Thesepeoplewerebroughtintothehospitalinsuchastateofweakness，thatunusualquantitiesofwine，cognac，andpreparationsofammoniaandotherstimulantswererequiredfortheirtreatment；161/2percentofallpatientsdied。ThismalignantfeveristobefoundinManchester；intheworstquartersoftheOldTown，Ancoats，LittleIreland，etc。，itisrarelyextinct；thoughhere，asintheEnglishtownsgenerally，itprevailstoalessextentthanmightbeexpected。InScotlandandIreland，ontheotherhand，itrageswithaviolencethatsurpassesallconception。
InEdinburghandGlasgowitbrokeoutin1817，afterthefamine，andin1826and1837withespecialviolence，afterthecommercialcrisis，subsidingsomewhateachtimeafterhavingragedaboutthreeyears。InEdinburghabout6，000personswereattackedbythefeverduringtheepidemicof1817，andabout10，000inthatof1837，andnotonlythenumberofpersonsattackedbuttheviolenceofthediseaseincreasedwitheachrepetition。[2]
Butthefuryoftheepidemicinallformerperiodsseemstohavebeenchild’splayincomparisonwithitsravagesafterthecrisisof1842。One-sixthofthewholeindigentpopulationofScotlandwasseizedbythefever，andtheinfectionwascarriedbywanderingbeggarswithfearfulrapidityfromonelocalitytoanother。Itdidnotreachthemiddleandupperclassesofthepopulation，yetintwomonthsthereweremorefevercasesthanintwelveyearsbefore。InGlasgow，twelvepercentofthepopulationwereseizedintheyear1843；52，000persons，ofwhomthirty-twopercentperished，whilethismortalityinManchesterandLiverpooldoesnotordinarilyexceedeightpercent。Theillnessreachedacrisisontheseventhandfifteenthdays；onthelatter，thepatientusuallybecameyellow，whichourauthorityregardsasanindicationthatthecauseofthemaladywastobesoughtinmentalexcitementandanxiety。[3]InIreland，too，thesefeverepidemicshavebecomedomesticated。Duringtwenty-onemonthsoftheyears1817-1818，39，000feverpatientspassedthroughtheDublinhospital；andinamorerecentyear，accordingtoSheriffAlison，60，000。[4]InCorkthefeverhospitalreceivedone-seventhofthepopulationin1817-1818，inLimerickinthesametimeone-fourth，andinthebadquarterofWaterford，nineteen-twentiethsofthewholepopulationwereillofthefeveratonetime。[5]
Whenoneremembersunderwhatconditionstheworking-peoplelive，whenonethinkshowcrowdedtheirdwellingsare，howeverynookandcornerswarmswithhumanbeings，howsickandwellsleepinthesameroom，inthesamebed，theonlywonderisthatacontagiousdiseaselikethisfeverdoesnotspreadyetfarther。Andwhenonereflectshowlittlemedicalassistancethesickhaveatcommand，howmanyarewithoutanymedicaladvicewhatsoever，andignorantofthemostordinaryprecautionarymeasures，themortalityseemsactuallysmall。Dr。Alison，whohasmadeacarefulstudyofthisdisease，attributesitdirectlytothewantandthewretchedconditionofthepoor，asinthereportalreadyquoted。Heassertsthatprivationsandtheinsufficientsatisfactionofvitalneedsarewhatpreparetheframeforcontagionandmaketheepidemicwidespreadandterrible。Heprovesthataperiodofprivation，acommercialcrisisorabadharvest，haseachtimeproducedthetyphusepidemicinIrelandasinScotland，andthatthefuryoftheplaguehasfallenalmostexclusivelyontheworking-class。
Itisanoteworthyfact，thataccordingtohistestimony，themajorityofpersonswhoperishbytyphusarefathersoffamilies，preciselythepersonswhocanleastbesparedbythosedependentuponthem；andseveralIrishphysicianswhomhequotesbearthesametestimony。
Anothercategoryofdiseasesarisesdirectlyfromthefoodratherthanthedwellingsoftheworkers。Thefoodofthelabourer，indigestibleenoughinitself，isutterlyunfitforyoungchildren，andhehasneithermeansnortimetogethischildrenmoresuitablefood。Moreover，thecustomofgivingchildrenspirits，andevenopium，isverygeneral；andthesetwoinfluences，withtherestoftheconditionsoflifeprejudicialtobodilydevelopment，giverisetothemostdiverseaffectionsofthedigestiveorgans，leavinglife-longtracesbehindthem。Nearlyallworkershavestomachsmoreorlessweak，andareyetforcedtoadheretothedietwhichistherootoftheevil。Howshouldtheyknowwhatistoblameforit？Andiftheyknew，howcouldtheyobtainamoresuitableregimensolongastheycannotadoptadifferentwayoflivingandarenotbettereducated？Butnewdiseasearisesduringchildhoodfromimpaireddigestion。Scrofulaisalmostuniversalamongtheworking-class，andscrofulousparentshavescrofulouschildren，especiallywhentheoriginalinfluencescontinueinfullforcetooperateupontheinheritedtendencyofthechildren。Asecondconsequenceofthisinsufficientbodilynourishment，duringtheyearsofgrowthanddevelopment，israchitis，whichisextremelycommonamongthechildrenoftheworking-class。Thehardeningofthebonesisdelayed，thedevelopmentoftheskeletoningeneralisrestricted，anddeformitiesofthelegsandspinalcolumnarefrequent，inadditiontotheusualrachiticaffections。
Howgreatlyalltheseevilsareincreasedbythechangestowhichtheworkersaresubjectinconsequenceoffluctuationsintrade，wantofwork，andthescantywagesintimeofcrisis，itisnotnecessarytodwellupon。
Temporarywantofsufficientfood，towhichalmosteveryworking-manisexposedatleastonceinthecourseofhislife，onlycontributestointensifytheeffectsofhisusuallysufficientbutbaddiet。Childrenwhoarehalf-starved，justwhentheymostneedampleandnutritiousfood——andhowmanysuchthereareduringeverycrisisandevenwhentradeisatitsbest——mustinevitablybecomeweak，scrofulousandrachiticinahighdegree。Andthattheydobecomeso，theirappearanceamplyshows。Theneglecttowhichthegreatmassofworking-men’schildrenarecondemnedleavesineradicabletracesandbringstheenfeeblementofthewholeraceofworkerswithit。
Addtothistheunsuitableclothingofthisclass，theimpossibilityofprecautionsagainstcolds，thenecessityoftoilingsolongashealthpermits，wantmademoredirewhensicknessappears，andtheonlytoocommonlackofallmedicalassistance；andwehavearoughideaofthesanitaryconditionoftheEnglishworking-class。Theinjuriouseffectspeculiartosingleemploymentsasnowconducted，Ishallnotdealwithhere。
Besidesthese，thereareotherinfluenceswhichenfeeblethehealthofagreatnumberofworkers，intemperancemostofall。Allpossibletemptations，allallurementscombinetobringtheworkerstodrunkenness。Liquorisalmosttheironlysourceofpleasure，andallthingsconspiretomakeitaccessibletothem。Theworking-mancomesfromhisworktired，exhausted，findshishomecomfortless，damp，dirty，repulsive；hehasurgentneedofrecreation，hemusthavesomethingtomakeworkworthhistrouble，tomaketheprospectofthenextdayendurable。Hisunnerved，uncomfortable，hypochondriacstateofmindandbodyarisingfromhisunhealthycondition，andespeciallyfromindigestion，isaggravatedbeyondendurancebythegeneralconditionsofhislife，theuncertaintyofhisexistence，hisdependenceuponallpossibleaccidentsandchances，andhisinabilitytodoanythingtowardsgaininganassuredposition。Hisenfeebledframe，weakenedbybadairandbadfood，violentlydemandssomeexternalstimulus；hissocialneedcanbegratifiedonlyinthepublic-house，hehasabsolutelynootherplacewherehecanmeethisfriends。Howcanhebeexpectedtoresistthetemptation？Itismorallyandphysicallyinevitablethat，undersuchcircumstances，averylargenumberofworking-menshouldfallintointemperance。Andapartfromthechieflyphysicalinfluenceswhichdrivetheworking-manintodrunkenness，thereistheexampleofthegreatmass，theneglectededucation，theimpossibilityofprotectingtheyoungfromtemptation，inmanycasesthedirectinfluenceofintemperateparents，whogivetheirownchildrenliquor，thecertaintyofforgettingforanhourortwothewretchednessandburdenoflife，andahundredothercircumstancessomightythattheworkerscan，intruth，hardlybeblamedforyieldingtosuchoverwhelmingpressure。Drunkennesshashereceasedtobeavice，forwhichtheviciouscanbeheldresponsible；
itbecomesaphenomenon，thenecessary，inevitableeffectofcertainconditionsuponanobjectpossessedofnovolitioninrelationtothoseconditions。
Theywhohavedegradedtheworking-mantoamereobjecthavetheresponsibilitytobear。Butasinevitablyasagreatnumberofworking-menfallapreytodrink，justsoinevitablydoesitmanifestitsruinousinfluenceuponthebodyandmindofitsvictims。Allthetendenciestodiseasearisingfromtheconditionsoflifeoftheworkersarepromotedbyit，itstimulatesinthehighestdegreethedevelopmentoflunganddigestivetroubles，theriseandspreadoftyphusepidemics。
