InSheffieldwagesarebetter，andtheexternalstateoftheworkersalso。Ontheotherhand，certainbranchesofworkaretobenoticedhere，becauseoftheirextraordinarilyinjuriousinfluenceuponhealth。Certainoperationsrequiretheconstantpressureoftoolsagainstthechest，andengenderconsumptioninmanycases；others，file-cuttingamongthem，retardthegeneraldevelopmentofthebodyandproducedigestivedisorders；bone-
cuttingforknifehandlesbringswithitheadache，biliousness，andamonggirls，ofwhommanyareemployed，anaemia。Byfarthemostunwholesomeworkisthegrindingofknife-bladesandforks，which，especiallywhendonewithadrystone，entailscertainearlydeath。Theunwholesomenessofthisworkliesinpartinthebentposture，inwhichchestandstomacharecramped；butespeciallyinthequantityofsharp-edgedmetaldustparticlesfreedinthecutting，whichfilltheatmosphere，andarenecessarilyinhaled。
Thedrygrinders’averagelifeishardlythirty-fiveyears，’thewetgrinders’
rarelyexceedsforty-five。Dr。Knight，inSheffield，says:Icanconveysomeideaoftheinjuriousnessofthisoccupationonlybyassertingthat”thegreatestdrinkersamongthegrindersaresometimesthelongestlived，owingtotheirmorefrequentabsencefromtheirwork”。
AltogetherthegrindersinSheffield”amounttoabouttwothousandfivehundred，ofthisnumberaboutonehundredandfifty，viz。eightymenandseventyboys，areforkgrinders——thesediefromtwenty-eighttothirty-twoyearsofage。Therazorgrinders，grindbothwet，anddry，andtheydiefromfortytoforty-fiveyearsofage。Thetable-knifegrindersworkonwetstones，andtheylivetobetwixtfortyandfiftyyearsofage。”Thesamephysiciangivesthefollowingdescriptionofthecourseofthediseasecalledgrinders’asthma:”Thosewhoaretobebroughtupgrinders，usuallybegintoworkwhentheyareaboutfourteenyearsold。Grinders，whohavegoodconstitutionsseldomexperiencemuchinconveniencefromtheirtradeuntiltheyarriveatabouttwentyyearsofage:aboutthattimethesymptomsoftheirpeculiarcomplaintbegintostealuponthem，theirbreathingbecomesmorethanusuallyembarrassedonslightexertions，particularlyongoingupstairsorascendingahill；theirshouldersareelevatedinordertorelievetheirconstantandincreasingdyspnoea；theystoopforward，andappeartobreathethemostcomfortablyinthatpostureinwhichtheyareaccustomedtositattheirwork。Theircomplexionsassumeamuddy，dirtyappearance；theircountenanceindicatesanxiety；theycomplainofasenseoftightnessacrossthechest；
theirvoiceisrough，andhoarse；theircoughloud，andasiftheairweredrawnthroughwoodentubes；theyoccasionallyexpectorateconsiderablequantitiesofdust，sometimesmixedupwithmucus，atothertimesinglobularorcylindricalmassesenvelopedinathinfilmofmucus。Haemoptysis，inabilitytoliedown，nightsweats，colignativediarrhoea，extremeemaciation，togetherwithalltheusualsymptomsofpulmonaryconsumptionatlengthcarrythemoff；butnotuntiltheyhavelingeredthroughmonths，andevenyearsofsuffering，incapableofworkingsoastosupporteitherthemselvesortheirfamilies。”Imustaddthat”alltheattemptswhichhavehithertobeenmade，topreventortocurethegrinders’asthma，haveutterlyfailed。”AllthisKnightwrotetenyearsago；sincethenthenumberofgrindersandtheviolenceofthediseasehaveincreased，thoughattemptshavebeenmadetopreventitbycoveredgrindstonesandcarryingoffthedustbyartificialdraught。