally……
Cocoaisextensivelyadulteratedwithfinebrownearth，wroughtupwithmuttonfat，soastoamalgamatewithportionsoftherealarticle……Theleavesofteaaremingledwithsloeleviesandotherabominations。Usedleavesarealsore-dried，andre-colouredonhotcopperplates，andsoldastea。Pepperisadulteratedwithdustfromhusksetc。；portwineisaltogethermanufactured(fromspirits，dyes，etc。)，itbeingnotoriousthatmoreportwineisdrunkinthiscountrythanismadeinPortugal。Nastythingsofallsortsaremixedwiththeweedtobaccoinallitsmanufacturedforms”。IcanaddthatseveralofthemostrespectedtobaccodealersinManchesterannouncedpubliclylastsummer，that，byreasonoftheuniversaladulterationoftobacco，nofirmcouldcarryonbusinesswithoutadulteration，andthatnocigarcostinglessthanthreepenceismadewhollyfromtobacco。Thesefraudsarenaturallynotrestrictedtoarticlesoffood，thoughIcouldmentionadozenmore，thevillainyofmixinggypsumorchalkwithflouramongthem。Fraudispractisedinthesaleofarticlesofeverysort:flannel，stockings，etc。，arestretched，andshrinkafterthefirstwashing；narrowclothissoldasbeingfromoneandahalftothreeinchesbroaderthanitactuallyis；stonewareissothinlyglazedthattheglazingisgoodfornothingandcracksatonce，andahundredotherrascalities，toutcommecheznous。Butthelion’sshareoftheevilresultsofthesefraudsfallstotheworkers。Thericharelessdeceived，becausetheycanpaythehighpricesofthelargeshopswhichhaveareputationtolose，andwouldinjurethemselvesmorethantheircustomersiftheykeptpoororadulteratedwares；thericharespoiled，too，byhabitualgoodeating，anddetectadulterationmoreeasilywiththeirsensitivepalates。Butthepoor，theworking-people，towhomacoupleoffarthingsareimportant，whomustbuymanythingswithlittlemoney，whocannotaffordtoinquiretoocloselyintothequalityoftheirpurchases，andcannotdosoinanycasebecausetheyhavehadnoopportunityofcultivatingtheirtaste——
totheirsharefallalltheadulterated，poisonedprovisions。Theymustdealwiththesmallretailers，mustbuyperhapsoncredit，and。thesesmallretaildealerswhocannotselleventhesamequalityofgoodssocheaplyasthelargestretailers，becauseoftheirsmallcapitalandthelargeproportionalexpensesoftheirbusiness，mustknowinglyorunknowinglybuyadulteratedgoodsinordertosellatthelowerpricesrequired，andtomeetthecompetitionoftheothers。Further，alargeretaildealerwhohasextensivecapitalinvestedinhisbusinessisruinedwithhisruinedcreditifdetectedinafraudulentpractice；butwhatharmdoesitdoasmallgrocer，whohascustomersinasinglestreetonly，iffraudsareprovedagainsthim？IfnoonetrustshiminAncoats，hemovestoChorltonorHulme，wherenooneknowshim，andwherehecontinuestodefraudasbefore；whilelegalpenaltiesattachtoveryfewadulterationsunlesstheyinvolverevenuefrauds。Notinthequalityalone，butinthequantityofhisgoodsaswell，istheEnglishworking-mandefrauded。Thesmalldealersusuallyhavefalseweightsandmeasures，andanincrediblenumberofconvictionsforsuchoffencesmaybereadinthepolicereports。Howuniversalthisformoffraudisinthemanufacturingdistricts，acoupleofextractsfromtheManchesterGuardianmayservetoshow。Theycoveronlyashortperiod，and，evenhere，Ihavenotallthenumbersathand:Guardian，June15，1844，RochdaleSessions——Fourdealersfinedfivetotenshillingsforusinglightweights。StockportSessions——Twodealersfinedoneshilling，oneofthemhavingsevenlightweightsandafalsescale，andbothhavingbeenwarned。
Guardian，June19，RochdaleSessions——Onedealerfinedfive，andtwofarmerstenshillings。
Guardian，June22，ManchesterJusticesofthePeace——Nineteendealersfinedtwoshillingsandsixpencetotwopounds。
Guardian，June26，AshtonSessions——Fourteendealersandfarmersfinedtwoshillingsandsixpencetoonepound。HydePettySessions——Ninefarmersanddealerscondemnedtopaycostsandfiveshillingsfines。
Guardian，July6，Manchester——Sixteendealerscondemnedtopaycostsandfinesnotexceedingtenshillings。
Guardian，July13，Manchester——Ninedealersfinedfromtwoshillingsandsixpencetotwentyshillings。
Guardian，July24，Rochdale——Fourdealersfinedtentotwentyshillings。
Guardian，July27，Bolton——Twelvedealersandinnkeeperscondemnedtopaycosts。
Guardian，August3，Bolton——Threedealersfinedtwoshillingsandsixpence，andfiveshillings。
Guardian，August10，Bolton——Onedealerfinedfiveshillings。Andthesamecauseswhichmaketheworking-classthechiefsufferersfromfraudsinthequalityofgoodsmakethemtheusualvictimsoffraudsinthequestionofquantitytoo。
Thehabitualfoodoftheindividualworking-mannaturallyvariesaccordingtohiswages。Thebetter-paidworkers，especiallythoseinwhosefamilieseverymemberisabletoearnsomething，havegoodfoodaslongasthisstateofthingslasts；meatdailyandbaconandcheeseforsupper。Wherewagesareless，meatisusedonlytwoorthreetimesaweek，andtheproportionofbreadandpotatoesincreases。Descendinggradually，wefindtheanimalfoodreducedtoasmallpieceofbaconcutupwiththepotatoes；lowerstill，eventhisdisappears，andthereremainonlybread，cheese，porridge，andpotatoes，untilonthelowestroundoftheladder，amongtheIrish，potatoesformthesolefood，Asanaccompaniment，weaktea，withperhapsalittlesugar，milk，orspirits，isuniversallydrunk。TeaisregardedinEngland，andeveninIreland，asquiteasindispensableascoffeeinGermany，andwherenoteaisused，thebitterestpovertyreigns。Butallthispresupposesthattheworkmanhaswork。Whenhehasnone，heiswhollyatthemercyofaccident，andeatswhatisgivenhim，whathecanbegorsteal。And，ifhegetsnothing，hesimplystarves，aswehaveseen。Thequantityoffoodvaries，ofcourse，likeitsquality，accordingtotherateofwages，sothatamongill-paidworkers，eveniftheyhavenolargefamilies，hungerprevailsinspiteoffullandregularwork；andthenumberoftheill-paidisverylarge。EspeciallyinLondon，wherethecompetitionoftheworkersriseswiththeincreaseofpopulation，thisclassisverynumerous，butitistobefoundinothertownsaswell。Inthesecasesallsortsofdevicesareused；potatoparings，vegetablerefuse，androttenvegetables[15]areeatenforwantofotherfood，andeverythinggreedilygatheredupwhichmaypossiblycontainanatomofnourishment。And，iftheweek’swagesareusedupbeforetheendoftheweek，itoftenenoughhappensthatintheclosingdaysthefamilygetsonlyasmuchfood，ifany，asisbarelysufficienttokeepoffstarvation。Ofcoursesuchawayoflivingunavoidablyengendersamultitudeofdiseases，andwhentheseappear，whenthefatherfromwhoseworkthefamilyischieflysupported，whosephysicalexertionmostdemandsnourishment，andwhothereforefirstsuccumbs——whenthefatherisutterlydisabled，thenmiseryreachesitsheight，andthenthebrutalitywithwhichsocietyabandonsitsmembers，justwhentheirneedisgreatest，comesoutfullyintothelightofday。