Anothersourceofphysicalmischieftotheworking-classliesintheimpossibilityofemployingskilledphysiciansincasesofillness。Itistruethatanumberofcharitableinstitutionsstrivetosupplythiswant，thattheinfirmaryinManchester，forinstance，receivesorgivesadviceandmedicineto22，000patientsannually。Butwhatisthatinacityinwhich，accordingtoGaskell’scalculation，[6]three-fourthsofthepopulationneedmedicalaideveryyear？Englishdoctorschargehighfees，andworking-menarenotinapositiontopaythem。Theycanthereforedonothing，orarecompelledtocallincheapcharlatans，andusequackremedies，whichdomoreharmthangood。AnimmensenumberofsuchquacksthriveineveryEnglishtown，securingtheirclienteleamongthepoorbymeansofadvertisements，posters，andothersuchdevices。Besidesthese，vastquantitiesofpatentmedicinesaresold，forallconceivableailments:Morrison’sPills，Parr’sLifePills，Dr。Mainwaring’sPills，andathousandotherpills，essences，andbalsams，allofwhichhavethepropertyofcuringalltheillsthatfleshisheirto。Thesemedicinesrarelycontainactuallyinjurioussubstances，but，whentakenfreelyandoften，theyaffectthesystemprejudicially；andastheunwarypurchasersarealwaysrecommendedtotakeasmuchaspossible，itisnottobewonderedatthattheyswallowthemwholesalewhetherwantedornot。
ItisbynomeansunusualforthemanufacturerofParr’sLifePillstoselltwentytotwenty-fivethousandboxesofthesesalutarypillsinaweek，andtheyaretakenforconstipationbythisone，fordiarrhoeabythatone，forfever，weakness，andallpossibleailments。AsourGermanpeasantsarecuppedorbledatcertainseasons，sodotheEnglishworking-peoplenowconsumepatentmedicinestotheirowninjuryandthegreatprofitofthemanufacturer。Oneofthemostinjuriousofthesepatentmedicinesisadrinkpreparedwithopiates，chieflylaudanum，underthenameGodfrey’sCordial。Womenwhoworkathome，andhavetheirownandotherpeople’schildrentotakecareof，givethemthisdrinktokeepthemquiet，and，asmanybelieve，tostrengthenthem。Theyoftenbegintogivethismedicinetonewlybornchildren，andcontinue，withoutknowingtheeffectsofthis”heart’s-ease”，untilthechildrendie。Thelesssusceptiblethechild’ssystemtotheactionoftheopium，thegreaterthequantitiesadministered。
Whenthecordialceasestoact，laudanumaloneisgiven，oftentotheextentoffifteentotwentydropsatadose。TheCoronerofNottinghamtestifiedbeforeaParliamentaryCommission[7]thatoneapothecaryhad，accordingtohisownstatement，usedthirteenhundredweightoftreacleinoneyearinthepreparationofGodfrey’sCordial。
Theeffectsuponthechildrensotreatedmaybereadilyimagined。Theyarepale，feeble，wilted，andusuallydiebeforecompletingthesecondyear。Theuseofthiscordialisveryextensiveinallgreattownsandindustrialdistrictsinthekingdom。
Theresultofalltheseinfluencesisageneralenfeeblementoftheframeintheworking-class。Therearefewvigorous，well-built，healthypersonsamongtheworkers，i。e。amongthefactoryoperatives，whoareemployedinconfinedrooms，andweareherediscussingtheseonly。Theyarealmostallweakly，ofangularbutnotpowerfulbuild，lean，pale，andofrelaxedfibre，withtheexceptionofthemusclesespeciallyexercisedintheirwork。Nearlyallsufferfromindigestion，andconsequentlyfromamoreorlesshypochondriac，melancholy，irritable，nervouscondition。Theirenfeebledconstitutionsareunabletoresistdisease，andarethereforeseizedbyitoneveryoccasion。Hencetheyageprematurely，anddieearly。
Onthispointthemortalitystatisticssupplyunquestionabletestimony。
AccordingtotheReportofRegistrar-GeneralGraham，theannualdeath-rateofallEnglandandWalesissomethinglessthan21/2percent。Thatistosay，outofforty-fivepersons，onedieseveryyear。[8]Thiswastheaveragefortheyear1859-40。In1840-41themortalitydiminishedsomewhat，andthedeath-ratewasbutoneinforty-six。Butinthegreatcitiestheproportioniswhollydifferent。Ihavebeforemeofficialtablesofmortality(ManchesterGuardian，July31st，1844)，accordingtowhichthedeath-rateofseverallargetownsisasfollows:——InManchester，includingChorltonandSalford，onein32。72；andexcludingChorltonandSalford，onein50。75。InLiverpool，includingWestDerby(suburb)，31。90，andexcludingWestDerby，29。90；whiletheaverageofallthedistrictsofCheshire，Lancashire，andYorkshirecited，includinganumberofwhollyorpartiallyruraldistrictsandmanysmalltowns，withatotalpopulationof2，172，506forthewhole，isonedeathin39。80persons。Howunfavourablytheworkersareplacedinthegreatcities，themortalityforPrescottinLancashireshows:adistrictinhabitedbyminers，andshowingalowersanitaryconditionthanthatoftheagriculturaldistricts，miningbeingbynomeansahealthfuloccupation。Buttheseminersliveinthecountry，andthedeath-rateamongthemisbutonein47。54，ornearlytwo-and-a-halfpercentbetterthanthatforallEngland。Allthesestatementsarebaseduponthemortalitytablesfor1843。Stillhigheristhedeath-rateintheScotchcities；inEdinburgh，in1838-39，onein29；in1831，intheOldTownalone，onein22。InGlasgow，accordingtoDr。Cowan，[9]theaveragehasbeen，since1830，onein90；andinsingleyears，onein22to24。Thatthisenormousshorteningoflifefallschieflyupontheworking-class，thatthegeneralaverageisimprovedbythesmallermortalityoftheupperandmiddle-classes，isattesteduponallsides。Oneofthemostrecentdepositionsisthatofaphysician，Dr。P。H。HollandinManchester，whoinvestigatedChorlton-on-Medlock，asuburbofManchester，underofficialcommission。Hedividedthehousesandstreetsintothreeclasseseach，andascertainedthefollowingvariationsinthedeath-rate:Firstclassofstreets。HousesI。class。Mortalityonein51””””II。””””45””””III。””””36
Second”””I。””””55””””II。””””38””””III。””””35
Third”””I。”Wanting——”——””””II。”Mortality””35””””III。””””25ItisclearfromothertablesgivenbyHollandthatthemortalityinthestreetsofthesecondclassis18percentgreater，andinthestreetsofthethirdclass68percentgreaterthaninthoseofthefirstclass；
thatthemortalityinthehousesofthesecondclassis31percentgreater，andinthethirdclass78percentgreaterthaninthoseofthefirstclass；thatthemortalityinthosebadstreetswhichwereimproved，decreased25percent。Hecloseswiththeremark，veryfrankforanEnglishbourgeoisie:[10]”Whenwefindtherateofmortalityfourtimesashighinsomestreetsasinothers，andtwiceashighinwholeclassesofstreetsasinotherclasses，andfurtherfindthatitisallbutinvariablyhighinthosestreetswhichareinbadcondition，andalmostinvariablylowinthosewhoseconditionisgood，wecannotresisttheconclusionthatmultitudesofourfellow-creatures，hundredsofourimmediateneighbours，areannuallydestroyedforwantofthemostevidentprecautions。”TheReportontheSanitaryConditionoftheWorking-Classcontainsinformationwhichatteststhesamefact。InLiverpool，in1840，theaveragelongevityoftheupperclasses，gentry，professionalmen，etc。，wasthirty-fiveyears；
thatofthebusinessmenandbetter-placedhandicraftsmen，twenty-twoyears；
andthatoftheoperatives，day-labourers，andserviceableclassingeneral，butfifteenyears。TheParliamentaryreportscontainamassofsimilarfacts。
Thedeath-rateiskeptsohighchieflybytheheavymortalityamongyoungchildrenintheworking-class。Thetenderframeofachildisleastabletowithstandtheunfavourableinfluencesofaninferiorlotinlife；
theneglecttowhichtheyareoftensubjected，whenbothparentsworkoroneisdead，avengesitselfpromptly，andnooneneedwonderthatinManchester，accordingtothereportlastquoted，morethanfifty-sevenpercentofthechildrenoftheworking-classperishbeforethefifthyear，whilebuttwentypercentofthechildrenofthehigherclasses，andnotquite。thirty-twopercentofthechildrenofallclassesinthecountrydieunderfiveyearsofage。[11]ThearticleoftheArtisan，alreadyseveraltimesreferredto，furnishesexacterinformationonthispoint，bycomparingthecitydeath-rateinsinglediseasesofchildrenwiththecountrydeath-rate，thusdemonstratingthat，ingeneral，epidemicsinManchesterandLiverpoolarethreetimesmorefatalthanincountrydistricts；thataffectionsofthenervoussystemarequintupled，andstomachtroublestrebled，whiledeathsfromaffectionsofthelungsincitiesaretothoseinthecountryas21/2to1。Fatalcasesofsmall-pox，measles，scarletfever，andwhoopingcough，amongsmallchildren，arefourtimesmorefrequent；thoseofwateronthebrainaretrebled，andconvulsionstentimesmorefrequent。Toquoteanotheracknowledgedauthority，Iappendthefollowingtable。Outof10，000personstheredie——[12]<55-20-40-60-70-80-90-100%
years19395969798999
_______________________________________________________________________________
InRuthlandshire，ahealthyagricul-
turaldistrict2，8658911，2751，2991，1891，4289381123
Essex，marshyagri-
culturaldistrict3，1591，1101，5261，4139631，019630773
TownofCarlisle，1779-1787，beforeintroductionofmills4，4089111，0061，20194082653315322
TownofCarlisle，aftertheintroduc-
tionofmills4，7389301，2611，134677727452801
Preston，factorytown4，9471，1361，3791，114553532298383
Leeds，factorytown5，2869271，2281，198593512225292Apartfromthediversediseaseswhicharethenecessaryconsequenceofthepresentneglectandoppressionofthepoorerclasses，thereareotherinfluenceswhichcontributetoincreasethemortalityamongsmallchildren。