Thesemethodshavebeenatleastpartiallysuccessful，butthegrindersdonotdesiretheiradoption，andhaveevendestroyedthecontrivancehereandthere，inthebeliefthatmoreworkersmaybeattractedtothebusinessandwagesthusreduced；theyareforashortlifeandamerryone。Dr。Knighthasoftentoldgrinderswhocametohimwiththefirstsymptomsofasthmathatareturntogrindingmeanscertaindeath，butwithnoavail。Hewhoisonceagrinderfallsintodespair，asthoughhehadsoldhimselftothedevil。EducationinSheffieldisuponaverylowplane；aclergyman，whohadoccupiedhimselflargelywiththestatisticsofeducation，wasoftheopinionthatof16，500childrenoftheworking-classwhoareinapositiontoattendschool，scarcely6，500
canread。Thiscomesofthefactthatthechildrenaretakenfromschoolintheseventh，and，attheverylatest，inthetwelfthyear，andthattheteachersaregoodfornothing；onewasaconvictedthiefwhofoundnootherwayofsupportinghimselfafterbeingreleasedfromjailthanteachingschool！ImmoralityamongyoungpeopleseemstobemoreprevalentinSheffieldthananywhereelse。Itishardtotellwhichtownoughttohavetheprize，andinreadingthereportonebelievesofeachonethatthiscertainlydeservesit！TheyoungergenerationspendthewholeofSundaylyinginthestreettossingcoinsorfightingdogs，goregularlytotheginpalace，wheretheysitwiththeirsweetheartsuntillateatnight，whentheytakewalksinsolitarycouples。Inanale-housewhichthecommissionervisited，theresatfortytofiftyyoungpeopleofbothsexes，nearlyallunderseventeenyearsofage，andeachladbesidehislass。Hereandtherecardswereplayed，atotherplacesdancingwasgoingon，andeverywheredrinking。Amongthecompanywereopenlyavowedprofessionalprostitutes。
Nowonder，then，that，asallthewitnessestestify，early，unbridledsexualintercourse，youthfulprostitution，beginningwithpersonsoffourteentofifteenyears，isextraordinarilyfrequentinSheffield。Crimesofasavageanddesperatesortareofcommonoccurrence；oneyearbeforethecommissioner’svisit，aband，consistingchieflyofyoungpersons，wasarrestedwhenabouttosetfiretothetown，beingfullyequippedwithlancesandinflammablesubstances。WeshallseelaterthatthelabourmovementinSheffieldhasthissamesavagecharacter。
Besidesthesetwomaincentresofthemetalindustry，thereareneedlefactoriesinWarrington，Lancashire，wheregreatwant，immorality，andignoranceprevailamongtheworkers，andespeciallyamongthechildren；
andanumberofnailforgesintheneighbourhoodofWigan，inLancashire，andintheeastofScotland。ThereportsfromtheselatterdistrictstellalmostpreciselythesamestoryasthoseofStaffordshire。Thereisonemorebranchofthisindustrycarriedoninthefactorydistricts，especiallyinLancashire，theessentialpeculiarityofwhichistheproductionofmachinerybymachinery，wherebytheworkers，crowdedoutelsewhere，aredeprivedoftheirlastrefuge，thecreationoftheveryenemywhichsupersedesthem。Machineryforplaningandboring，cuttingscrews，wheels，nuts，etc。，withpowerlathes，hasthrownoutofemploymentamultitudeofmenwhoformerlyfoundregularworkatgoodwages；andwhoeverwishestodosomayseecrowdsoftheminManchester。