Tosumupbrieflythefactsthusfarcited。Thegreattownsarechieflyinhabitedbyworking-people，sinceinthebestcasethereisonebourgeoisfortwoworkers，oftenforthree，hereandthereforfour；theseworkershavenopropertywhatsoeveroftheirown，andlivewhollyuponwages，whichusuallygofromhandtomouth。Society，composedwhollyofatoms，doesnottroubleitselfaboutthem；leavesthemtocareforthemselvesandtheirfamilies，yetsuppliesthemnomeansofdoingthisinanefficientandpermanentmanner。Everyworking-man，eventhebest，isthereforeconstantlyexposedtolossofworkandfood，thatistodeathbystarvation，andmanyperishinthisway。Thedwellingsoftheworkersareeverywherebadlyplanned，badlybuilt，andkeptintheworstcondition，badlyventilated，damp，andunwholesome。Theinhabitantsareconfinedtothesmallestpossiblespace，andatleastonefamilyusuallysleepsineachroom。Theinteriorarrangementofthedwellingsispoverty-strickeninvariousdegrees，downtotheutterabsenceofeventhemostnecessaryfurniture。Theclothingoftheworkers，too，isgenerallyscanty，andthatofgreatmultitudesisinrags。Thefoodis，ingeneral，bad；oftenalmostunfitforuse，andinmanycases，atleastattimes，insufficientinquantity，sothat，inextremecases，deathbystarvationresults。Thustheworking-classofthegreatcitiesoffersagraduatedscaleofconditionsinlife，inthebestcasesatemporarilyendurableexistenceforhardworkandgoodwages，goodandendurable，thatis，fromtheworker’sstandpoint；intheworstcases，bitterwant，reachingevenhomelessnessanddeathbystarvation。Theaverageismuchnearertheworstcasethanthebest。Andthisseriesdoesnotfallintofixedclasses，sothatonecansay，thisfractionoftheworking-classiswelloff，hasalwaysbeenso，andremainsso。Ifthatisthecasehereandthere，ifsinglebranchesofworkhaveingeneralanadvantageoverothers，yettheconditionoftheworkersineachbranchissubjecttosuchgreatfluctuationsthatasingleworking-manmaybesoplacedastopassthroughthewholerangefromcomparativecomforttotheextremestneed，eventodeathbystarvation，whilealmosteveryEnglishworking-mancantellataleofmarkedchangesoffortune。Letusexaminethecausesofthissomewhatmoreclosely。
NOTES
3。Thisappliestothetimeofsailingvessels。TheThamesnowisadrearycollectionofuglysteamers——F。E——NotebyEngelstotheAmericaneditionof1887——
(1892)Thiswaswrittennearlyfiftyyearsago，inthedaysofthepicturesquesailingvessels。InsofarassuchshipsstillplytoandfromLondontheyarenowtobefoundonlyinthedocks，whiletheriveritselfiscoveredwithugly，sootysteamers——NotebyEngelstotheGermaneditionof1892。ReturntoText4。ThedescriptiongivenbelowhadalreadybeenwrittenwhenIcameacrossanarticleintheIlluminatedMagazine(October1844)dealingwiththeworking-classdistrictsinLondonwhichcoincides——inmanyplacesalmostliterallyandeverywhereingeneraltenor——withwhatIhadsaid。Thearticlewasentitled”TheDwellingsofthePoor，fromthenotebookofanM。D。”——NotebyEngels。ReturntoText5。Times，Oct。12th，1843——NotebyEngels。ReturntoText6。QuotedbyDr。W。P。Alison。F。R。S。E。，FellowandlatePresidentoftheRoyalCollegeofPhysicians，etc。，etc。ObservationsontheManagementofthePoorinScotlandanditsEffectsontheHealthofGreatTowns，Edinburgh。1840。TheauthorisareligiousTory，brotherofthehistorian，ArchibaldAlison——NotebyEngels。ReturntoText7。ReporttotheHomeSecretaryfromthePoor-LawCommissioner，onanInquiryintotheSanitaryConditionoftheLabouringClassesinGreatBritain，withAppendix。PresentedtobothHousesofParliamentinJuly，1842，3vols，Folio。AssembledandarrangedfrommedicalreportsbyEdwinChadwick，SecretaryofthePoor-LawCommissioners——NotebyEngelsReturntoText8。ArtsandArtisansatHomeandAbroad，byJ。
C。Symons，Edinburgh，1839。Theauthor，asitseems，himselfaScotchman，isaLiberal，andconsequentlyfanaticallyopposedtoeveryindependentmovementofworking-men。Thepassagesherecitedaretobefoundp。116etseq——NotebyEngels。ReturntoText9。Itmustbeborneinmindthatthesecellarsarenotmerestoring-roomsforrubbish，butdwellingsofhumanbeings——NotebyEngels。ReturntoText10。TheMoralandPhysicalConditionoftheWorkingClassesemployedintheCottonManufactureinManchester。ByJamesPh。Kay，M。D。2ndEd。1852——
Dr。Kayconfusestheworking-classingeneralwiththefactoryworkers，otherwiseanexcellentpamphlet——NotebyEngels。ReturntoText11。AndyetanEnglishLiberalwiseacreasserts，intheReportoftheChildren’sEmploymentCommission，thatthesecourtsarethemasterpieceofmunicipalarchitecture，because，likeamultitudeoflittleparks，theyimproveventilation，thecirculationofair！Certainly，ifeachcourthadtwoorfourbroadopenentrancesfacingeachother，throughwhichtheaircouldpour；buttheyneverhavetwo，rarelyone，andusuallyonlyanarrowcoveredpassage——NotebyEngels。ReturntoText12。NassauW。Senior，LettersontheFactoryActtotheRt。Hon。，thePresidentoftheBoardofTrade(Chas。PoulettThomson，Esq。)，London，1837，p。24——NotebyEngels。ReturntoText13。P。Gaskell，TheManufacturingPopulationofEngland:itsMoral，SocialandPhysicalCondition，andtheChangeswhichhavearisenfromtheUseofSteamMachinery；withanExaminationofInfantLabour。FiatJustitia，1855——Depictingchieflythestateoftheworking-classinLancashire。TheauthorisaLiberal，butwroteatatimewhenitwasnotafeatureofLiberalismtochantthehappinessoftheworkers。Heisthereforeunprejudiced，andcanaffordtohaveeyesfortheevilsofthepresentstateofthings，andespeciallyforthefactorysystem。Ontheotherhand，hewrotebeforetheFactoriesEnquiryCommission，andadoptsfromuntrustworthysourcesmanyassertionsafterwardsrefutedbythereportoftheCommission。Thiswork，althoughonthewholeavaluableone，canthereforeonlybeusedwithdiscretion，especiallyastheauthor，likeKay，confusesthewholeworking-classwiththemill-hands。Thehistoryofthedevelopmentoftheproletariatcontainedintheintroductiontothepresentwork，ischieflytakenfromthisworkofGaskell’s——NotebyEngels。ReturntoText14。ThomasCarlyle，Chartism，London，1840，p。28。ConcerningThomasCarlyleseebelow——NotebyEngels。ReturntoText15。WeeklyDispatch，AprilorMay，1844，accordingtoareportbyDr，。SouthwoodSmithontheconditionofthepoorinLondon——
NotebyEngels。ReturntoTextCOMPETITIONF。EngelsTHECONDITIONS
OFTHEWORKING-CLASS
INENGLANDCOMPETITION
Wehaveseenintheintroductionhowcompetitioncreatedtheproletariatattheverybeginningoftheindustrialmovementbyincreasingthewagesofweaversinconsequenceoftheincreaseddemandforwovengoods，soinducingtheweavingpeasantstoabandontheirfarmsandearnmoremoneybydevotingthemselvestotheirlooms。Wehaveseenhowitcrowdedoutthesmallfarmersbymeansofthelargefarmsystem，reducedthemtotherankofproletarians，andattractedtheminpartintothetowns；howitfurtherruinedthesmallbourgeoisieingreatmeasureandreduceditsmembersalsototheranksoftheproletariat；howitcentralisedcapitalinthehandsofthefew，andpopulationinthegreattowns。Sucharethevariouswaysandmeansbywhichcompetition，asitreacheditsfullmanifestationandfreedevelopmentinmodernindustry，createdandextendedtheproletariat。Weshallnowhavetoobserveitsinfluenceontheworking-classalreadycreated。Andherewemustbeginbytracingtheresultsofcompetitionofsingleworkerswithoneanother。
Competitionisthecompletestexpressionofthebattleofallagainstallwhichrulesinmoderncivilsociety。Thisbattle，abattleforlife，forexistence，foreverything，incaseofneedabattleoflifeanddeath，isfoughtnotbetweenthedifferentclassesofsocietyonly，butalsobetweentheindividualmembersoftheseclasses。Eachisinthewayoftheother，andeachseekstocrowdoutallwhoareinhisway，andtoputhimselfintheirplace。Theworkersareinconstantcompetitionamongthemselvesasarethemembersofthebourgeoisieamongthemselves。Thepower-loomweaverisincompetitionwiththehand-loomweaver，theunemployedorill-paidhand-loomweaverwithhimwhohasworkorisbetterpaid，eachtryingtosupplanttheother。Butthiscompetitionoftheworkersamongthemselvesistheworstsideofthepresentstateofthingsinitseffectupontheworker，thesharpestweaponagainsttheproletariatinthehandsofthebourgeoisie。Hencetheeffortoftheworkerstonullifythiscompetitionbyassociations，hencethehatredofthebourgeoisietowardstheseassociations，anditstriumphineverydefeatwhichbefallsthem。