Inmanyfamiliesthewife，likethehusband，hastoworkawayfromhome，andtheconsequenceisthetotalneglectofthechildren，whoareeitherlockeduporgivenouttobetakencareof。Itis，therefore，nottobewonderedatifhundredsofthemperishthroughallmannerofaccidents。
Nowherearesomanychildrenrunover，nowherearesomanykilledbyfalling，drowning，orburning，asinthegreatcitiesandtownsofEngland。Deathsfromburnsandscaldsareespeciallyfrequent，suchacaseoccurringnearlyeveryweekduringthewintermonthsinMan-chester，andveryfrequentlyinLondon，thoughlittlementionismadeoftheminthepapers。IhaveathandacopyoftheWeeklyDispatchofDecember15th，1844，accordingtowhich，intheweekfromDecember1sttoDecember7thinclusive，sixsuchcasesoccurred。Theseunhappychildren，perishinginthisterribleway，arevictimsofoursocialdisorder，andoftheproperty-holdingclassesinterestedinmaintainingandprolongingthisdisorder。Yetoneisleftindoubtwhethereventhisterriblytorturingdeathisnotablessingforthechildreninrescuingthemfromalonglifeoftoilandwretchedness，richinsufferingandpoorinenjoyment。SofarhasitgoneinEngland；
andthebourgeoisiereadsthesethingseverydayinthenewspapersandtakesnofurthertroubleinthematter。Butitcannotcomplainif，aftertheofficialandnon-officialtestimonyherecitedwhichmustbeknowntoit，Ibroadlyaccuseitofsocialmurder。Lettherulingclassseetoitthatthesefrightfulconditionsareameliorated，orletitsurrendertheadministrationofthecommonintereststothelabouring-class。Tothelattercourseitisbynomeansinclined；fortheformertask，solongasitremainsthebourgeoisiecrippledbybourgeoisprejudice，ithasnottheneededpower。Forif，atlast，afterhundredsofthousandsofvictimshaveperished，itmanifestssomelittleanxietyforthefuture，passinga”MetropolitanBuildingsAct”，underwhichthemostunscrupulousovercrowdingofdwellingsistobe，atleastinsomeslightdegree，restricted；ifitpointswithpridetomeasureswhich，farfromattackingtherootoftheevil，donotbyanymeansmeetthedemandsofthecommonestsanitarypolice，itcannotthusvindicateitselffromtheaccusation。TheEnglishbourgeoisiehasbutonechoice，eithertocontinueitsruleundertheunanswerablechargeofmurderandinspiteofthischarge，ortoabdicateinfavourofthelabouring-class。Hithertoithaschosentheformercourse。
Letusturnfromthephysicaltothementalstateoftheworkers。Sincethebourgeoisievouchsafesthemonlysomuchoflifeasisabsolutelynecessary，weneednotwonderthatitbestowsuponthemonlysomucheducationasliesintheinterestofthebourgeoisie；andthat，intruth，isnotmuch。
ThemeansofeducationinEnglandarerestrictedoutofallproportiontothepopulation。Thefewdayschoolsatthecommandoftheworking-classareavailableonlyforthesmallestminority，andarebadbesides。Theteachers，worn-outworkers，andotherunsuitablepersonswhoonlyturntoteachinginordertolive，areusuallywithouttheindispensableelementaryknowledge，withoutthemoraldisciplinesoneedfulfortheteacher，andrelievedofallpublicsupervision。Here，too，freecompetitionrules，and，asusual，therichprofitbyit，andthepoor，forwhomcompetitionisnotfree，whohavenottheknowledgeneededtoenablethemtoformacorrectjudgment，havetheevilconsequencestobear。Compulsoryschoolattendancedoesnotexist。Inthemillsitis，asweshallsee，purelynominal；andwheninthesessionof1843theMinistrywasdisposedtomakethisnominalcompulsioneffective，themanufacturingbourgeoisieopposedthemeasurewithallitsmight，thoughtheworking-classwasoutspokenlyinfavourofcompulsoryschoolattendance。Moreover，amassofchildrenworkthewholeweekthroughinthemillsorathome，andthereforecannotattendschool。Theeveningschools，supposedtobeattendedbychildrenwhoareemployedduringtheday，arealmostabandonedorattendedwithoutbenefit。Itisaskingtoomuch，thatyoungworkers，whohavebeenusingthemselvesuptwelvehoursintheday，shouldgotoschoolfromeighttotenatnight。Andthosewhotryitusuallyfallasleep，asistestifiedbyhundredsofwitnessesintheChildren’sEmploymentCommission’sReport。
Sundayschoolshavebeenfounded，itistrue，butthey，too，aremostscantilysuppliedwithteachers，andcanbeofusetothoseonlywhohavealreadylearntsomethinginthedayschools。TheintervalfromoneSundaytothenextistoolongforanignorantchildtorememberinthesecondsittingwhatitlearnedinthefirst，aweekbefore。TheChildren’sEmploymentCommission’sReportfurnishesahundredproofs，andtheCommissionitselfmostemphaticallyexpressestheopinion，thatneithertheweek-daynortheSundayschools，intheleastdegree，meettheneedsofthenation。
ThisReportgivesevidenceofignoranceintheworking-classofEngland，suchascouldhardlybeexpectedinSpainorItaly。Itcannotbeotherwise；
thebourgeoisiehaslittletohope，andmuchtofear，fromtheeducationoftheworking-class。TheMinistry，initswholeenormousbudgetof£；55，000，000，hasonlythesingletriflingitemof£；40，000forpubliceducation，and，butforthefanaticismofthereligioussectswhichdoesatleastasmuchharmasgood，themeansofeducationwouldbeyetmorescanty。
Asitis，theStateChurchmanagesitsnationalschoolsandthevarioussectstheirsectarianschoolsforthesolepurposeofkeepingthechildrenofthebrethrenofthefaithwithinthecongregation，andofwinningawayapoorchildishsoulhereandtherefromsomeothersect。Theconsequenceisthatreligion，andpreciselythemostunprofitablesideofreligion，polemicaldiscussion，ismadetheprincipalsubjectofinstruction，andthememoryofthechildrenoverburdenedwithincomprehensibledogmasandtheologicaldistinctions；thatsectarianhatredandbigotryareawakenedasearlyaspossible，andallrationalmentalandmoraltrainingshamefullyneglected。Theworking-classhasrepeatedlydemandedofParliamentasystemofstrictlysecularpubliceducation，leavingreligiontotheministersofthesects；but，thusfar，noMinistryhasbeeninducedtograntit。
TheMinisteristheobedientservantofthebourgeoisie，andthebourgeoisieisdividedintocountlesssects；buteachwouldgladlygranttheworkerstheotherwisedangerouseducationonthesoleconditionoftheiraccepting，asanantidote，thedogmaspeculiartotheespecialsectinquestion。Andasthesesectsarestillquarrellingamongthemselvesforsupremacy，theworkersremainforthepresentwithouteducation。Itistruethatthemanufacturersboastofhavingenabledthemajoritytoread，butthequalityofthereadingisappropriatetothesourceoftheinstruction，astheChildren’sEmploymentCommissionproves。Accordingtothisreport，hewhoknowshisletterscanreadenoughtosatisfytheconscienceofthemanufacturers。AndwhenonereflectsupontheconfusedorthographyoftheEnglishlanguagewhichmakesreadingoneofthearts，learnedonlyunderlonginstruction，thisignoranceisreadilyunderstood。Veryfewworking-peoplewritereadily；andwritingorthographicallyisbeyondthepowersevenofmany”educated”persons。
TheSundayschoolsoftheStateChurch，oftheQuakers，and，Ithink，ofseveralothersects，donotteachwriting，”becauseitistooworldlyanemploymentforSunday”。Thequalityoftheinstructionofferedtheworkersinotherdirectionsmaybejudgedfromaspecimenortwo，takenfromtheChildren’sEmploymentCommission’sReport，whichunfortunatelydoesnotembracemill-workproper:InBirmingham，saysCommissionerGrainger，thechildrenexaminedbymeare，asawhole，utterlywantinginallthatcouldbeintheremotestdegreecalledausefuleducation。Althoughinalmostalltheschoolsreligiousinstructionaloneisfurnished，theprofoundestignoranceevenuponthatsubjectprevailed——InWolverhampton，saysCommissionerHorne，Ifound，amongothers，thefollowingexample:AgirlofelevenyearswhohadattendedbothdayandSundayschool”hadneverlearntofanotherworld，norofheaven，norofanotherlife”。Aboy，seventeenyearsold，”didnotknowhowmanytwoandtwomade，norhowmanyfarthingstherewereintwopence，evenwhenthemoneywasplacedinhishand”。SeveralboyshadneverheardofLondonnorofWillenhall，thoughthelatterwasbutanhour’swalkfromtheirhomes，andintheclosestrelationswithWolverhampton。SeveralhadneverheardthenameoftheQueennorothernames，suchasNelson，Wellington，Bonaparte；butitwasnoteworthythatthosewhohadneverheardevenofSt。Paul，Moses，orSolomon，wereverywellinstructedastothelife，deeds，andcharacterofDickTurpin，andespeciallyofJackSheppard。A
youthofsixteendidnotknow”howmanytwicetwomake”，nor”howmuchmoneyfourfarthingsmake”。Ayouthofseventeenassertedthat”tenfarthingsmaketenhalfpence”；athird，seventeenyearsold，answeredseveralverysimplequestionswiththebriefstatement，that”hewasnejedgeo’nothin’。”[13]Thesechildren，whoarecrammedwithreligiousdoctrinesforfourorfiveyearsatastretch，knowaslittleattheendasatthebeginning。Onechildhad”attendedaSundayschoolregularlyforfiveyears；doesnotknowwhoJesusChristwas，buthasheardthename。Neverheardofthetwelveapostles。NeverheardofSamson，norofMoses，norAaron，etc。”[14]Another”attendedaSundayschoolregularlysixyears。KnowswhoJesusChristwas，hediedonthecrosstoshedhisblood，tosaveourSaviour。