NorthoftheirondistrictofStaffordshireliesanindustrialregiontowhichweshallnowturnourattention，thePotteries，whoseheadquartersareintheboroughofStoke，embracingHenley，Burslem，LaneEnd，LaneDelph，Etruria，Coleridge，Langport，Tunstall，andGoldenHill，containingtogether70，000inhabitants。TheChildren’sEmploymentCommissionreportsuponthissubjectthatinsomebranchesofthisindustry，intheproductionofstoneware，thechildrenhavelightemploymentinwarm，airyrooms；inothers，onthecontrary，hard，wearinglabourisrequired，whiletheyreceiveneithersufficientfoodnorgoodclothing。Manychildrencomplain:”Don’tgetenoughtoeat，getmostlypotatoeswithsalt，nevermeat，neverbread，don’tgotoschool，haven’tgotnoclothes。””Haven’tgotnothin’toeattodayfordinner，don’tneverhavedinnerathome，getmostlypotatoesandsalt，sometimesbread。””ThisisalltheclothesIhave，noSundaysuitathome。”Amongthechildrenwhoseworkisespeciallyinjuriousarethemould-runners，whohavetocarrythemouldedarticlewiththeformtothedrying-room，andafterwardsbringbacktheemptyform，whenthearticleisproperlydried。Thustheymustgotoandfrothewholeday，carryingburdensheavyinproportiontotheirage，whilethehightemperatureinwhichtheyhavetodothisincreasesveryconsiderablytheexhaustivenessofthework。Thesechildren，withscarcelyasingleexception，arelean，pale，feeble，stunted；nearlyallsufferfromstomachtroubles，nausea，wantofappetite，andmanyofthemdieofconsumption。Almostasdelicatearetheboyscalled”jiggers”，fromthe”jigger”wheelwhichtheyturn。
Butbyfarthemostinjuriousistheworkofthosewhodipthefinishedarticleintoafluidcontaininggreatquantitiesoflead，andoftenofarsenic，orhavetotakethefreshlydippedarticleupwiththehand。Thehandsandclothingoftheseworkers，adultsandchildren，arealwayswetwiththisfluid，theskinsoftensandfallsoffundertheconstantcontactwithroughobjects，sothatthefingersoftenbleed，andareconstantlyinastatemostfavourablefortheabsorptionofthisdangeroussubstance。
Theconsequenceisviolentpain，andseriousdiseaseofthestomachandintestines，obstinateconstipation，colic，sometimesconsumption，and，mostcommonofall，epilepsyamongchildren。Amongmen，partialparalysisofthehandmuscles，colicapictorum，andparalysisofwholelimbsareordinaryphenomena。Onewitnessrelatesthattwochildrenwhoworkedwithhimdiedofconvulsionsattheirwork；anotherwhohadhelpedwiththedippingtwoyearswhileaboy，relatesthathehadviolentpainsinthebowelsatfirst，thenconvulsions，inconsequenceofwhichhewasconfinedtohisbedtwomonths，sincewhentheattacksofconvulsionshaveincreasedinfrequency，arenowdaily，accompaniedoftenbytentotwentyepilepticfits，hisrightarmisparalysed，andthephysicianstellhimthathecanneverregaintheuseofhislimbs。Inonefactorywerefoundinthedipping-housefourmen，allepilepticandafflictedwithseverecolic，andelevenboys，severalofwhomwerealreadyepileptic。Inshort，thisfrightfuldiseasefollowsthisoccupationuniversally:andthat，too，tothegreaterpecuniaryprofitofthebourgeoisie！Intheroomsinwhichthestonewareisscoured，theatmosphereisfilledwithpulverisedflint，thebreathingofwhichisasinjuriousasthatofthesteeldustamongtheSheffieldgrinders。
Theworkerslosebreath，cannotliedown，sufferfromsorethroatandviolentcoughing，andcometohavesofeebleavoicethattheycanscarcelybeheard。They，too，alldieofconsumption。InthePotteriesdistrict，theschoolsaresaidtobecomparativelynumerous，andtoofferthechildrenopportunitiesforinstruction；butasthelatteraresoearlysettoworkfortwelvehoursandoftenmoreperday，theyarenotinapositiontoavailthemselvesoftheschools，sothatthree-fourthsofthechildrenexaminedbythecommissionercouldneitherreadnorwrite，whilethewholedistrictisplungedinthedeepestignorance。ChildrenwhohaveattendedSundayschoolforyearscouldnottelloneletterfromanother，andthemoralandreligiouseducation，aswellastheintellectual，isonaverylowplane。