Theproletarianishelpless；lefttohimself，hecannotliveasingleday。Thebourgeoisiehasgainedamonopolyofallmeansofexistenceinthebroadestsenseoftheword。Whattheproletarianneeds，hecanobtainonlyfromthisbourgeoisie，whichisprotectedinitsmonopolybythepowerofthestate。Theproletarianis，therefore，inlawandinfact，theslaveofthebourgeoisie，whichcandecreehislifeordeath。Itoffershimthemeansofliving，butonlyforan”equivalent”，forhiswork。Itevenletshimhavetheappearanceofactingfromafreechoice，ofmakingacontractwithfree，unconstrainedconsent，asaresponsibleagentwhohasattainedhismajority。
Finefreedom，wheretheproletarianhasnootherchoicethanthatofeitheracceptingtheconditionswhichthebourgeoisieoffershim，orofstarving，offreezingtodeath，ofsleepingnakedamongthebeastsoftheforests！Afine”equivalent”valuedatpleasurebythebourgeoisie！Andifoneproletarianissuchafoolastostarveratherthanagreetothe”equitable”propositionsofthebourgeoisie，his”naturalsuperiors”，[1]anotheriseasilyfoundinhisplace；thereareproletariansenoughintheworld，andnotallsoinsaneastopreferdyingtoliving。
Herewehavethecompetitionoftheworkersamongthemselves。Ifalltheproletariansannouncedtheirdeterminationtostarveratherthanworkforthebourgeoisie，thelatterwouldhavetosurrenderitsmonopoly。Butthisisnotthecase——is，indeed，aratherimpossiblecase——sothatthebourgeoisiestillthrives。Tothiscompetitionoftheworkersthereisbutonelimit；noworkerwillworkforlessthanheneedstosubsist。
Ifhemuststarve，hewillprefertostarveinidlenessratherthanintoil。True，thislimitisrelative；oneneedsmorethananother，oneisaccustomedtomorecomfortthananother；theEnglishman，whoisstillsomewhatcivilised，needsmorethantheIrishman，whogoesinrags，eatspotatoes，andsleepsinapig-sty。ButthatdoesnothindertheIrishman’scompetingwiththeEnglishman，andgraduallyforcingtherateofwages，andwithittheEnglishman’slevelofcivilisation，downtotheIrishman’slevel。
Certainkindsofworkrequireacertaingradeofcivilisation，andtothesebelongalmostallformsofindustrialoccupation；hencetheinterestofthebourgeoisierequiresinthiscasethatwagesshouldbehighenoughtoenabletheworkmantokeephimselfupontherequiredplane。
ThenewlyimmigratedIrishman，encampedinthefirststablethatoffers，orturnedoutinthestreetafteraweekbecausehespendseverythingupondrinkandcannotpayrent，wouldbeapoormill-hand。Themill-handmust，therefore，havewagesenoughtoenablehimtobringuphischildrentoregularwork；butnomore，lestheshouldbeabletogetonwithoutthewagesofhischildren，andsomakesomethingelseofthemthanmereworking-men。
Here，too，thelimit，theminimumwage，isrelative。Wheneverymemberofthefamilyworks，theindividualworkercangetonwithproportionatelyless，andthebourgeoisiehasmadethemostoftheopportunityofemployingandmakingprofitablethelabourofwomenandchildrenaffordedbymachine-work。
Ofcourseitisnotineveryfamilythateverymembercanbesettowork，andthoseinwhichthecaseisotherwisewouldbeinabadwayifobligedtoexistupontheminimumwagepossibletoawhollyemployedfamily。Hencetheusualwagesformanaverageaccordingtowhichafullyemployedfamilygetsonprettywell，andonewhichembracesfewmembersabletowork，prettybadly。Butintheworstcase，everyworking-manpreferssurrenderingthetriflingluxurytowhichhewasaccustomedtonotlivingatall；prefersapig-pentonoroof，wearsragsinpreferencetogoingnaked，confineshimselftoapotatodietinpreferencetostarvation。Hecontentshimselfwithhalf-payandthehopeofbettertimesratherthanbedrivenintothestreettoperishbeforetheeyesoftheworld，assomanyhavedonewhohadnoworkwhatever。Thistrifle，therefore，thissomethingmorethannothing，istheminimumofwages。Andiftherearemoreworkersathandthanthebourgeoisiethinkswelltoemploy——ifattheendofthebattleofcompetitionthereyetremainworkerswhofindnothingtodo，theymustsimplystarve；forthebourgeoiswillhardlygivethemworkifhecannotselltheproduceoftheirlabourataprofit。
Fromthisitisevidentwhattheminimumofwagesis。Themaximumisdeterminedbythecompetitionofthebourgeoisieamongthemselves；forwehaveseenhowthey，too，mustcompetewitheachother。Thebourgeoiscanincreasehiscapitalonlyincommerceandmanufacture，andinbothcasesheneedsworkers。Evenifheinvestshiscapitalatinterest，heneedsthemindirectly；forwithoutcommerceandmanufacture，noonewouldpayhiminterestuponhiscapital，noonecoulduseit。Sothebourgeoiscertainlyneedsworkers，notindeedforhisimmediateliving，foratneedhecouldconsumehiscapital，butasweneedanarticleoftradeorabeastofburden——asameansofprofit。Theproletarianproducesthegoodswhichthebourgeoissellswithadvantage。When，therefore，thedemandforthesegoodsincreasessothatallthecompetingworking-menareemployed，andafewmoremightperhapsbeuseful，thecompetitionamongtheworkersfallsaway，andthebourgeoisiebegintocompeteamongthemselves。Thecapitalistinsearchofworkmenknowsverywellthathisprofitsincreaseaspricesriseinconsequenceoftheincreaseddemandforhisgoods，andpaysatriflehigherwagesratherthanletthewholeprofitescapehim。Hesendsthebuttertofetchthecheese，andgettingthelatter，leavesthebutterungrudginglytotheworkers。Soonecapitalistafteranothergoesinchaseofworkers，andwagesrise；butonlyashighastheincreasingdemandpermits。Ifthecapitalist，whowillinglysacrificedapartofhisextraordinaryprofit，runsintodangerofsacrificinganypartofhisordinaryaverageprofit，hetakesverygoodcarenottopaymorethanaveragewages。
Fromthiswecandeterminetheaveragerateofwages。Underaveragecircumstances，whenneitherworkersnorcapitalistshavereasontocompete，especiallyamongthemselves，whentherearejustasmanyworkersathandascanbeemployedinproducingpreciselythegoodsthataredemanded，wagesstandalittleabovetheminimum。Howfartheyriseabovetheminimumwilldependupontheaverageneedsandthegradeofcivilisationoftheworkers。Iftheworkersareaccustomedtoeatmeatseveraltime。intheweek，thecapitalistsmustreconcilethemselvestopayingwagesenoughtomakethisfoodattainable；notless，becausetheworkersarenotcompetingamongthemselvesandhavenooccasiontocontentthemselveswithless；
notmore，becausethecapitalists，intheabsenceofcompetitionamongthemselves，havenooccasiontoattractworking-menbyextraordinaryfavours。
ThisstandardoftheaverageneedsandtheaveragecivilisationoftheworkershasbecomeverycomplicatedbyreasonofthecomplicationsofEnglishindustry，andisdifferentfordifferentsortsofworkers，ashasbeenpointedout。Mostindustrialoccupationsdemandacertainskillandregularity，andforthesequalities，whichinvolveacertaingradeofcivilisation，therateofwagesmustbesuchastoinducetheworkertoacquiresuchskillandsubjecthimselftosuchregularity。Henceitisthattheaveragewagesofindustrialworkersarehigherthanthoseofmereporters，day-labourers，etc。，higherespeciallythanthoseofagriculturallabourers，afacttowhichtheadditionalcostofthenecessitiesoflifeincitiescontributessomewhat。Inotherwords，theworkeris，inlawandinfact，theslaveoftheproperty-holdingclass，soeffectuallyaslavethatheissoldlikeapieceofgoods，risesandfallsinvaluelikeacommodity。Ifthedemandforworkersincreases，thepriceofworkersrises；ifitfalls，theirpricefalls。Ifitfallssogreatlythatanumberofthembecomeunsaleable，iftheyareleftinstock，theyaresimplyleftidle；andastheycannotliveuponthat，theydieofstarvation。For，tospeakinthewordsoftheeconomists，theexpenseincurredinmaintainingthemwouldnotbereproduced，wouldbemoneythrownaway，andtothisendnomanadvancescapital；and，sofar，Malthuswasperfectlyrightinhistheoryofpopulation。Theonlydifferenceascomparedwiththeold，outspokenslaveryisthis，thattheworkeroftodayseemstohefreebecauseheisnotsoldonceforall，butpiecemealbytheday，theweek，theyear，andbecausenooneownersellshimtoanother，butheisforcedtosellhimselfinthiswayinstead，beingtheslaveofnoparticularperson，butofthewholeproperty-holdingclass。