NeverheardofSt。PeterorSt。Paul。”[15]Athird，”attendedtheSundayschoolsofdifferentkindsaboutsevenyears；
canread，onlyinthethinbooks，easywordsofonesyllable；hasheardoftheapostles，doesnotknowifSt。Peterwasone，norifSt。Johnwasone，unlessitwasSt。JohnWesley。”[16]TothequestionwhoChristwas，Hornereceived，amongothers，thefollowinganswers，”Yes，Adam，””Hewasanapostle，””HewastheSaviour’sLord’sSon，”andfromayouthofsixteen:”JesusChristwasakingofLondonalongtimeago。”InSheffield，CommissionerSymonsletthechildrenfromtheSundayschoolreadaloud；theycouldnottellwhattheyhadread，orwhatsortofpeopletheapostleswere，ofwhomtheyhadjustbeenreading。
Afterhehadaskedthemalloneaftertheotherabouttheapostleswithoutsecuringasinglecorrectanswer，onesly-lookinglittlefellow，withgreatglee，calledout:”Pleasesir，theywerethelepers！”[17]FromthepotterydistrictsandfromLancashirethereportsaresimilar。ThisiswhatthebourgeoisieandtheStatearedoingfortheeducationandimprovementoftheworking-class。Fortunatelytheconditionsunderwhichthisclasslivesaresuchasgiveitasortofpracticaltraining，whichnotonlyreplacesschoolcramming，butrendersharmlesstheconfusedreligiousnotionsconnectedwithit，andevenplacestheworkersinthevanguardofthenationalmovementofEngland。Necessityisthemotherofinvention，andwhatisstillmoreimportant，ofthoughtandaction。TheEnglishworking-manwhocanscarcelyreadandstilllesswrite，neverthelessknowsverywellwherehisowninterestandthatofthenationlies。Heknows，too，whattheespecialinterestofthebourgeoisieis，andwhathehastoexpectofthatbourgeoisie。Ifhecannotwritehecanspeak，andspeakinpublic；ifhehasnoarithmetic，hecan，nevertheless，reckonwiththePoliticalEconomistsenoughtoseethroughaCorn-Law-repealingbourgeois，andtogetthebetterofhiminargument；ifcelestialmattersremainverymixedforhiminspiteofalltheeffortofthepreachers，heseesallthemoreclearlyintoterrestrial，political，andsocialquestions。
Weshallhaveoccasiontoreferagaintothispoint；andpassnowtothemoralcharacteristicsofourworkers。
Itissufficientlyclearthattheinstructioninmoralscanhavenobettereffectthanthereligiousteaching，withwhichinallEnglishschoolsitismixedup。Thesimpleprincipleswhich，forplainhumanbeings，regulatetherelationsofmantoman，broughtintothedirestconfusionbyoursocialstate，ourwarofeachagainstall，necessarilyremainconfusedandforeigntotheworking-manwhenmixedwithincomprehensibledogmas，andpreachedinthereli-giousformofanarbitraryanddogmaticcommandment。Theschoolscontribute，accordingtotheconfessionofallauthorities，andespeciallyoftheChildren’sEmploymentCommission，almostnothingtothemoralityoftheworking-class。Soshort-sighted，sostupidlynarrow-mindedistheEnglishbourgeoisieinitsegotism，thatitdoesnoteventakethetroubletoimpressupontheworkersthemoralityoftheday，whichthebourgeoisiehaspatchedtogetherinitsowninterestforitsownprotection！Eventhisprecautionarymeasureistoogreataneffortfortheenfeebledandsluggishbourgeoisie。Atimemustcomewhenitwillrepentitsneglect，toolate。
Butithasnorighttocomplainthattheworkersknownothingofitssystemofmorals，anddonotactinaccordancewithit。
Thusaretheworkerscastoutandignoredbytheclassinpower，morallyaswellasphysicallyandmentally。Theonlyprovisionmadeforthemisthelaw，whichfastensuponthemwhentheybecomeobnoxioustothebourgeoisie。
Likethedullestofthebrutes，theyaretreatedtobutoneformofeducation，thewhip，intheshapeofforce，notconvincingbutintimidating。Thereis，therefore，nocauseforsurpriseiftheworkers，treatedasbrutes，actuallybecomesuch；oriftheycanmaintaintheirconsciousnessofmanhoodonlybycherishingthemostglowinghatred，themostunbrokeninwardrebellionagainstthebourgeoisieinpower。Theyaremensolongonlyastheyburnwithwrathagainstthereigningclass。Theybecomebrutesthemomenttheybendinpatienceundertheyoke，andmerelystrivetomakelifeendurablewhileabandoningtheefforttobreaktheyoke。
This，then，isallthatthebourgeoisiehasdonefortheeducationoftheproletariat——andwhenwetakeintoconsiderationallthecircumstancesinwhichthisclasslives，weshallnotthinktheworseofitfortheresentmentwhichitcherishesagainsttherulingclass。Themoraltrainingwhichisnotgiventotheworkerinschoolisnotsuppliedbytheotherconditionsofhislife；thatmoraltraining，atleast，whichalonehasworthintheeyesofthebourgeoisie；hiswholepositionandenvironmentinvolvesthestrongesttemptationtoimmorality。Heispoor，lifeoffershimnocharm，almosteveryenjoymentisdeniedhim，thepenaltiesofthelawhavenofurtherterrorsforhim；whyshouldherestrainhisdesires，whyleavetotherichtheenjoymentofhisbirthright，whynotseizeapartofitforhimself？Whatinducementhastheproletariannottosteal？Itisallveryprettyandveryagreeabletotheearofthebourgeoistohearthe”sacrednessofproperty”asserted；butforhimwhohasnone，thesacrednessofpropertydiesoutofitself。Moneyisthegodofthisworld；thebourgeoistakestheproletarian’smoneyfromhimandsomakesapracticalatheistofhim。Nowonder，then，iftheproletarianretainshisatheismandnolongerrespectsthesacrednessandpoweroftheearthlyGod。Andwhenthepovertyoftheproletarianisintensifiedtothepointofactuallackofthebarestnecessariesoflife，towantandhunger，thetemptationtodisregardallsocialorderdoesbutgainpower。Thisthebourgeoisieforthemostpartrecognises。Symons[18]observesthatpovertyexercisesthesameruinousinfluenceuponthemindwhichdrunkennessexercisesuponthebody；andDr。Alisonexplainstoproperty-holdingreaders，withthegreatestexactness，whattheconsequencesofsocialoppressionmustbefortheworking-class。[20]Wantleavestheworking-manthechoicebetweenstarvingslowly，killinghimselfspeedily，ortakingwhatheneedswherehefindsit——inplainEnglish，stealing。Andthereisnocauseforsurprisethatmostofthempreferstealingtostarvationandsuicide。
True，thereare，withintheworking-class，numberstoomoraltostealevenwhenreducedtotheutmostextremity，andthesestarveorcommitsuicide。
Forsuicide，formerlytheenviableprivilegeoftheupperclasses，hasbecomefashionableamongtheEnglishworkers，andnumbersofthepoorkillthemselvestoavoidthemiseryfromwhichtheyseenoothermeansofescape。
ButfarmoredemoralisingthanhispovertyinitsinfluenceupontheEnglishworking-manistheinsecurityofhisposition，thenecessityoflivinguponwagesfromhandtomouth，thatinshortwhichmakesaproletarianofhim。ThesmallerpeasantsinGermanyareusuallypoor，andoftensufferwant，buttheyarelessatthemercyofaccident，theyhaveatleastsomethingsecure。Theproletarian，whohasnothingbuthistwohands，whoconsumestodaywhatheearnedyesterday，whoissubjecttoeverypossiblechance，andhasnottheslightestguaranteeforbeingabletoearnthebarestnecessitiesoflife，whomeverycrisis，everywhimofhisemployermaydepriveofbread，thisproletarianisplacedinthemostrevolting，inhumanpositionconceivableforahumanbeing。Theslaveisassuredofabarelivelihoodbytheself-interestofhismaster，theserfhasatleastascrapoflandonwhichtolive；
eachhasatworstaguaranteeforlifeitself。Buttheproletarianmustdependuponhimselfalone，andisyetpreventedfromsoapplyinghisabilitiesastobeabletorelyuponthem。Everythingthattheproletariancandotoimprovehispositionisbutadropintheoceancomparedwiththefloodsofvaryingchancestowhichheisexposed，overwhichhehasnottheslightestcontrol。Heisthepassivesubjectofallpossiblecombinationsofcircumstances，andmustcounthimselffortunatewhenhehassavedhislifeevenforashorttime；andhischaracterandwayoflivingarenaturallyshapedbytheseconditions。Eitherheseekstokeephisheadabovewaterinthiswhirlpool，torescuehismanhood，andthishecandosolelyinrebellion[20]againsttheclasswhichplundershimsomercilesslyandthenabandonshimtohisfate，whichstrivestoholdhiminthispositionsodemoralisingtoahumanbeing；orhegivesupthestruggleagainsthisfateashopeless，andstrivestoprofit，sofarashecan，bythemostfavourablemoment。
Tosaveisunavailing，forattheutmosthecannotsavemorethansufficestosustainlifeforashorttime，whileifhefallsoutofwork，itisfornobriefperiod。Toaccumulatelastingpropertyforhimselfisimpossible；