Inthemanufactureofglass，too，workoccurswhichseemslittleinjurioustomen，butcannotbeenduredbychildren。Thehardlabour，theirregularityofthehours，thefrequentnight-work，andespeciallythegreatheatoftheworkingplace(100to130Fahrenheit)，engenderinchildrengeneraldebilityanddisease，stuntedgrowth，andespeciallyaffectionsoftheeye，bowelcomplaint，andrheumaticandbronchialaffections。Manyofthechildrenarepale，haveredeyes，oftenblindforweeksatatime，sufferfromviolentnausea，vomiting，coughs，colds，andrheumatism。Whentheglassiswithdrawnfromthefire，thechildrenmustoftengointosuchheatthattheboardsonwhichtheystandcatchfireundertheirfeet。Theglass-blowersusuallydieyoungofdebilityandchestaffections。
Asawhole，thisreporttestifiestothegradualbutsureintroductionofthefactorysystemintoallbranchesofindustry，recognisableespeciallybytheemploymentofwomenandchildren。Ihavenotthoughtitnecessarytotraceineverycasetheprogressofmachineryandthesupersedingofmenasworkers。Everyonewhoisinanydegreeacquaintedwiththenatureofmanufacturecanfillthisoutforhimself，whilespacefailsmetodescribeindetailanaspectofourpresentsystemofproduction，theresultofwhichIhavealreadysketchedindealingwiththefactorysystem。Inalldirectionsmachineryisbeingintroduced，andthelasttraceoftheworking-man’sindependencethusdestroyed。Inalldirectionsthefamilyisbeingdissolvedbythelabourofwifeandchildren，orinvertedbythehusband’sbeingthrownoutofemploymentandmadedependentuponthemforbread；everywhereinevitablemachinerybestowsuponthegreatcapitalistcommandoftradeandoftheworkerswithit。Thecentralisationofcapitalstridesforwardwithoutinterruption，thedivisionofsocietyintogreatcapitalistsandnon-possessingworkersissharpereveryday，theindustrialdevelopmentofthenationadvanceswithgiantstridestowardstheinevitablecrisis。
Ihavealreadystatedthatinthehandicraftsthepowerofcapital，andinsomecasesthedivisionoflabourtoo，hasproducedthesameresults，crushedthesmalltradesmen，andputgreatcapitalistsandnon-possessingworkersintheirplace。Astothesehandicraftsmenthereislittletobesaid，sinceallthatrelatestothemhasalreadyfounditsplacewheretheproletariatingeneralwasunderdiscussion。Therehasbeenbutlittlechangehereinthenatureoftheworkanditsinfluenceuponhealthsincethebeginningoftheindustrialmovement。Buttheconstantcontactwiththefactoryoperatives，thepressureofthegreatcapitalists，whichismuchmorefeltthanthatofthesmallemployertowhomtheapprenticestillstoodinamoreorlesspersonalrelation，theinfluencesoflifeintowns，andthefallofwages，havemadenearlyallthehandicraftsmenactiveparticipatorsinlabourmovements。Weshallsoonhavemoretosayonthispoint，andturnmeanwhiletoonesectionofworkersinLondonwhodeserveourattentionbyreasonoftheextraordinarybarbaritywithwhichtheyareexploitedbythemoney-greedofthebourgeoisie。Imeanthedress-makersandsewing-women。