Forhimthematterisunchangedatbottom，andifthissemblanceoflibertynecessarilygiveshimsomerealfreedomontheonehand，itentailsontheotherthedisadvantagethatnooneguaranteeshimasubsistence，heisindangerofbeingrepudiatedatanymomentbyhismaster，thebourgeoisie，andlefttodieofstarvation，ifthebourgeoisieceasestohaveaninterestinhisemployment，hisexistence。Thebourgeoisie，ontheotherhand，isfarbetteroffunderthepresentarrangementthanuncovertheoldslavesystem；itcandismissitsemployeesatdiscretionwithoutsacrificinginvestedcapital，andgetsitsworkdonemuchmorecheaplythanispossiblewithslavelabour，asAdamSmithcomfortinglypointedout。[2]
Henceitfollows，too，thatAdamSmithwasperfectlyrightinmakingtheassertion:”Thatthedemandformen，likethatforanyothercommodity，necessarilyregulatestheproductionofmen，quickensitwhenitgoesontooslowly，andstopsitwhenitadvancestoofast。”Justasinthecaseofanyothercommodity！Iftherearetoofewlabourersonhand，prices，i。e。，wages，rise，theworkersaremoreprosperous，marriagesmultiply，morechildrenarebornandmorelivetogrowup，untilasufficientnumberoflabourershasbeensecured。Iftherearetoomanyonhand，pricesfall，wantofwork，poverty，andstarvation，andconsequentdiseasesarise，andthe”surpluspopulation”isputoutoftheway。AndMalthus，whocarriedtheforegoingpropositionofSmithfarther，wasalsoright，inhisway，inassertingthatthereisalwaysa”surpluspopulation”；
thattherearealwaystoomanypeopleintheworld；heiswrongonlywhenheassertsthattherearemorepeopleonhandthancanbemaintainedfromtheavailablemeansofsubsistence。Surpluspopulationisengenderedratherbythecompetitionoftheworkersamongthemselves，whichforceseachseparateworkertolabourasmucheachdayashisstrengthcanpossiblyadmit。Ifamanufacturercanemploytenhandsninehoursdaily，hecanemploynineifeachworkstenhours，andthetenthgoeshungry。Andifamanufacturercanforcetheninehandstoworkanextrahourdailyforthesamewagesbythreateningtodischargethematatimewhenthedemandforhandsisnotverygreat，hedischargesthetenthandsavessomuchwages。Thisistheprocessonasmallscale，whichgoesoninanationonalargeone。
Theproductivenessofeachhandraisedtothehighestpitchbythecompetitionoftheworkersamongthemselves，thedivisionoflabour，theintroductionofmachinery，thesubjugationoftheforcesofNature，depriveamultitudeofworkersofbread。Thesestarvingworkersarethenremovedfromthemarket，theycanbuynothing，andthequantityofarticlesofconsumptionpreviouslyrequiredbythemisnolongerindemand，neednolongerbeproduced；theworkerspreviouslyemployedinproducingthemarethereforedrivenoutofwork，andarealsoremovedfromthemarket，andsoitgoeson，alwaysthesameoldround，orrather，soitwouldgoifothercircumstancesdidnotintervene。Theintroductionoftheindustrialforcesalreadyreferredtoforincreasingproductionleads，inthecourseoftime，toareductionofpricesofthearticlesproducedandtoconsequentincreasedconsumption，sothatalargepartofthedisplacedworkersfinally，afterlongsuffering，findworkagain。If，inadditiontothis，theconquestofforeignmarketsconstantlyandrapidlyincreasesthedemandformanufacturedgoods，ashasbeenthecaseinEnglandduringthepastsixtyyears，thedemandforhandsincreases，and，inproportiontoit，thepopulation。Thus，insteadofdiminishing，thepopulationoftheBritishEmpirehasincreasedwithextraordinaryrapidity，andisstillincreasing。Yet，inspiteoftheextensionofindustry，inspiteofthedemandforworking-menwhich，ingeneral，hasincreased，thereis，accordingtotheconfessionofalltheofficialpoliticalparties(Tory，Whig，andRadical)，permanentsurplus，superfluouspopulation；thecompetitionamongtheworkersisconstantlygreaterthanthecompetitiontosecureworkers。
Whencecomesthisincongruity？Itliesinthenatureofindustrialcompetitionandthecommercialcriseswhicharisefromit。Inthepresentunregulatedproductionanddistributionofthemeansofsubsistence，whichiscarriedonnotdirectlyforthesakeofsupplyingneeds，butforprofit，inthesystemunderwhicheveryoneworksforhimselftoenrichhimself，disturbancesinevitablyariseateverymoment。Forexample，Englandsuppliesanumberofcountrieswithmostdiversegoods。Now，althoughthemanufacturermayknowhowmuchofeacharticleisconsumedineachcountryannually，hecannotknowhowmuchisonhandateverygivenmoment，muchlesscanheknowhowmuchhiscompetitorsexportthither。Hecanonlydrawmostuncertaininferencesfromtheperpetualfluctuationsinprices，astothequantitiesonhandandtheneedsofthemoment。Hemusttrusttoluckinexportinghisgoods。Everythingisdoneblindly，asguess-work，moreorlessatthemercyofaccident。Upontheslightestfavourablereporteachoneexportswhathecan，andbeforelongsuchamarketisglutted，salesstop，capitalremainsinactive，pricesfall，andEnglishmanufacturehasnofurtheremploymentforitshands。Inthebeginningofthedevelopmentofmanufacture，thesecheckswerelimitedtosinglebranchesandsinglemarkets；butthecentralizingtendencyofcompetition，whichdrivesthehandsthrownoutofonebranchintosuchotherbranchesasaremosteasilyaccessibleandtransfersthegoodswhichcannotbedisposedofinonemarkettoothermarkets，hasgraduallybroughtthesingleminorcrisesnearertogetherandunitedthemintooneperiodicallyrecurringcrisis。Suchacrisisusuallyrecursonceinfiveyearsafterabriefperiodofactivityandgeneralprosperity；thehomemarket，likeallforeignones，isgluttedwithEnglishgoods，whichitcanonlyslowlyabsorb，theindustrialmovementcomestoastandstillinalmosteverybranch，thesmallmanufacturersandmerchantswhocannotsurviveaprolongedinactivityoftheirinvestedcapitalfail，thelargeronessuspendbusinessduringtheworstseason，closetheirmillsorworkshorttime，perhapshalftheday；wagesfallbyreasonofthecompetitionoftheunemployed，thediminutionofworking-timeandthelackofprofitablesales；wantbecomesuniversalamongtheworkers，thesmallsavings，whichindividualsmayhavemade，arerapidlyconsumed，thephilanthropicinstitutionsareoverburdened，thepoor-ratesaredoubled，trebled，andstillinsufficient，thenumberofthestarvingincreases，andthewholemultitudeof”surplus”
populationpressesinterrificnumbersintotheforeground。Thiscontinuesforatime；the”surplus”existasbesttheymay，orperish；philanthropyandthePoorLawhelpmanyofthemtoapainfulprolongationoftheirexistence。
Othersfindscantmeansofsubsistencehereandthereinsuchkindsofworkashavebeenleastopentocompetition，aremostremotefrommanufacture。
Andwithhowlittlecanahumanbeingkeepbodyandsoultogetherforatime！Graduallythestateofthingsimproves；theaccumulationsofgoodsareconsumed，thegeneraldepressionamongthemenofcommerceandmanufacturepreventsatoohastyreplenishingofthemarkets，andatlastrisingpricesandfavourablereportsfromalldirectionsrestoreactivity。Mostofthemarketsaredistantones；demandincreasesandpricesriseconstantlywhilethefirstexportsarearriving；peoplestruggleforthefirstgoods，thefirstsalesenliventradestillmore，theprospectiveonespromisestillhigherprices；expectingafurtherrise，merchantsbegintobuyuponspeculation，andsotowithdrawfromconsumptionthearticlesintendedforit，justwhentheyaremostneeded。Speculationforcespricesstillhigher，byinspiringotherstopurchase，andappropriatingnewimportationsatonce。AllthisisreportedtoEngland，manufacturersbegintoproducewithawill，newmillsarebuilt，everymeansisemployedtomakethemostofthefavourablemoment。Speculationariseshere，too，exertingthesameinfluenceasuponforeignmarkets，raisingprices，withdrawinggoodsfromconsumption，spurringmanufactureinbothwaystothehighestpitchofeffort。Thencomethedaringspeculatorsworkingwithfictitiouscapital，livinguponcredit，ruinediftheycannotspeedilysell；theyhurlthemselvesintothisuniversal，disorderlyraceforprofits，multiplythedisorderandhastebytheirunbridledpassion，whichdrivespricesandproductiontomadness。Itisafranticstruggle，whichcarriesawayeventhemostexperiencedandphlegmatic；