andifitwerenot，hewouldonlyceasetobeaworking-manandanotherwouldtakehisplace。Whatbetterthingcanhedo，then，whenhegetshighwages，thanlivewelluponthem？TheEnglishbourgeoisieisviolentlyscandalisedattheextravagantlivingoftheworkerswhenwagesarehigh；yetitisnotonlyverynaturalbutverysensibleofthemtoenjoylifewhentheycan，insteadoflayinguptreasureswhichareofnolastingusetothem，andwhichintheendmothandrust(i。e。，thebourgeoisie)getpossessionof。Yetsuchalifeisdemoralisingbeyondallothers。WhatCarlylesaysofthecottonspinnersistrueofallEnglishindustrialworkers:[21]”Theirtrade，nowinplethoricprosperity，anonextenuatedintoinanitionand’shorttime’，isofthenatureofgambling；theylivebyitlikegamblers，nowinluxurioussuperfluity，nowinstarvation。Black，mutinousdiscontentdevoursthem；simplythemiserablestfeelingthatcaninhabittheheartofman。Englishcommerce，withitsworld-wide，convulsivefluctuations，withitsimmeasurableProteusSteamdemon，makesallpathsuncertainforthem，alllifeabewilderment；sobriety，steadfastness，peaceablecontinuance，thefirstblessingsofmanarenottheirs——Thisworldisforthemnohome，butadingyprison-house，ofrecklessunthrift，rebellion，rancour，indignationagainstthemselvesandagainstallmen。Isitagreen，floweryworld，withazureeverlastingskystretchedoverit，theworkandgovernmentofaGod；oramurky，simmeringTophet，ofcopperasfumes，cottonfuzz，ginriot，wrathandtoil，createdbyaDemon，governedbyaDemon？”Andelsewhere:[22]”Injustice，infidelitytotruthandfactandNature’sorder，beingproperlytheoneevilunderthesun，andthefeelingofinjusticetheoneintolerablepainunderthesun，ourgrandquestionastotheconditionoftheseworking-menwouldbe:Isitjust？And，firstofall，whatbeliefhavetheythemselvesformedaboutthejusticeofit？Thewordstheypromulgatearenotablebywayofanswer；theiractionsarestillmorenotable。Revolt，sullen，revengefulhumourofrevoltagainsttheupperclasses，decreasingrespectforwhattheirtemporalsuperiorscommand，decreasingfaithforwhattheirspiritualsuperiorsteach，ismoreandmoretheuniversalspiritofthelowerclasses。Suchspiritmaybeblamed，maybevindicated，butallmenmustrecogniseitasextantthere，allmayknowthatitismournful，thatunlessaltereditwillbefatal。”Carlyleisperfectlyrightastothefactsandwrongonlyincensuringthewildrageoftheworkersagainstthehigherclasses。Thisrage，thispassion，israthertheproofthattheworkersfeeltheinhumanityoftheirposition，thattheyrefusetobedegradedtothelevelofbrutes，andthattheywillonedayfreethemselvesfromservitudetothebourgeoisie。Thismaybeseeninthecaseofthosewhodonotsharethiswrath；theyeitherbowhumblybeforethefatethatovertakesthem，livearespectfulprivatelifeaswellastheycan，donotconcernthemselvesastothecourseofpublicaffairs，helpthebourgeoisietoforgethechainsoftheworkersyetmoresecurelyandstandupontheplaneofintellectualnullitythatprevailedbeforetheindustrialperiodbegan；ortheyaretossedaboutbyfate，losetheirmoralholduponthemselvesastheyhavealreadylosttheireconomichold，livealongfromdaytoday，drinkandfallintolicentiousness；
andinbothcasestheyarebrutes。Thelast-namedclasscontributeschieflytothe”rapidincreaseofvice”，atwhichthebourgeoisie’issohorrifiedafteritselfsettinginmotionthecauseswhichgiverisetoit。
Anothersourceofdemoralisationamongtheworkersistheirbeingcondemnedtowork。Asvoluntary，productiveactivityisthehighestenjoymentknowntous，soiscompulsorytoilthemostcruel，degradingpunishment。Nothingismoreterriblethanbeingconstrainedtodosomeonethingeverydayfrommorninguntilnightagainstone’swill。Andthemoreamantheworkerfeelshimself，themorehatefulmusthisworkbetohim，becausehefeelstheconstraint，theaimlessnessofitforhimself。Whydoeshework？Forloveofwork？Fromanaturalimpulse？Notatall！Heworksformoney，forathingwhichhasnothingwhatsoevertodowiththeworkitself；andheworkssolong，moreover，andinsuchunbrokenmonotony，thatthisalonemustmakehisworkatortureinthefirstweeksifhehastheleasthumanfeelingleft。Thedivisionoflabourhasmultipliedthebrutalisinginfluencesofforcedwork。Inmostbranchestheworker’sactivityisreducedtosomepaltry，purelymechanicalmanipulation，repeatedminuteafterminute，unchangedyearafteryear。[23]Howmuchhumanfeeling，whatabilitiescanamanretaininhisthirtiethyear，whohasmadeneedlepointsorfiledtoothedwheelstwelvehourseverydayfromhisearlychildhood，livingallthetimeundertheconditionsforcedupontheEnglishproletarian？Itisstillthesamethingsincetheintroductionofsteam。Theworker’sactivityismadeeasy，musculareffortissaved，buttheworkitselfbecomesunmeaningandmonotonoustothelastdegree。Itoffersnofieldformentalactivity，andclaimsjustenoughofhisattentiontokeephimfromthinkingofanythingelse。Andasentencetosuchwork，toworkwhichtakeshiswholetimeforitself，leavinghimscarcelytimetoeatandsleep，noneforphysicalexerciseintheopenair，ortheenjoymentofNature，muchlessformentalactivity，howcansuchasentencehelpdegradingahumanbeingtothelevelofabrute？Oncemoretheworkermustchoose，musteithersurrenderhimselftohisfate，becomea”good”workman，heed”faithfully”theinterestofthebourgeoisie，inwhichcasehemostcertainlybecomesabrute，orelsehemustrebel，fightforhismanhoodtothelast，andthishecanonlydointhefightagainstthebourgeoisie。
Andwhenalltheseconditionshaveengenderedvastdemoralisationamongtheworkers，anewinfluenceisaddedtotheold，tospreadthisdegradationmorewidelyandcarryittotheextremestpoint。Thisinfluenceisthecentralisationofthepopulation。ThewritersoftheEnglishbourgeoisiearecryingmurderatthedemoralisingtendencyofthegreatcities；likepervertedJeremiahs，theysingdirges，notoverthedestruction，butthegrowthofthecities。SheriffAlisonattributesalmosteverything，andDr。Vaughan，authorofTheAgeofGreetCities，stillmoretothisinfluence。Andthisisnatural，forthepropertiedclasshastoodirectaninterestintheotherconditionswhichtendtodestroytheworkerbodyandsoul。Iftheyshouldadmitthatpoverty，insecurity，overwork，forcedwork，arethechiefruinousinfluences，theywouldhavetodrawtheconclusion，thenletusgivethepoorproperty，guaranteetheirsubsistence，makelawsagainstoverwork，andthisthebourgeoisiedarenotformulate。Butthegreatcitieshavegrownupsospontaneously，thepopulationhasmovedintothemsowhollyofitsownmotion，andtheinferencethatmanufactureandthemiddle-classwhichprofitsfromitalonehavecreatedthecitiesissoremote，thatitisextremelyconvenientfortherulingclasstoascribealltheeviltothisapparentlyunavoidablesource；whereasthegreatcitiesreallyonlysecureamorerapidandcertaindevelopmentforevilsalreadyexistinginthegerm。Alisonishumaneenoughtoadmitthis；heisnothoroughbredLiberalmanufacturer，butonlyahalfdevelopedTorybourgeois，andhehas，therefore，anopeneye，nowandthen，wherethefull-fledgedbourgeoisisstillstoneblind。Letushearhim。[24]Itisinthegreatcitiesthat”vicehasspreadhertemptations，andpleasureherseductions，andfollyherallurements；thatguiltisencouragedbythehopeofimpunity，andidlenessfosteredbythefrequencyofexample。
Itistothesegreatmartsofhumancorruptionthatthebaseandtheprofligateresortfromthesimplicityofcountrylife；itisherethattheyfindvictimswhereontopractisetheiriniquity，andgainstorewardthedangersthatattendthem。Virtueisheredepressedfromtheobscurityinwhichitisinvolved。Guiltismaturedfromthedifficultyofitsdetection；licentiousnessisrewardedbytheimmediateenjoymentwhichitpromises。IfanypersonwillwalkthroughSt。Giles’s，thecrowdedalleysofDublin，orthepoorerquartersofGlasgowbynight，hewillmeetwithampleproofoftheseobservations；
hewillnolongerwonderatthedisorderlyhabitsandprofligateenjoymentsofthelowerorders；hisastonishmentwillbe，notthatthereissomuch，butthatthereissolittlecrimeintheworld。Thegreatcauseofhumancorruptioninthesecrowdedsituationsisthecontagiousnatureofbadexampleandtheextremedifficultyofavoidingtheseductionsofvicewhentheyarebroughtintocloseanddailyproximitywiththeyoungerpartofthepeople。Whateverwemaythinkofthestrengthofvirtue，experienceprovesthatthehigherordersareindebtedfortheirexemptionfromatrociouscrimeordisorderlyhabitschieflytotheirfortunateremovalfromthesceneoftemptation；andthatwheretheyareexposedtotheseductionswhichassailtheirinferiors，theyarenowaysbehindtheminyieldingtotheirinfluence。Itisthepeculiarmisfortuneofthepooringreatcitiesthattheycannotflyfromtheseirresistibletemptations，butthat，turnwheretheywill，theyaremetbythealluringformsofvice，ortheseductionsofguiltyenjoyment。Itistheexperiencedimpossibilityofconcealingtheattractionsofvicefromtheyoungerpartofthepooringreatcitieswhichexposesthemtosomanycausesofdemoralisation。Allthisproceedsnotfromanyunwontedorextraordinarydepravityinthecharacterofthesevictimsoflicentiousness，butfromthealmostirresistiblenatureofthetemptationstowhichthepoorareexposed。Therich，whocensuretheirconduct，wouldinallprobabilityyieldasrapidlyastheyhavedonetotheinfluenceofsimilarcauses。Thereisacertaindegreeofmisery，acertainproximitytosin，whichvirtueisrarelyabletowithstand，andwhichtheyoung，inparticular，aregenerallyunabletoresist。