Itisacuriousfactthattheproductionofpreciselythosearticleswhichservethepersonaladornmentoftheladiesofthebourgeoisieinvolvesthesaddestconsequencesforthehealthoftheworkers。Wehavealreadyseenthisinthecaseofthelace-makers，andcomenowtothedress-makingestablishmentsofLondonforfurtherproof。Theyemployamassofyounggirls——therearesaidtobe15，000oftheminall——whosleepandeatonthepremises，comeusuallyfromthecountry，andarethereforeabsolutelytheslavesoftheiremployers。Duringthefashionableseason，whichlastssomefourmonths，working-hours，eveninthebestestablishments，arefifteen，and，inverypressingcases，eighteenaday；butinmostshopsworkgoesonatthesetimeswithoutanysetregulation，sothatthegirlsneverhavemorethansix，oftennotmorethanthreeorfour，sometimes，indeed，notmorethantwohoursinthetwenty-four，forrestandsleep，workingnineteentotwenty-twohours，ifnotthewholenightthrough，asfrequentlyhappens！
Theonlylimitsettotheirworkistheabsolutephysicalinabilitytoholdtheneedleanotherminute。Caseshaveoccurredinwhichthesehelplesscreaturesdidnotundressduringnineconsecutivedaysandnights，andcouldonlyrestamomentortwohereandthereuponamattress，wherefoodwasservedthemreadycutupinordertorequiretheleastpossibletimeforswallowing。Inshort，theseunfortunategirlsarekeptbymeansofthemoralwhipofthemodernslave-driver，thethreatofdischarge，tosuchlongandunbrokentoilasnostrongman，muchlessadelicategirloffourteentotwentyyears，canendure。Inadditiontothis，thefoulairofthework-roomandsleeping-places，thebentposture，theoftenbadandindigestiblefood，allthesecauses，combinedwithalmosttotalexclusionfromfreshair，entailthesaddestconsequencesforthehealthofthegirls。
Enervation，exhaustion，debility，lossofappetite，painsintheshoulders，back，andhips，butespeciallyheadache，beginverysoon；thenfollowcurvaturesofthespine，high，deformedshoulders，leanness，swelled，weeping，andsmartingeyes，whichsoonbecomeshort-sighted；coughs，narrowchests，andshortnessofbreath，andallmannerofdisordersinthedevelopmentofthefemaleorganism。Inmanycasestheeyessuffersoseverelythatincurableblindnessfollows；butifthesightremainsstrongenoughtomakecontinuedworkpossible，consumptionusuallysoonendsthesadlifeofthesemillinersanddress-makers。Eventhosewholeavethisworkatanearlyageretainpermanentlyinjuredhealth，abrokenconstitution；
and，whenmarried，bringfeebleandsicklychildrenintotheworld。Allthemedicalmeninterrogatedbythecommissionersagreedthatnomethodoflifecouldbeinventedbettercalculatedtodestroyhealthandinduceearlydeath。
Withthesamecruelty，thoughsomewhatmoreindirectly，therestoftheneedle-womenofLondonareexploited。Thegirlsemployedinstay-makinghaveahard，wearingoccupation，tryingtotheeyes。Andwhatwagesdotheyget？Idonotknow；butthisIknow，thatthemiddlemanwhohastogivesecurityforthematerialdelivered，andwhodistributestheworkamongtheneedle-women，receives11/2d。perpiece。Fromthishedeductshisownpay，atleast1/2d。，sothat1d。atmostreachesthepocketofthegirl。Thegirlswhosewnecktiesmustbindthemselvestoworksixteenhoursaday，andreceive41/2s。aweek。Buttheshirt-makers’lotistheworst。Theyreceiveforanordinaryshirt11/2d。，formerly2d-3d。；
butsincetheworkhouseofSt。Pancras，whichisadministeredbyaRadicalboardofguardians，begantoundertakeworkat11/2d。，thepoorwomenoutsidehavebeencompelledtodothesame。Forfine，fancyshirts，whichcanbemadeinonedayofeighteenhours，6d。ispaid。Theweeklywageofthesesewing-womenaccordingtothisandaccordingtotestimonyfrommanysides，includingbothneedle-womenandemployers，is2s。6d。to3s。