goodsarespun，woven，hammered，asifallmankindweretobenewlyequipped，asthoughtwothousandmillionnewconsumershadbeendiscoveredinthemoon。Allatoncetheshakyspeculatorsabroad，whomusthavemoney，begintosell，belowmarketprice，ofcourse，fortheirneedisurgent；onesaleisfollowedbyothers，pricesfluctuate，speculatorsthrowtheirgoodsuponthemarketinterror，themarketisdisordered，creditshaken，onehouseafteranotherstopspayments，bankruptcyfollowsbankruptcy，andthediscoveryismadethatthreetimesmoregoodsareonhandorunderwaythancanbeconsumed。ThenewsreachesEngland，whereproductionhasbeengoingonatfullspeedmeanwhile，panicseizesallhands，failuresabroadcauseothersinEngland，thepaniccrushesanumberoffirms，allreservesarethrownuponthemarkethere，too，inthemomentofanxiety，andthealarmisstillfurtherexaggerated。Thisisthebeginningofthecrisis，whichthentakespreciselythesamecourseasitspredecessor，andgivesplaceinturntoaseasonofprosperity。Soitgoesonperpetually，——
prosperity，crisis，prosperity，crisis，andthisperennialroundinwhichEnglishindustrymovesis，ashasbeenbeforeobserved，usuallycompletedonceinfiveorsixyears。
FromthisitisclearthatEnglishmanufacturemusthave，atalltimessavethebriefperiodsofhighestprosperity，anunemployedreservearmyofworkers，inordertobeabletoproducethemassesofgoodsrequiredbythemarketintheliveliestmonths。Thisreservearmyislargerorsmaller，accordingasthestateofthemarketoccasionstheemploymentofalargerorsmallerproportionofitsmembers。Andifatthemomentofhighestactivityofthemarkettheagriculturaldistrictsandthebranchesleastaffectedbythegeneralprosperitytemporarilysupplytomanufactureanumberofworkers，theseareamereminority，andthesetoobelongtothereservearmy，withthesingledifferencethattheprosperityofthemomentwasrequiredtorevealtheirconnectionwithit。Whentheyenteruponthemoreactivebranchesofwork，theirformeremployersdrawinsomewhat，inordertofeelthelossless，worklongerhours，employwomenandyoungerworkers，andwhenthewanderersdischargedatthebeginningofthecrisisreturn，theyfindtheirplacesfilledandthemselvessuperfluous——atleastinthemajorityofcases。Thisreservearmy，whichembracesanimmensemultitudeduringthecrisisandalargenumberduringtheperiodwhichmayberegardedastheaveragebetweenthehighestprosperityandthecrisis，isthe”surpluspopulation”ofEngland，whichkeepsbodyandsoultogetherbybegging，stealing，street-sweeping，collectingmanure，pushinghand-carts，drivingdonkeys，peddling，orperformingoccasionalsmalljobs。Ineverygreattownamultitudeofsuchpeoplemaybefound。Itisastonishinginwhatdevicesthis”surpluspopulation”takesrefuge。TheLondoncrossing-sweepersareknownallovertheworld；buthithertotheprincipalstreetsinallthegreatcities，aswellasthecrossings，havebeensweptbypeopleoutofotherwork，andemployedbythePoorLawguardiansorthemunicipalauthoritiesforthepurpose。Now，however，amachinehasbeeninventedwhichrattlesthroughthestreetsdaily，andhasspoiledthissourceofincomefortheunemployed。Alongthegreathighwaysleadingintothecities，onwhichthereisagreatdealofwagontraffic，alargenumberofpeoplemaybeseenwithsmallcarts，gatheringfreshhorse-dungattheriskoftheirlivesamongthepassingcoachesandomnibusesoftenpayingacoupleofshillingsaweektotheauthoritiesfortheprivilege。Butthisoccupationisforbiddeninmanyplaces，becausetheordinarystreet-sweepingsthusimpoverishedcannotbesoldasmanure。Happyaresuchofthe”surplus”
ascanobtainapush-cartandgoaboutwithit。Happierstillthosetowhomitisvouchsafedtopossessanassinadditiontothecart。Theassmustgethisownfoodorisgivenalittlegatheredrefuse，andcanyetbringinatrifleofmoney。
Mostofthe”surplus”betakethemselvestohuckstering。OnSaturdayafternoons，especially，whenthewholeworkingpopulationisonthestreets，thecrowdwholivefromhucksteringandpeddlingmaybeseen。Shoeandcorsetlaces，braces，twine，cakes，oranges，everykindofsmallarticlesareofferedbymen，women，andchildren；andatothertimesalso，suchpeddlersarealwaystobeseenstandingatthestreetcorners，orgoingaboutwithcakesandginger-beerornettle-beer。[3]Matchesandsuchthings，sealing-wax，andpatentmixturesforlightingfiresarefurtherresourcesofsuchvendors。Others，so-calledjobbers，goaboutthestreetsseekingsmalljobs。Manyofthesesucceedingettingaday’swork，manyarenotsofortunate。”Atthegatesofeachofthe[London]docks，”saystheRev。
W。Champneys，preacheroftheEastEnd，”hundredsofpoormenmaybeseenbeforedaybreakwaitingfortheopeningofthegatesinthehopeofobtainingaday’swork；andwhentheyoungestandmostable-bodied，andthosebestknown，havebeenengaged，hundredsstillmaybeseenreturningtotheirdestitutefamilieswiththatsicknessofheartwhicharisesfromhopedeferred。”Whenthesepeoplefindnoworkandwillnotrebelagainstsociety，whatremainsforthembuttobeg？Andsurelynoonecanwonderatthegreatarmyofbeggars，mostofthemable-bodiedmen，withwhomthepolicecarriesonperpetualwar。Butthebeggaryofthesemenhasapeculiarcharacter。
Suchamanusuallygoesaboutwithhisfamilysingingapleadingsonginthestreetsorappealing，inaspeech，tothebenevolenceofthepassers-by。
Anditisastrikingfactthatthesebeggarsareseenalmostexclusivelyintheworking-people’sdistricts，thatitisalmostexclusivelythegiftsofthepoorfromwhichtheylive。Orthefamilytakesupitspositioninabusystreet，andwithoututteringaword，letsthemeresightofitshelplessnesspleadforit。Inthiscase，too，theyreckonuponthesympathyoftheworkersalone，whoknowfromexperiencehowitfeelstobehungry，andareliabletofindthemselvesinthesamesituationatanymoment；
forthisdumbyetmostmovingappeal，ismetwithalmostsolelyinsuchstreetsasarefrequentedbyworking-men，andatsuchhoursasworkingmenpassby；butespeciallyonsummerevenings，whenthe”secrets”oftheworking-people’squartersaregenerallyrevealed，andthemiddle-classwithdrawsasfaraspossiblefromthedistrictthuspolluted。Andheamongthe”surplus”whohascourageandpassionenoughopenlytoresistsociety，toreplywithdeclaredwaruponthebourgeoisietothedisguisedwarwhichthebourgeoisiewagesuponhim，goesforthtorob，plunder，murder，andburn！
Ofthissurpluspopulationthereare，accordingtothereportsathePoorLawcommissioners，onanaverage，amillionandahalfinEnglandandWales；inScotlandthenumbercannotbeascertainedforwantofPoorLawregulations，andwithIrelandweshalldealseparately。Moreover，thismillionandahalfincludesonlythosewhoactuallyapplytotheparishforrelief；thegreatmultitudewhostruggleonwithoutrecoursetothismosthatedexpedient，itdoesnotembrace。Ontheotherhand，agoodpartofthenumberbelongstotheagriculturaldistricts，anddoesnotenterintothepresentdiscussion。During。acrisisthisnumbernaturallyincreasesmarkedly，andwantreachesitshighestpitch。Take，forinstance，thecrisisof1842，which，beingthelatest，wasthemostviolent；fortheintensityofthecrisisincreaseswitheachrepetition，andthenext，whichmaybeexpectednotlaterthan1847，willprobablybestillmoreviolentandlasting。