Theprogressofviceinsuchcircumstancesisalmostascertainandoftennearlyasrapidasthatofphysicalcontagion。”Andelsewhere:”Whenthehigherordersfortheirownprofithavedrawnthelabouring-classesingreatnumbersintoasmallspace，thecontagionofguiltbecomesrapidandunavoidable。Thelowerorders，situatedastheyareinsofarasregardsmoralorreligiousinstruction，arefrequentlyhardlymoretobeblamedforyieldingtothetemptationswhichsurroundthemthanforfallingvictimstothetyphusfever。”Enough！Thehalf-bourgeoisAlisonbetraystous，howevernarrowhismannerofexpressinghimself，theevileffectofthegreatcitiesuponthemoraldevelopmentoftheworkers。Another，abourgeoispursang，[25]amanaftertheheartoftheAnti-CornLawLeague，Dr。AndrewUre，[26]betraystheotherside。HetellsusthatlifeingreatcitiesfacilitatescabalsamongtheworkersandconferspoweronthePlebs。Ifheretheworkersarenoteducated(i。e。，toobediencetothebourgeoisie)，theymayviewmattersone-sidedly，fromthestandpointofasinisterselfishness，andmayreadilypermitthemselvestobehoodwinkedbyslydemagogues；nay，theymightevenbecapableofviewingtheirgreatestbenefactors，thefrugalandenterprisingcapitalists，withajealousandhostileeye。Herepropertrainingalonecanavail，ornationalbankruptcyandotherhorrorsmustfollow，sincearevolutionoftheworkerscouldhardlyfailtooccur。Andourbourgeoisisperfectlyjustifiedinhisfears。Ifthecentralisationofpopulationstimulatesanddevelopstheproperty-holdingclass，itforcesthedevelopmentoftheworkersyetmorerapidly。Theworkersbegintofeelasaclass，asawhole；theybegintoperceivethat，thoughfeebleasindividuals，theyformapowerunited；theirseparationfromthebourgeoisie，thedevelopmentofviewspeculiartotheworkersandcorrespondingtotheirpositioninlife，isfostered，theconsciousnessofoppressionawakens，andtheworkersattainsocialandpoliticalimportance。Thegreatcitiesarethebirthplacesoflabourmovements；inthemtheworkersfirstbegantoreflectupontheirowncondition，andtostruggleagainstit；inthemtheoppositionbetweenproletariatandbourgeoisiefirstmadeitselfmanifest；fromthemproceededtheTradesUnions，Chartism，andSocialism。Thegreatcitieshavetransformedthediseaseofthesocialbody，whichappearsinchronicforminthecountry，intoanacuteone，andsomademanifestitsrealnatureandthemeansofcuringit。Withoutthegreatcitiesandtheirforcinginfluenceuponthepopularintelligence，theworking-classwouldbefarlessadvancedthanitis。Moreover，theyhavedestroyedthelastremnantofthepatriarchalrelationbetweenworking-menandemployers，aresulttowhichmanufactureonalargescalehascontributedbymultiplyingtheemployeesdependentuponasingleemployer。Thebourgeoisiedeploresallthis，itistrue，andhasgoodreasontodoso；for，undertheoldconditions，thebourgeoiswascomparativelysecureagainstarevoltonthepartofhishands。Hecouldtyranniseoverthemandplunderthemtohisheart’scontent，andyetreceiveobedience，gratitude，andassentfromthesestupidpeoplebybestowingatrifleofpatronisingfriendlinesswhichcosthimnothing，andperhapssomepaltrypresent，allapparentlyoutofpure，self-sacrificing，uncalled-forgoodnessofheart，butreallynotone-tenthpartofhisduty。
Asanindividualbourgeois，placedunderconditionswhichhehadnothimselfcreated，hemightdohisdutyatleastinpart；but，asamemberoftherulingclass，which，bythemerefactofitsruling，isresponsiblefortheconditionofthewholenation，hedidnothingofwhathispositioninvolved。Onthecontrary，heplunderedthewholenationforhisownindividualadvantage。Inthepatriarchalrelationthathypocriticallyconcealedtheslaveryoftheworker，thelattermusthaveremainedanintellectualzero，totallyignorantofhisowninterest，amereprivateindividual。Onlywhenestrangedfromhisemployer，whenconvincedthatthesolebondbetweenemployerandemployeeisthebondofpecuniaryprofit，whenthesentimentalbondbetweenthem，whichstoodnottheslightesttest，hadwhollyfallenaway，thenonlydidtheworkerbegintorecognisehisowninterestsanddevelopindependently；thenonlydidheceasetobetheslaveofthebourgeoisieinhisthoughts，feelings，andtheexpressionofhiswill。Andtothisendmanufactureonagrandscaleandingreatcitieshasmostlargelycontributed。
AnotherinfluenceofgreatmomentinformingthecharacteroftheEnglishworkersistheIrishimmigrationalreadyreferredto。Ontheonehandithas，aswehaveseen，degradedtheEnglishworkers，removedthemfromcivilisation，andaggravatedthehardshipoftheirlot；but，ontheotherhand，ithastherebydeepenedthechasmbetweenworkersandbourgeoisie，andhastenedtheapproachingcrisis。ForthecourseofthesocialdiseasefromwhichEnglandissufferingisthesameasthecourseofaphysicaldisease；itdevelopsaccordingtocertainlaws，hasitsowncrises，thelastandmostviolentofwhichdeterminesthefateofthepatient。AndastheEnglishnationcannotsuccumbunderthefinalcrisis，butmustgoforthfromit，bornagain，rejuvenated，wecanbutrejoiceovereverythingwhichacceleratesthecourseofthedisease。AndtothistheIrishimmigrationfurthercontributesbyreasonofthepassionate，mercurialIrishtemperament，whichitimportsintoEnglandandintotheEnglishworking-class。TheIrishandEnglisharetoeachothermuchastheFrenchandtheGermans；andthemixingofthemorefacile，excitable，fieryIrishtemperamentwiththestable，reasoning，perseveringEnglishmust，inthelongrun，beproductiveonlyofgoodforboth。TheroughegotismoftheEnglishbourgeoisiewouldhavekeptitsholdupontheworking-classmuchmorefirmlyiftheIrishnature，generoustoafault，andruledprimarilybysentiment，hadnotintervened，andsoftenedthecold，rationalEnglishcharacterinpartbyamixtureoftheraces，andinpartbytheordinarycontactoflife。
Inviewofallthis，itisnotsurprisingthattheworking-classhasgraduallybecomearacewhollyapartfromtheEnglishbourgeoisie。Thebourgeoisiehasmoreincommonwitheveryothernationoftheearththanwiththeworkersinwhosemidstitlives。Theworkersspeakotherdialects，haveotherthoughtsandideals，othercustomsandmoralprinciples，adifferentreligionandotherpoliticsthanthoseofthebourgeoisie。Thustheyaretworadicallydissimilarnations，asunlikeasdifferenceofracecouldmakethem，ofwhomweontheContinenthaveknownbutone，thebourgeoisie。
Yetitispreciselytheother，thepeople，theproletariat，whichisbyfarthemoreimportantforthefutureofEngland。[28]
OfthepubliccharacteroftheEnglishworking-man，asitfindsexpressioninassociationsandpoliticalprinciples，weshallhaveoccasiontospeaklater；letushereconsidertheresultsoftheinfluencescitedabove，astheyaffecttheprivatecharacteroftheworker。Theworkmanisfarmorehumaneinordinarylifethanthebourgeois。Ihavealreadymentionedthefactthatthebeggarsareaccustomedtoturnalmostexclusivelytotheworkers，andthat，ingeneral，moreisdonebytheworkersthanbythebourgeoisieforthemaintenanceofthepoor。Thisfact，whichanyonemayproveforhimselfanyday，isconfirmed，amongothers，byDr。Parkinson，CanonofManchester，whosays:[29]”Thepoorgivemoretoeachotherthantherichgivetothepoor。Iamconfirmedinthisassertionbythetestimonyofoneofouroldest，mostlearned，andmostobservantphysiciansDr。Bardsley，whosehumanityisasconspicuousashislearningandtalent，andwhohasoftenpubliclydeclaredthattheaggregatesumgivenineachyearbythepoortoeachotherexceedsthatcontributedbytherichinthesameperiod。”Inotherways，too，thehumanityoftheworkersisconstantlymanifestingitselfpleasantly。Theyhaveexperiencedhardtimesthemselves，andcanthereforefeelforthoseintrouble，whencetheyaremoreapproachable，friendlier，andlessgreedyformoney，thoughtheyneeditfarmorethantheproperty-holdingclass。Forthemmoneyisworthonlywhatitwillbuy，whereasforthebourgeoisithasanespecialinherentvalue，thevalueofagod，andmakesthebourgeoisthemean，lowmoney-grubberthatheis。
Theworking-manwhoknowsnothingofthisfeelingofreverenceformoneyisthereforelessgraspingthanthebourgeois，whosewholeactivityisforthepurposeofgain，whoseesintheaccumulationsofhismoney-bagstheendandaimoflife。Hencetheworkmanismuchlessprejudiced，hasaclearereyeforfactsastheyarethanthebourgeois，anddoesnotlookateverythingthroughthespectaclesofpersonalselfishness。Hisfaultyeducationsaveshimfromreligiousprepossessions，hedoesnotunderstandreligiousquestions，doesnottroublehimselfaboutthem，knowsnothingofthefanaticismthatholdsthebourgeoisiebound；andifhechancestohaveanyreligion，hehasitonlyinname，notevenintheory。Practicallyhelivesforthisworld，andstrivestomakehimselfathomeinit。Allthewritersofthebourgeoisieareunanimousonthispoint，thattheworkersarenotreligious，anddonotattendchurch。FromthegeneralstatementaretobeexceptedtheIrish，afewelderlypeople，andthehalf-bourgeois，theoverlookers，foremen，andthelike。Butamongthemassesthereprevailsalmostuniversallyatotalindifferencetoreligion，orattheutmost，sometraceofDeismtooundevelopedtoamounttomorethanmerewords，oravaguedreadofthewordsinfidel，atheist，etc。Theclergyofallsectsisinverybadodourwiththeworking-men，thoughthelossofitsinfluenceisrecent。Atpresent，however，themerecry:”He’saparson！”