formoststrainedworkcontinuedfarintothenight。Andwhatcrownsthisshamefulbarbarismisthefactthatthewomenmustgiveamoneydepositforapartofthematerialsentrustedtothem，whichtheynaturallycannotdounlesstheypawnapartofthem(astheemployersverywellknow)，redeemingthemataloss；oriftheycannotredeemthematerials，theymustappearbeforeaJusticeofthePeace，ashappenedtoasewing-womaninNovember，1843。Apoorgirlwhogotintothisstraitanddidnotknowwhattodonext，drownedherselfinacanalin1844。Thesewomenusuallyliveinlittlegarretroomsintheutmostdistress，whereasmanycrowdtogetherasthespacecanpossiblyadmit，andwhere，inwinter，theanimalwarmthoftheworkersistheonlyheatobtainable。Heretheysitbentovertheirwork，sewingfromfourorfiveinthemorninguntilmidnight，destroyingtheirhealthinayearortwoandendinginanearlygrave；withoutbeingabletoobtainthepoorestnecessitiesoflifemeanwhile。[2]Andbelowthemrollthebrilliantequipagesoftheupperbourgeoisie，andperhapstenstepsawaysomepitiabledandylosesmoremoneyinoneeveningatfarothantheycanearninayear。***
SuchistheconditionoftheEnglishmanufacturingproletariat。Inalldirections，whithersoeverwemayturn，wefindwantanddiseasepermanentortemporary，anddemoralisationarisingfromtheconditionoftheworkers；
inalldirectionsslowbutsureundermining，andfinaldestructionofthehumanbeingphysicallyaswellasmentally。Isthisastateofthingswhichcanlast？Itcannotandwillnotlast。Theworkers，thegreatmajorityofthenation，willnotendureit。Letusseewhattheysayofit。
NOTES
1。TheGermaneditionsof1845and1892havehere:”andsellnotthelabouritself，butthereadyproduct。”MentionofthesaleoflabourwasperhapsomittedintheAmericaneditionof1887andtheEnglisheditionof1892inconnectionwiththelateropinionofMarxistpoliticaleconomythattheworkersellshislabour-power，andnothislabour，tothecapitalist。[1]
2。ThomasHood，themosttalentedofalltheEnglishhumoristsnowliving，and，likeallhumorists，fullofhumanfeeling，butwantinginmentalenergy，publishedatthebeginningof1844abeautifulpoem，TheSongoftheShirt，whichdrewsympatheticbutunavailingtearsfromtheeyesofthedaughtersofthebourgeoisie。OriginallypublishedinPunch，itmadetheroundofallthepapers。Asdiscussionsoftheconditionofthesewing-womenfilledallthepapersatthetime，specialextractsareneedless——NotebyEngels。[2]LabourmovementsF。EngelsTHECONDITIONS
OFTHEWORKING-CLASS
INENGLANDLABOURMOVEMENTS
Itmustbeadmitted，evenifIhadnotproveditsooftenindetail，thattheEnglishworkerscannotfeelhappyinthiscondition；thattheirsisnotastateinwhichamanorawholeclassofmencanthink，feel，andliveashumanbeings。Theworkersmustthereforestrivetoescapefromthisbrutalisingcondition，tosecureforthemselvesabetter，morehumanposition；andthistheycannotdowithoutattackingtheinterestofthebourgeoisiewhichconsistsinexploitingthem。ButthebourgeoisiedefendsitsinterestswithallthepowerplacedatitsdisposalbywealthandthemightoftheState。Inproportionastheworking-mandeterminestoalterthepresentstateofthings，thebourgeoisbecomeshisavowedenemy。
Moreover，theworking-manismadetofeelateverymomentthatthebourgeoisietreatshimasachattel，asitsproperty，andforthisreason，iffornoother，hemustcomeforwardasitsenemy。Ihaveshowninahundredwaysintheforegoingpages，andcouldhaveshowninahundredothers，that，inourpresentsociety，hecansavehismanhoodonlyinhatredandrebellionagainstthebourgeoisie。Andhecanprotestwithmostviolentpassionagainstthetyrannyofthepropertiedclass，thankstohiseducation，orratherwantofeducation，andtotheabundanceofhotIrishbloodthatflowsintheveinsoftheEnglishworking-class。