Duringthiscrisisthepoor-ratesroseineverytowntoahithertounknownheight。InStockport，amongothertowns，foreverypoundpaidinhouse-rent，eightshillingsofpoor-ratehadtobepaid，sothattheratealoneformedfortypercentofthehouse-rent。Moreoverwholestreetsstoodvacant，sothattherewereatleasttwentythousandfewerinhabitantsthanusual，andonthedoorsoftheemptyhousesmightberead:”Stockporttolet。”
InBoltonwhere，inordinaryyears，therentsfromwhichratesarepaidaverage£；86，000，theysankto£；36，000。Thenumberofthepoortobesupportedrose，ontheotherhand，to14，000，ormorethantwentypercentofthewholenumberofinhabitants。InLeeds，thePoorLawguardianshadareservefundof£；10，000。This，withacontributionof£；7，000，waswhollyexhaustedbeforethecrisisreacheditsheight。Soitwaseverywhere。
AreportdrawnupinJanuary，1845，byacommitteeoftheAnti-CornLawLeague，ontheconditionoftheindustrialdistrictsin1842，whichwasbasedupondetailedstatementsofthemanufacturers，assertsthatthepoor-ratewas，takingtheaverage，twiceashighasin1859，andthatthenumberofpersonsrequiringreliefhastrebled，evenquintupled，sincethattime；
thatamultitudeofapplicantsbelongtoaclasswhichhadneverbeforesolicitedrelief；thattheworking-classcommandsmorethantwo-thirdslessofthemeansofsubsistencethanfrom1854-1836；thattheconsumptionofmeathadbeendecidedlyless，insomeplacestwentypercent，inothersreachingsixtypercentless；thatevenhandicraftsmen，smiths，bricklayers，andothers，whousuallyhavefullemploymentinthemostdepressedperiods，nowsufferedgreatlyfromwantofworkandreductionofwages；andthat，evennow，inJanuary，1845，wagesarestillsteadilyfalling。Andthesearethereportsofmanufacturers！
Thestarvingworkmen，whosemillswereidle，whoseemployerscouldgivethemnowork，stoodinthestreetsinalldirections，beggedsinglyorincrowds，besiegedthesidewalksinarmies，andappealedtothepassers-byforhelp；theybegged，notcringinglikeordinarybeggars，butthreateningbytheirnumbers，theirgestures，andtheirwords。Suchwasthestateofthingsinalltheindustrialdistricts，fromLeicestertoLeeds，andfromManchestertoBirmingham。Hereandtheredisturbancesarose，asintheStaffordshirepotteries，inJuly。ThemostfrightfulexcitementprevailedamongtheworkersuntilthegeneralinsurrectionbrokeoutthroughoutthemanufacturingdistrictsinAugust。WhenIcametoManchesterinNovember，1842，therewerecrowdsofunemployedworking-menateverystreetcorner，andmanymillswerestillstandingidle。Inthefollowingmonthstheseunwillingcornerloafersgraduallyvanished，andthefactoriescameintoactivityoncemore。
Towhatextentwantandsufferingprevailamongtheseunemployedduringsuchacrisis，Ineednotdescribe。Thepoor-ratesareinsufficient，vastlyinsufficient；thephilanthropyoftherichisarain-dropintheocean，lostinthemomentoffalling，beggarycansupportbutfewamongthecrowds。
Ifthesmalldealersdidnotselltotheworking-peopleoncreditatsuchtimesaslongaspossible——payingthemselvesliberallyafterwards，itmustbeconfessed——andiftheworking-peopledidnothelpeachother，everycrisiswouldremoveamultitudeofthesurplusthroughdeathbystarvation。
Since，however，themostdepressedperiodisbrief，lasting，atworst，butone，two，ortwoandahalfyears，mostofthememergefromitwiththeirlivesafterdireprivations。Butindirectlybydisease，etc。，everycrisisfindsamultitudeofvictims，asweshallsee。First，however，letusturntoanothercauseofabasementtowhichtheEnglishworkerisexposed，acausepermanentlyactiveinforcingthewholeclassdownwards。
NOTES1。AfavouriteexpressionoftheEnglishmanufacturers——NotebyEngels。ReturntoText2。AdamSmith，WealthofNations，I。，McCulloch’seditioninonevolume，sect。8，p。36:”Thewearandtearofaslave，ithasbeensaid，isattheexpenseofhismaster，butthatofafreeservantisathisownexpense。Thewearandtearofthelatter，however，is，inreality，asmuchattheexpenseofhismasterasthatoftheformer。Thewagespaidtojourneymenandservantsofeverykind，mustbesuchasmayenablethem，onewithanother，tocontinuetheraceofjourneymenandservants，accordingastheincreasing，diminishing，orstationarydemandofthesocietymayhappentorequire。Butthoughthewearandtearofafreeservantbeequallyattheexpenseofhismaster，itgenerallycostshimmuchlessthanthatofaslave。Thefundforreplacingorrepairing，ifImaysayso，thewearandtearoftheslave，iscommonlymanagedbythenegligentmasterorcarelessoverseer。”——NotebyEngels。ReturntoText3。Twocoolingeffervescentdrinks，theformermadeofwater，sugarandsomeginger，thelatterofwater，sugarandnettles。
Theyaremuchlikedbytheworkers，especiallytheteetotallers——NotebyEngels。ReturntoTextIRISHIMMIGRATIONF。Engel’sTHECONDITIONS
OFTHEWORKING-CLASS
INENGLANDIRISHIMMIGRATION
WehavealreadyreferredseveraltimesinpassingtotheIrishwhohaveimmigratedintoEngland；andweshallnowhavetoinvestigatemorecloselythecausesandresultsofthisimmigration。
TherapidextensionofEnglishindustrycouldnothavetakenplaceifEnglandhadnotpossessedinthenumerousandimpoverishedpopulationofIrelandareserveatcommand。TheIrishhadnothingtoloseathome，andmuchtogaininEngland；andfromthetimewhenitbecameknowninIrelandthattheeastsideofSt。George’sChannelofferedsteadyworkandgoodpayforstrongarms，everyyearhasbroughtarmiesoftheIrishhither。
Ithasbeencalculatedthatmorethanamillionhavealreadyimmigrated，andnotfarfromfiftythousandstillcomeeveryyear，nearlyallofwhomentertheindustrialdistricts，especiallythegreatcities，andthereformthelowestclassofthepopulation。ThusthereareinLondon，120，000；
inManchester，40，000；inLiverpool，34，000；Bristol，24，000；Glasgow，40，000；Edinburgh，29，000，poorIrishpeople。[4]Thesepeoplehavinggrownupalmost。withoutcivilisation，accustomedfromyouthtoeverysortofprivation，rough，intemperate，andimprovident，bringalltheirbrutalhabitswiththemamongaclassoftheEnglishpopulationwhichhas，intruth，littleinducementtocultivateeducationandmorality。
LetushearThomasCarlyleuponthissubject:[5]”ThewildMilesian[6]features，lookingfalseingenuity，restlessness，unreason，misery，andmockery，saluteyouonallhighwaysandbyways。TheEnglishcoachman，ashewhirlspast，lashestheMilesianwithhiswhip，curseshimwithhistongue；theMilesianisholdingouthishattobeg。Heisthesorestevilthiscountryhastostrivewith。Inhisragsandlaughingsavagery，heistheretoundertakeallworkthatcanbedonebymerestrengthofhandandback——forwagesthatwillpurchasehimpotatoes。Heneedsonlysaltforcondiment，helodgestohismindinanypig-hutchordog-hutch，roostsinouthouses，andwearsasuitoftatters，thegettingonandoffofwhichissaidtobeadifficultoperation，transactedonlyinfestivalsandthehightidesofthecalendar。