isoftenenoughtodriveoneoftheclergyfromtheplatformofapublicmeeting。Andliketherestoftheconditionsunderwhichhelives，hiswantofreligiousandotherculturecontributestokeeptheworking-manmoreunconstrained，freerfrominheritedstab1etenetsandcut-and-driedopinions，thanthebourgeoiswhoissaturatedwiththeclassprejudicespouredintohimfromhisearliestyouth。Thereisnothingtobedonewiththebourgeois；heisessentiallyconservativeinhoweverliberalaguise，hisinterestisboundupwiththatoftheproperty-holdingclass，heisdeadtoallactivemovement；heislosinghispositionintheforefrontofEngland’shistoricaldevelopment。Theworkersaretakinghisplace，inrightfulclaimfirst，theninfact。
Allthis，togetherwiththecorrespondentpublicactionoftheworkers，withwhichweshalldeallater，formsthefavourablesideofthecharacterofthisclass；theunfavourableonemaybequiteasbrieflysummedup，andfollowsquiteasnaturallyoutofthegivencauses。Drunkenness，sexualirregularities，brutality，anddisregardfortherightsofpropertyarethechiefpointswithwhichthebourgeoischargesthem。Thattheydrinkheavilyistobeexpected。SheriffAlisonassertsthatinGlasgowsomethirtythousandworking-mengetdrunkeverySaturdaynight，andtheestimateiscertainlynotexaggerated；andthatinthatcityin1850，onehouseintwelve，andin1840，onehouseinten，wasapublic-house；thatinScotland，in1823，excisewaspaidupon2，300，000gallons；in1837，upon6，620，000
gallons；inEngland，in1823，upon1，9？6，000gallons，andin1837，upon7，875，000gallonsofspirits。[30]TheBeerActof1830，whichfacilitatedtheopeningofbeerhouses(jerry-shops)，whosekeepersarelicensedtosellbeertobedrunkonthepremises，facilitatedthespreadofintemperancebybringingabeerhouse，sotosay，toeverybody’sdoor。Innearlyeverystreetthereareseveralsuchbeerhouses，andamongtwoorthreeneighbouringhousesinthecountryoneissuretobeajerry-shop。
Besidesthese，therearehush-shopsinmultitudes，i。e。，secretdrinking-placeswhicharenotlicensed，andquiteasmanysecretdistillerieswhichproductgreatquantitiesofspiritsinretiredspots，rarelyvisitedbythepolice，inthegreatcities。GaskellestimatesthesesecretdistilleriesinManchesteraloneatmorethanahundred，andtheirproductat156，000gallonsattheleast。InManchesterthereare，besides，morethanathousandpublic-housessellingallsortsofalcoholicdrinks，orquiteasmanyinproportiontothenumberofinhabitantsasinGlasgow。Inallothergreattowns，thestateofthingsisthesame。Andwhenoneconsiders，apartfromtheusualconsequencesofintemperance，thatmenandwomen，evenchildren，oftenmotherswithbabiesintheirarms，comeintocontactintheseplaceswiththemostdegradedvictimsofthebourgeoisregime，withthieves，swindlers，andprostitutes；whenonereflectsthatmanyamothergivesthebabyonherarmgintodrink，thedemoralisingeffectsoffrequentingsuchplacescannotbedenied。
OnSaturdayevenings，especiallywhenwagesarepaidandworkstopssomewhatearlierthanusual，whenthewholeworking-classpoursfromitsownpoorquartersintothemainthoroughfares，intemperancemaybeseeninallitsbrutality。IhaverarelycomeoutofManchesteronsuchaneveningwithoutmeetingnumbersofpeoplestaggeringandseeingotherslyinginthegutter。OnSundayeveningthesamesceneisusuallyrepeated，onlylessnoisily。Andwhentheirmoneyisspent，thedrunkardsgotothenearestpawnshop，ofwhichthereareplentyineverycity——oversixtyinManchester，andtenortwelveinasinglestreetofSalford，ChapelStreet——andpawnwhatevertheypossess。Furniture，Sundayclotheswheresuchexist，kitchenutensilsinmassesarefetchedfromthepawnbrokersonSaturdaynightonlytowanderback，almostwithoutfail，beforethenextWednesday，untilatlastsomeaccidentmakesthefinalredemptionimpossible，andonearticleafteranotherfallsintotheclutchesoftheusurer，oruntilherefusestogiveasinglefarthingmoreuponthebattered，useduppledge。WhenonehasseentheextentofintemperanceamongtheworkersinEngland，onereadilybelievesLordAshley’sstatementthatthisclassannuallyexpendssomethingliketwenty-fivemillionpoundssterlinguponintoxicatingliquor；
andthedeteriorationinexternalconditions，thefrightfulshatteringofmentalandphysicalhealth，theruinofalldomesticrelationswhichfollowmayreadilybeimagined。True，thetemperancesocietieshavedonemuch，butwhatareafewthousandteetotallersamongthemillionsofworkers？
WhenFatherMathew，theIrishapostleoftemperance，passesthroughtheEnglishcities，fromthirtytosixtythousandworkerstakethepledge；
butmostofthembreakitagainwithinamonth。IfonecountsuptheimmensenumberswhohavetakenthepledgeinthelastthreeorfouryearsinManchester，thetotalisgreaterthanthewholepopulationofthetown——andstillitisbynomeansevidentthatintemperanceisdiminishing。
Nexttointemperanceintheenjoymentofintoxicatingliquors，oneoftheprincipalfaultsofEnglishworking-menissexuallicence。Butthis，too，followswithrelentlesslogic，withinevitablenecessityoutofthepositionofaclasslefttoitself，withnomeansofmakingfittinguseofitsfreedom。Thebourgeoisiehaslefttheworking-classonlythesetwopleasures，whileimposinguponitamultitudeoflaboursandhardships，andtheconsequenceisthattheworking-men，inordertogetsomethingfromlife，concentratetheirwholeenergyuponthesetwoenjoyments，carrythemtoexcess，surrendertotheminthemostunbridledmanner。Whenpeopleareplacedunderconditionswhichappealtothebruteonly，whatremainstothembuttorebelortosuccumbtoutterbrutality？Andwhen，moreover，thebourgeoisiedoesitsfullshareinmaintainingprostitution——andhowmanyofthe40，000prostituteswhofillthestreetsofLondoneveryeveningliveuponthevirtuousbourgeoisie！Howmanyofthemoweittotheseductionofabourgeois，thattheymustoffertheirbodiestothepassers-byinordertolive？——surelyithasleastofallarighttoreproachtheworkerswiththeirsexualbrutality。
Thefailingsoftheworkersingeneralmaybetracedtoanunbridledthirstforpleasure，towantofprovidence，andofflexibilityinfittingintothesocialorder，tothegeneralinabilitytosacrificethepleasureofthemomenttoaremoteradvantage。Butisthattobewonderedat？Whenaclasscanpurchasefewandonlythemostsensualpleasuresbyitswearyingtoil，mustitnotgiveitselfoverblindlyandmadlytothosepleasures？
Aclassaboutwhoseeducationnoonetroubleshimself，whichisaplayballtoathousandchances，knowsnosecurityinlife——whatincentiveshassuchaclasstoprovidence，to”respectability”，tosacrificethepleasureofthemomentforaremoterenjoyment，mostuncertainpreciselybyreasonoftheperpetuallyvarying，shiftingconditionsunderwhichtheproletariatlives？Aclasswhichbearsallthedisadvantagesofthesocialorderwithoutenjoyingitsadvantages，onetowhichthesocialsystemappearsinpurelyhostileaspects——whocandemandthatsuchaclassrespectthissocialorder？Verilythatisaskingmuch！Buttheworking-mancannotescapethepresentarrangementofsocietysolongasitexists，andwhentheindividualworkerresistsit，thegreatestinjuryfallsuponhimself。
Thusthesocialordermakesfamilylifealmostimpossiblefortheworker。
Inacomfortless，filthyhouse，hardlygoodenoughformerenightlyshelter，ill-furnished，oftenneitherrain-tightnorwarm，afoulatmospherefillingroomsovercrowdedwithhumanbeings，nodomesticcomfortispossible。Thehusbandworksthewholedaythrough，perhapsthewifealsoandtheelderchildren，allindifferentplaces；theymeetnightandmorningonly，allunderperpetualtemptationtodrink；whatfamilylifeispossibleundersuchconditions？Yettheworking-mancannotescapefromthefamily，mustliveinthefamily，andtheconsequenceisaperpetualsuccessionoffamilytroubles，domesticquarrels，mostdemoralisingforparentsandchildrenalike。Neglectofalldomesticduties，neglectofthechildren，especially，isonlytoocommonamongtheEnglishworking-people，andonlytoovigorouslyfosteredbytheexistinginstitutionsofsociety。Andchildrengrowingupinthissavageway，amidstthesedemoralisinginfluences，areexpectedtoturnoutgoody-goodyandmoralintheend！Verilytherequirementsarenaive，whichtheself-satisfiedbourgeoismakesupontheworking-man！
Thecontemptfortheexistingsocialorderismostconspicuousinitsextremeform——thatofoffencesagainstthelaw。Iftheinfluencesdemoralisingtotheworking-manactmorepowerfully，moreconcentratedlythanusual，hebecomesanoffenderascertainlyaswaterabandonsthefluidforthevaporousstateat80degrees，Ré；aumur。Underthebrutalandbrutalisingtreatmentofthebourgeoisie，theworking-manbecomespreciselyasmuchathingwithoutvolitionaswater，andissubjecttothelawsofNaturewithpreciselythesamenecessity；atacertainpointallfreedomceases。