TheEnglishworking-manisnoEnglishmannowadays；nocalculatingmoney-grubberlikehiswealthyneighbour。Hepossessesmorefullydevelopedfeelings，hisnativenortherncoldnessisoverbornebytheunrestraineddevelopmentofhispassionsandtheircontroloverhim。ThecultivationoftheunderstandingwhichsogreatlystrengthenstheselfishtendencyoftheEnglishbourgeois，whichhasmadeselfishnesshispredominanttraitandconcentratedallhisemotionalpoweruponthesinglepointofmoney-greed，iswantingintheworking-man，whosepassionsarethereforestrongandmightyasthoseoftheforeigner。Englishnationalityisannihilatedintheworking-man。
Since，aswehaveseen，nosinglefieldfortheexerciseofhismanhoodislefthim，savehisoppositiontothewholeconditionsofhislife，itisnaturalthatexactlyinthisoppositionheshouldbemostmanly，noblest，mostworthyofsympathy。Weshallseethatalltheenergy，alltheactivityoftheworking-menisdirectedtothispoint，andthateventheirattemptstoattaingeneraleducationallstandindirectconnectionwiththis。True，weshallhavesingleactsofviolenceandevenofbrutalitytoreport，butitmustalwaysbekeptinmindthatthesocialwarisavowedlyraginginEngland；andthat，whereasitisintheinterestofthebourgeoisietoconductthiswarhypocritically，underthedisguiseofpeaceandevenofphilanthropy，theonlyhelpfortheworking-menconsistsinlayingbarethetruestateofthingsanddestroyingthishypocrisy；thatthemostviolentattacksoftheworkersuponthebourgeoisieanditsservantsareonlytheopen，undisguisedexpressionofthatwhichthebourgeoisieperpetratessecretly，treacherouslyagainsttheworkers。
Therevoltoftheworkersbegansoonafterthefirstindustrialdevelopment，andhaspassedthroughseveralphases。TheinvestigationoftheirimportanceinthehistoryoftheEnglishpeopleImustreserveforseparatetreatment，limitingmyselfmeanwhiletosuchbarefactsasservetocharacterisetheconditionoftheEnglishproletariat。
Theearliest，crudest，andleastfruitfulformofthisrebellionwasthatofcrime。Theworking-manlivedinpovertyandwant，andsawthatotherswerebetteroffthanhe。Itwasnotcleartohismindwhyhe，whodidmoreforsocietythantherichidler，shouldbetheonetosufferundertheseconditions。Wantconqueredhisinheritedrespectforthesacrednessofproperty，andhestole。Wehaveseenhowcrimeincreasedwiththeextensionofmanufacture；howtheyearlynumberofarrestsboreaconstantrelationtothenumberofbalesofcottonannuallyconsumed。
Theworkerssoonrealisedthatcrimedidnothelpmatters。Thecriminalcouldprotestagainsttheexistingorderofsocietyonlysingly，asoneindividual；thewholemightofsocietywasbroughttobearuponeachcriminal，andcrushedhimwithitsimmensesuperiority。Besides，theftwasthemostprimitiveformofprotest，andforthisreason，iffornoother，itneverbecametheuniversalexpressionofthepublicopinionoftheworking-men，howevermuchtheymightapproveofitinsilence。Asaclass，theyfirstmanifestedoppositiontothebourgeoisiewhentheyresistedtheintroductionofmachineryattheverybeginningoftheindustrial。period。Thefirstinventors，Arkwrightandothers，werepersecutedinthiswayandtheirmachinesdestroyed。Later，theretookplaceanumberofrevoltsagainstmachinery，inwhichtheoccurrenceswerealmostpreciselythesameasthoseoftheprinters’disturbancesinBohemiain1844；factoriesweredemolishedandmachinerydestroyed。
Thisformofoppositionalsowasisolated，restrictedtocertainlocalities，anddirectedagainstonefeatureonlyofourpresentsocialarrangements。