TheSaxon-man，ifhecannotworkontheseterms，findsnowork。TheuncivilisedIrishman，notbyhisstrength，butbytheoppositeofstrength，drivestheSaxonnativeout，takespossessioninhisroom。Thereabideshe，inhissqualorandunreason，inhisfalsityanddrunkenviolence，astheready-madenucleusofdegradationanddisorder。Whoeverstruggles，swimmingwithdifficulty，maynowfindanexamplehowthehumanbeingcanexistnotswimming，butsunk……ThattheconditionofthelowermultitudeofEnglishlabourersapproximatesmoreandmoretothatoftheIrish，competingwiththeminallthemarkets:thatwhatsoeverlabour，towhichmerestrengthwithlittleskillwillsuffice，istobedone，willbedonenotattheEnglishprice，butatanapproximationtotheIrishprice；atapricesuperiorasyettotheIrish，thatis，superiortoscarcityofpotatoesforthirtyweeksyearly；superior，yethourly，withthearrivalofeverynewsteamboat，sinkingnearertoanequalitywiththat。”Ifweexcepthisexaggeratedandone-sidedcondemnationoftheIrishnationalcharacter，Carlyleisperfectlyright。TheseIrishmenwhomigrateforfourpencetoEngland，onthedeckofasteamshiponwhichtheyareoftenpackedlikecattle，insinuatethemselveseverywhere。Theworstdwellingsaregoodenoughforthem；theirclothingcausesthemlittletrouble，solongasitholdstogetherbyasinglethread；shoestheyknownot；theirfoodconsistsofpotatoesandpotatoesonly；whatevertheyearnbeyondtheseneedstheyspendupondrink。Whatdoessucharacewantwithhighwages？TheworstquartersofallthelargetownsareinhabitedbyIrishmen。Wheneveradistrictisdistinguishedforespecialfilthandespecialruinousness，theexplorermaysafelycountuponmeetingchieflythoseCelticfaceswhichonerecognisesatthefirstglanceasdifferentfromtheSaxonphysiognomyofthenative，andthesinging，aspiratebroguewhichthetrueIrishmanneverloses。I
haveoccasionallyheardtheIrish-CelticlanguagespokeninthemostthicklypopulatedpartsofManchester。ThemajorityofthefamilieswholiveincellarsarealmosteverywhereofIrishorigin。Inshort，theIrishhave，asDr。Kaysays，discoveredtheminimumofthenecessitiesoflife，andarenowmakingtheEnglishworkersacquaintedwithit。Filthanddrunkenness，too，theyhavebroughtwiththem。Thelackofcleanliness，whichisnotsoinjuriousinthecountry，wherepopulationisscattered，andwhichistheIrishman’ssecondnature，becomesterrifyingandgravelydangerousthroughitsconcentrationhereinthegreatcities。TheMilesiandepositsallgarbageandfilthbeforehishousedoorhere，ashewasaccustomedtodoathome，andsoaccumulatesthepoolsanddirt-heapswhichdisfiguretheworking-people’squartersandpoisontheair。Hebuildsapig-styagainstthehousewallashedidathome，andifheispreventedfromdoingthis，heletsthepigsleepintheroomwithhimself。Thisnewandunnaturalmethodofcattle-raisingincitiesiswhollyofIrishorigin。TheIrishmanloveshispigastheArabhishorse，withthedifferencethathesellsitwhenitisfatenoughtokill。Otherwise，heeatsandsleepswithit，hischildrenplaywithit，rideuponit，rollinthedirtwithit，asanyonemayseeathousandtimesrepeatedinallthegreattownsofEngland。
Thefilthandcomfortlessnessthatprevailinthehousesthemselvesitisimpossibletodescribe。TheIrishmanisunaccustomedtothepresenceoffurniture；aheapofstraw，afewrags，utterlybeyonduseasclothing，sufficeforhisnightlycouch。Apieceofwood，abrokenchair，anoldchestforatable，moreheneedsnot；atea-kettle，afewpotsanddishes，equiphiskitchen，whichisalsohissleepingandlivingroom。Whenheisinwantoffuel，everythingcombustiblewithinhisreach，chairs，door-posts，mouldings，flooring，findsitswayupthechimney。Moreover，whyshouldheneedmuchroom？Athomeinhismud-cabintherewasonlyoneroomforalldomesticpurposes；morethanoneroomhisfamilydoesnotneedinEngland。
Sothecustomofcrowdingmanypersonsintoasingleroom，nowsouniversal，hasbeenchieflyimplantedbytheIrishimmigration。Andsincethepoordevilmusthaveoneenjoyment，andsocietyhasshuthimoutofallothers，hebetakeshimselftothedrinkingofspirits。DrinkistheonlythingwhichmakestheIrishman’slifeworthhaving，drinkandhischeerycare-freetemperament；soherevelsindrinktothepointofthemostbestialdrunkenness。
ThesouthernfacilecharacteroftheIrishman，hiscrudity，whichplaceshimbutlittleabovethesavage，hiscontemptforallhumaneenjoyments，inwhichhisverycrudenessmakeshimincapableofsharing，hisfilthandpoverty，allfavourdrunkenness。Thetemptationisgreat，hecannotresistit，andsowhenhehasmoneyhegetsridofitdownhisthroat。Whatelseshouldhedo？Howcansocietyblamehimwhenitplaceshiminapositioninwhichhealmostofnecessitybecomesadrunkard；whenitleaveshimtohimself，tohissavagery？
WithsuchacompetitortheEnglishworking-manhastostruggle，withacompetitoruponthelowestplanepossibleinacivilisedcountry，whoforthisveryreasonrequireslesswagesthananyother。Nothingelseisthereforepossiblethanthat，asCarlylesays，thewagesofEnglishworking-manshouldbeforceddownfurtherandfurtherineverybranchinwhichtheIrishcompetewithhim。Andthesebranchesaremany。AllsuchasdemandlittleornoskillareopentotheIrish。Forworkwhichrequireslongtrainingorregular，pertinaciousapplication，thedissolute，unsteady，drunkenIrishmanisontoolowaplane。Tobecomeamechanic，amill-hand，hewouldhavetoadopttheEnglishcivilisation，theEnglishcustoms，become，inthemain，anEnglishman。Butforallsimple，lessexactwork，whereveritisaquestionmoreofstrengththanskill，theIrishmanisasgoodastheEnglishman。SuchoccupationsarethereforeespeciallyovercrowdedwithIrishmen:hand-weavers，bricklayers，porters，jobbers，andsuchworkers，counthordesofIrishmenamongtheirnumber，andthepressureofthisracehasdonemuchtodepresswagesandlowertheworking-class。AndeveniftheIrish，whohaveforcedtheirwayintootheroccupations，shouldbecomemorecivilised，enoughoftheoldhabitswouldclingtothemtohaveastrong，degradinginfluenceupontheirEnglishcompanionsintoil，especiallyinviewofthegeneraleffectofbeingsurroundedbytheIrish。Forwhen，inalmosteverygreatcity，afifthoraquarteroftheworkersareIrish，orchildrenofIrishparents，whohavegrownupamongIrishfilth，noonecanwonderifthelife，habits，intelligence，moralstatus——inshort，thewholecharacteroftheworking-classassimilatesagreatpartoftheIrishcharacteristics。Onthecontrary，itiseasytounderstandhowthedegradingpositionoftheEnglishworkers，engenderedbyourmodernhistory，anditsimmediateconsequences，hasbeenstillmoredegradedbythepresenceofIrishcompetition。
NOTES4。ArchibaldAlison，ThePrinciplesofPopulation，andtheirConnectionwithHumanHappiness，twovols。，1840。ThisAlisonisthehistorianoftheFrenchRevolution，and，likehisbrother，Dr。W。P。Alison，areligiousTory——NotebyEngels。ReturntoText5。Chartism，pp。28，31，etc——NotebyEngels。ReturntoText6。Milesian——thenameofanancientfamilyofCeltickingsofIreland——NotebyEngelsReturntoTextResultsF。EngelsTHECONDITIONS
OFTHEWORKING-CLASS
INENGLANDRESULTS
Havingnowinvestigated，somewhatindetail，theconditionsunderwhichtheEnglishworking-classlives，itistimetodrawsomefurtherinferencesfromthefactspresented，andthentocompareourinferenceswiththeactualstateofthings。Letusseewhattheworkersthemselveshavebecomeunderthegivencircumstances，whatsortofpeopletheyare，whattheirphysical，mental，andmoralstatus。
Whenoneindividualinflictsbodilyinjuryuponanothersuchinjurythatdeathresults，wecallthedeedmanslaughter；whentheassailantknewinadvancethattheinjurywouldbefatal，wecallhisdeedmurder。Butwhensociety[1]placeshundredsofproletariansinsuchapositionthattheyinevitablymeetatooearlyandanunnaturaldeath，onewhichisquiteasmuchadeathbyviolenceasthatbytheswordorbullet；whenitdeprivesthousandsofthenecessariesoflife，placesthemunderconditionsinwhichtheycannotlive——forcesthem，throughthestrongarmofthelaw，toremaininsuchconditionsuntilthatdeathensueswhichistheinevitableconsequence——knowsthatthesethousandsofvictimsmustperish，andyetpermitstheseconditionstoremain，itsdeedismurderjustassurelyasthedeedofthesingleindividual；disguised，maliciousmurder，murderagainstwhichnonecandefendhimself，whichdoesnotseemwhatitis，becausenomanseesthemurderer，becausethedeathofthevictimseemsanaturalone，sincetheoffenceismoreoneofomissionthanofcommission。Butmurderitremains。IhavenowtoprovethatsocietyinEnglanddailyandhourlycommitswhattheworking-men’sorgans，withperfectcorrectness，characteriseassocialmurder，thatithasplacedtheworkersunderconditionsinwhichtheycanneitherretainhealthnorlivelong；thatitunderminesthevitalforceoftheseworkersgradually，littlebylittle，andsohurriesthemtothegravebeforetheirtime。Ihavefurthertoprovethatsocietyknowshowinjurioussuchconditionsaretothehealthandthelifeoftheworkers，andyetdoesnothingtoimprovetheseconditions。Thatitknowstheconsequencesofitsdeeds；thatitsactis，therefore，notmeremanslaughter，butmurder，Ishallhaveproved，whenIciteofficialdocuments，reportsofParliamentandoftheGovernment，insubstantiationofmycharge。