Hencewiththeextensionoftheproletariat，crimehasincreasedinEngland，andtheBritishnationhasbecomethemostcriminalintheworld。FromtheannualcriminaltablesoftheHomeSecretary，itisevidentthattheincreaseofcrimeinEnglandhasproceededwithincomprehensiblerapidity。
Thenumbersofarrestsforcriminaloffencesreachedintheyears:1805，4，605，1810，5，146；1815，7，818；1820，13，710；1825，14，457；1830，18，107；
1835，20，731；1840，27，187；1841，27，760；1842，31，309inEnglandandWalesalone。Thatistosay，theyincreasedsevenfoldinthirty-sevenyears。
Ofthesearrests，in1842，4，497weremadeinLancashirealone，ormorethan14percentofthewhole；and4，094inMiddlesex，includingLondon，ormorethan13percent。Sothattwodistrictswhichincludegreatcitieswithlargeproletarianpopulations，producedone-fourthofthetotalamountofcrime，thoughtheirpopulationisfarfromformingone-fourthofthewhole。Moreover，thecriminaltablesprovedirectlythatnearlyallcrimeariseswithintheproletariat；for，in1842，takingtheaverage，outof100criminals，32。35couldneitherreadnorwrite；58。32readandwroteimperfectly；6。77couldreadandwritewell；0。22hadenjoyedahighereducation，whilethedegreeofeducationof2。34couldnotbeascertained。
InScotland，crimehasincreasedyetmorerapidly。Therewerebut89arrestsforcriminaloffencesin1819，andasearlyas1837thenumberhadrisento3，126，andin1842to4，189。InLanarkshire，whereSheriffAlisonhimselfmadeouttheofficialreport，populationhasdoubledonceinthirtyyears，andcrimeonceinfiveandahalf，orsixtimesmorerapidlythanthepopulation。
Theoffences，asinallcivilisedcountries，are，inthegreatmajorityofcases，againstproperty，andhave，therefore，arisenfromwantinsomeform；forwhatamanhas，hedoesnotsteal。Theproportionofoffencesagainstpropertytothepopulation，whichintheNetherlandsisas1:7，140
andinFrance，as1:1，804，wasinEngland，whenGaskellwroteas1:799。
Theproportionofoffencesagainstpersonstothepopulationis，intheNetherlands，1:28，904；inFrance，1:17，573；inEngland，1:23，395；thatofcrimesingeneraltothepopulationintheagriculturaldistricts，as1:1，043；inthemanufacturingdistrictas1:840。[32]InthewholeofEnglandtodaytheproportionis1:660；[33]thoughitisscarcelytenyearssinceGaskell’sbookappeared！
Thesefactsarecertainlymorethansufficienttobringanyoneevenabourgeois，topauseandreflectupontheconsequencesofsuchastateofthings。Ifdemoralisationandcrimemultiplytwentyyearslongerinthisproportion(andifEnglishmanufactureinthesetwentyyearsshouldbelessprosperousthanheretofore，theprogressivemultiplicationofcrimecanonlycontinuethemorerapidly)，whatwilltheresultbe？Societyisalreadyinastateofvisibledissolution；itisimpossibletopickupanewspaperwithoutseeingthemoststrikingevidenceofthegivingwayofallsocialties。IlookatrandomintoaheapofEnglishjournalslyingbeforeme；thereistheManchesterGuardianforOctober30，1844，whichreportsforthreedays。ItnolongertakesthetroubletogiveexactdetailsastoManchester，andmerelyrelatesthemostinterestingcases:
thattheworkersinamillhavestruckforhigherwageswithoutgivingnotice，andbeencondemnedbyaJusticeofthePeacetoresumework；thatinSalfordacoupleofboyshadbeencaughtstealing，andabankrupttradesmantriedtocheathiscreditors。Fromtheneighbouringtownsthereportsaremoredetailed:inAshton，twothefts，oneburglary，onesuicide；inBuryonetheft；inBolton，twothefts，onerevenuefraud；inLeigh，onetheft；
inOldham，onestrikeforwages，onetheft，onefightbetweenIrishwomen，onenon-UnionhatterassaultedbyUnionmen，onemotherbeatenbyherson，oneattackuponthepolice，onerobberyofachurch；inStockport，discontentofworking-menwithwages，onetheft，onefraud，onefight，onewifebeatenbyherhusband；inWarrington，onetheft，onefight；inWigan，onetheft，andonerobberyofachurch。ThereportsoftheLondonpapersaremuchworse；frauds，thefts，assaults，familyquarrelscrowdoneanother。ATimesofSeptember12，1844，fallsintomyhand，whichgivesareportofasingleday，includingatheft，anattackuponthepolice，asentenceuponafatherrequiringhimtosupporthisillegitimateson，theabandonmentofachildbyitsparents，andthepoisoningofamanbyhiswife。SimilarreportsaretobefoundinalltheEnglishpapers。Inthiscountry，socialwarisunderfullheadway，everyonestandsforhimself，andfightsforhimselfagainstallcomers，andwhetherornotheshallinjurealltheotherswhoarehisdeclaredfoes，dependsuponacynicalcalculationastowhatismostadvantageousforhimself。Itnolongeroccurstoanyonetocometoapeacefulunderstandingwithhisfellow-man；alldifferencesaresettledbythreats，violence，orinalaw-court。Inshort，everyoneseesinhisneighbouranenemytobegotoutoftheway，or，atbest，atooltobeusedforhisownadvantage。Andthiswargrowsfromyeartoyear，asthecriminaltablesshow，moreviolent，passionate，irreconcilable。Theenemiesaredividinggraduallyintotwogreatcamps——thebourgeoisieontheonehand，theworkersontheother。Thiswarofeachagainstall，ofthebourgeoisieagainsttheproletariat，needcauseusnosurprise，foritisonlythelogicalsequeloftheprincipleinvolvedinfreecompetition。Butitmayverywellsurpriseusthatthebourgeoisieremainssoquietandcomposedinthefaceoftherapidlygatheringstorm-clouds，thatitcanreadallthesethingsdailyinthepaperswithout，wewillnotsayindignationatsuchasocialcondition，butfearofitsconsequences，ofauniversaloutburstofthatwhichmanifestsitselfsymptomaticallyfromdaytodayintheformofcrime。Butthenitisthebourgeoisie，andfromitsstandpointcannotevenseethefacts，muchlessperceivetheirconsequences。Onethingonlyisastounding，thatclassprejudiceandpreconceivedopinionscanholdawholeclassofhumanbeingsinsuchperfect，Imightalmostsay，suchmadblindness。Meanwhile，thedevelopmentofthenationgoesitswaywhetherthebourgeoisiehaseyesforitornot，andwillsurprisetheproperty-
holdingclassonedaywiththingsnotdreamedofinitsphilosophy。
NOTES1。WhenashereandelsewhereIspeakofsocietyasaresponsiblewhole，havingrightsandduties，Imean，ofcourse，therulingpowerofsociety，theclasswhichatpresentholdssocialandpoliticalcontrol，andbears，therefore，theresponsibilityfortheconditionofthosetowhomitgrantsnoshareinsuchcontrol。ThisrulingclassinEngland，asinallothercivilisedcountries，isthebourgeoisie。
Butthatthissociety，andespeciallythebourgeoisie，ischargedwiththedutyofprotectingeverymemberofsociety，atleast，inhislife，toseetoit，forexample，thatnoonestarves，IneednotnowprovetomyGermanreaders。IfIwerewritingfortheEnglishbourgeoisie，thecasewouldbedifferent——NotebyEngelstotheGermaneditionof1845——
AndsoitisnowinGermany。OurGermancapitalistsarefullyuptotheEnglishlevel，inthisrespectatleast，intheyearofgrace，1886——AddedbyEngelstotheAmericaneditionof1887——
(1892)Howthingshavechangedinthelastfiftyyears！TodaytherearemembersoftheEnglishmiddle-classeswhorecognisethatsocietyhasdutiestotheindividualcitizen——butasfortheGermanmiddle-classes？！？——
AddedbyEngelstotheGermaneditionof1892。ReturntoText2。Dr。Alison，ManagementofthePoorinScotland——
NotebyEngels。ReturntoText3。Dr。AlisoninanarticlereadbeforetheBritishAssociationfortheAdvancementofScience。October，1844，inYork——NotebyEngels。ReturntoText4。Alison，PrinciplesofPopulation，vol。ii——NotebyEngelstotheAmericaneditionof1887。ReturntoText5。Dr。Alison，ManagementofthePoorinScotland——
NotebyEngels。ReturntoText6。TheManufacturingPopulationofEngland，ch。
8——NotebyEngels。ReturntoText7。ReportofCommissionofInquiryintotheEmploymentofChildrenandYoungPersonsinMinesandCollieriesandintheTradesandManufacturesinwhichnumbersofthemworktogether，notbeingincludedunderthetermsoftheFactories’RegulationAct。FirstandSecondReports，Grainger’sReport。SecondReport，usuallycitedasChildren’sEmploymentCommission’sReport，isoneofthebestofficialreportsofitskindandcontainsanimmensequantityofevidencewhichisbothvaluableandhorrifying。FirstReport，1841；SecondReport，1843——NotebyEngels。ReturntoText8。FifthAnnualReportoftheReg。Gen。ofBirths，Deaths，andMarriages——NotebyEngels。ReturntoText9。Dr。Cowan，VitalStatisticsofGlasgow——NotebyEngelstotheAmericaneditionof1887。ReturntoText10。ReportofCommissionofInquiryintotheStateofLargeTownsandPopulousDistricts。FirstReport，1844。Appendix——NotebyEngels。ReturntoText11。Factories’InquiryCommission’sReports，3rdvol。ReportofDr。HawkinsonLancashire，inwhichDr。Robertoniscited——the”ChiefAuthorityforStatisticsinManchester”——NotebyEngels。ReturntoText12。QuotedbyDr。WadefromtheReportoftheParliamentaryFactories’Commissionof1832，inhisHistoryoftheMiddleandWorking-Classes，London，1835，3rded——NotebyEngelstotheAmericaneditionof1887ReturntoText13。Children’sEmploymentCommission’sReport。App。