Thataclasswhichlivesundertheconditionsalreadysketchedandissoill-providedwiththemostnecessarymeansofsubsistence，cannotbehealthyandcanreachnoadvancedage，isself-evident。Letusreviewthecircumstancesoncemorewithespecialreferencetothehealthoftheworkers。
Thecentralisationofpopulationingreatcitiesexercisesofitselfanunfavourableinfluence；theatmosphereofLondoncanneverbesopure，sorichinoxygen，astheairofthecountry；twoandahalfmillionpairsoflungs，twohundredandfiftythousandfires，crowdeduponanareathreetofourmilessquare，consumeanenormousamountofoxygen，whichisreplacedwithdifficulty，becausethemethodofbuildingcitiesinitselfimpedesventilation。Thecarbonicacidgas，engenderedbyrespirationandfire，remainsinthestreetsbyreasonofitsspecificgravity，andthechiefaircurrentpassesovertheroofsofthecity。Thelungsoftheinhabitantsfailtoreceivetheduesupplyofoxygen，andtheconsequenceismentalandphysicallassitudeandlowvitality。Forthisreason，thedwellersincitiesarefarlessexposedtoacute，andespeciallytoinflammatory，affectionsthanruralpopulations，wholiveinafree，normalatmosphere；
buttheysufferthemorefromchronicaffections。Andiflifeinlargecitiesis，initself，injurioustohealth，howgreatmustbetheharmfulinfluenceofanabnormalatmosphereintheworking-people’squarters，where，aswehaveseen，everythingcombinestopoisontheair。Inthecountry，itmay，perhaps，becomparativelyinnoxioustokeepadung-heapadjoiningone’sdwelling，becausetheairhasfreeingressfromallsides；butinthemidstofalargetown，amongcloselybuiltlanesandcourtsthatshutoutallmovementoftheatmosphere，thecaseisdifferent。Allputrefyingvegetableandanimalsubstancesgiveoffgasesdecidedlyinjurioustohealth，andifthesegaseshavenofreewayofescape，theyinevitablypoisontheatmosphere。Thefilthandstagnantpoolsoftheworking-people’squartersinthegreatcitieshave，therefore，theworsteffectuponthepublichealth，becausetheyproducepreciselythosegaseswhichengenderdisease；so，too，theexhalationsfromcontaminatedstreams。Butthisisbynomeansall。Themannerinwhichthegreatmultitudeofthepooristreatedbysocietytodayisrevolting。Theyaredrawnintothelargecitieswheretheybreatheapooreratmospherethaninthecountry；theyarerelegatedtodistrictswhich，byreasonofthemethodofconstruction，areworseventilatedthananyothers；theyaredeprivedofallmeansofcleanliness，ofwateritself，sincepipesarelaidonlywhenpaidfor，andtheriverssopollutedthattheyareuselessforsuchpurposes；theyareobligedtothrowalloffalandgarbage，alldirtywater，oftenalldisgustingdrainageandexcrementintothestreets，beingwithoutothermeansofdisposingofthem；theyarethuscompelledtoinfecttheregionoftheirowndwellings。
Noristhisenough。Allconceivableevilsareheapedupontheheadsofthepoor。Ifthepopulationofgreatcitiesistoodenseingeneral，itistheyinparticularwhoarepackedintotheleastspace。Asthoughthevitiatedatmosphereofthestreetswerenotenough，theyarepennedindozensintosinglerooms，sothattheairwhichtheybreatheatnightisenoughinitselftostiflethem。Theyaregivendampdwellings，cellardensthatarenotwaterprooffrombeloworgarretsthatleakfromabove。
Theirhousesaresobuiltthattheclammyaircannotescape。Theyaresuppliedbad，tattered，orrottenclothing，adulteratedandindigestiblefood。Theyareexposedtothemostexcitingchangesofmentalcondition，themostviolentvibrationsbetweenhopeandfear；theyarehuntedlikegame，andnotpermittedtoattainpeaceofmindandquietenjoymentoflife。Theyaredeprivedofallenjoymentsexceptthatofsexualindulgenceanddrunkenness，areworkedeverydaytothepointofcompleteexhaustionoftheirmentalandphysicalenergies，andarethusconstantlyspurredontothemaddestexcessintheonlytwoenjoymentsattheircommand。Andiftheysurmountallthis，theyfallvictimstowantofworkinacrisiswhenallthelittleistakenfromthemthathadhithertobeenvouchsafedthem。
Howisitpossible，undersuchconditions，forthelowerclasstobehealthyandlonglived？Whatelsecanbeexpectedthananexcessivemortality，anunbrokenseriesofepidemics，aprogressivedeteriorationinthephysiqueoftheworkingpopulation？Letusseehowthefactsstand。
Thatthedwellingsoftheworkersintheworstportionsofthecities，togetherwiththeotherconditionsoflifeofthisclass，engendernumerousdiseases，isattestedonallsides。ThearticlealreadyquotedfromtheArtisanassertswithperfecttruth，thatlungdiseasesmustbetheinevitableconsequenceofsuchconditions，andthat，indeed，casesofthiskindaredisproportionatelyfrequentinthisclass。ThatthebadairofLondon，andespeciallyoftheworking-people’sdistricts，isinthehighestdegreefavourabletothedevelopmentofconsumption，thehecticappearanceofgreatnumbersofpersonssufficientlyindicates。Ifoneroamsthestreetsalittleintheearlymorning，whenthemultitudesareontheirwaytotheirwork，oneisamazedatthenumberofpersonswholookwhollyorhalf-consumptive。
EveninManchesterthepeoplehavenotthesameappearance；thesepale，lank，narrow-chested，hollow-eyedghosts，whomonepassesateverystep，theselanguid，flabbyfaces，incapableoftheslightestenergeticexpression，IhaveseeninsuchstartlingnumbersonlyinLondon，thoughconsumptioncarriesoffahordeofvictimsannuallyinthefactorytownsoftheNorth。
Incompetitionwithconsumptionstandstyphus，tosaynothingofscarletfever，adiseasewhichbringsmostfrightfuldevastationintotheranksoftheworking-class。Typhus，thatuniversallydiffusedaffliction，isattributedbytheofficialreportonthesanitaryconditionoftheworking-
class，directlytothebadstateofthedwellingsinthemattersofventilation，drainage，andcleanliness。Thisreportcompiled，itmustnotbeforgotten，bytheleadingphysiciansofEnglandfromthetestimonyofotherphysicians，assertsthatasingleill-ventilatedcourt，asingleblindalleywithoutdrainage，isenoughtoengenderfever，andusuallydoesengenderitespeciallyiftheinhabitantsaregreatlycrowded。Thisfeverhasthesamecharacteralmosteverywhere，anddevelopsinnearlyeverycaseintospecifictyphus。
Itistobefoundintheworking-people’squartersofallgreattownsandcities，andinsingleill-built，ill-keptstreetsofsmallerplaces，thoughitnaturallyseeksoutsinglevictimsinbetterdistrictsalso。InLondonithasnowprevailedforaconsiderabletime；itsextraordinaryviolenceintheyear1837gaverisetothereportalreadyreferredto。AccordingtotheannualreportofDr。SouthwoodSmithontheLondonFeverHospital，thenumberofpatientsin1843was1，462，or418morethaninanypreviousyear。Inthedamp，dirtyregionsofthenorth，south，andeastdistrictsofLondon，thisdiseaseragedwithextraordinaryviolence。
Manyofthepatientswereworking-peoplefromthecountry，whohadenduredtheseverestprivationwhilemigrating，and，aftertheirarrival，hadslepthungryandhalf-nakedinthestreets，andsofallenvictimstothefever。