Whenthemomentaryendwasattained，thewholeweightofsocialpowerfellupontheunprotectedevil-doersandpunishedthemtoitsheart’scontent，whilethemachinerywasintroducednonetheless。Anewformofoppositionhadtobefound。
Atthispointhelpcameintheshapeofalawenactedbytheold，unreformed，oligarchic-ToryParliament，alawwhichnevercouldhavepassedtheHouseofCommonslater，whentheReformBillhadlegallysanctionedthedistinctionbetweenbourgeoisieandproletariat，andmadethebourgeoisietherulingclass。Thiswasenactedin1824，andrepealedalllawsbywhichcoalitionsbetweenworking-menforlabourpurposeshadhithertobeenforbidden。Theworking-menobtainedarightpreviouslyrestrictedtothearistocracyandbourgeoisie，therightoffreeassociation。Secretcoalitionshad，itistrue，previouslyexisted，butcouldneverachievegreatresults。InGlasgowasSymonsrelates，ageneralstrikeofweavershadtakenplacein1812，whichwasbroughtaboutbyasecretassociation。Itwasrepeatedin1822，andonthisoccasionvitriolwasthrownintothefacesofthetwoworking-menwhowouldnotjointheassociation，andwerethereforeregardedbythemembersastraitorstotheirclass。Boththeassaultedlosttheuseoftheireyesinconsequenceoftheinjury。So，too，in1818，theassociationofScottishminerswaspowerfulenoughtocarryonageneralstrike。Theseassociationsrequiredtheirmemberstotakeanoathoffidelityandsecrecy，hadregularlists，treasurers，book-keepers，andlocalbranches。
Butthesecrecywithwhicheverythingwasconductedcrippledtheirgrowth。
When，ontheotherhand，theworking-menreceivedin1824therightoffreeassociation，thesecombinationswereverysoonspreadoverallEnglandandattainedgreatpower。InallbranchesofindustryTradesUnionswereformedwiththeoutspokenintentionofprotectingthesingleworking-managainstthetyrannyandneglectofthebourgeoisie。Theirobjectsweretodeal，enmasse，asapower，withtheemployers；toregulatetherateofwagesaccordingtotheprofitofthelatter，toraiseitwhenopportunityoffered，andtokeepituniformineachtradethroughoutthecountry。Hencetheytriedtosettlewiththecapitalistsascaleofwagestobeuniversallyadheredto，andorderedoutonstriketheemployeesofsuchindividualsasrefusedtoacceptthescale。Theyaimedfurthertokeepupthedemandforlabourbylimitingthenumberofapprentices，andsotokeepwageshigh；tocounteract，asfaraspossible，theindirectwagesreductionswhichthemanufacturersbroughtaboutbymeansofnewtoolsandmachinery；
andfinally，toassistunemployedworking-menfinancially。Thistheydoeitherdirectlyorbymeansofacardtolegitimatethebearerasa”societyman”，andwithwhichtheworking-manwandersfromplacetoplace，supportedbyhisfellow-workers，andinstructedastothebestopportunityforfindingemployment。Thisistramping，andthewandereratramp。Toattaintheseends，aPresidentandSecretaryareengagedatasalary(sinceitistobeexpectedthatnomanufacturerwillemploysuchpersons)，andacommitteecollectstheweeklycontributionsandwatchesovertheirexpenditureforthepurposesoftheassociation。Whenitprovedpossibleandadvantageous，thevarioustradesofsingledistrictsunitedinafederationandhelddelegateconventionsatsettimes。TheattempthasbeenmadeinsinglecasestounitetheworkersofonebranchoverallEnglandinonegreatUnion；andseveraltimes(in1830forthefirsttime)toformoneuniversaltradesassociationforthewholeUnitedKingdom，withaseparateorganisationforeachtrade。Theseassociations，however，neverheldtogetherlong，andwereseldomrealisedevenforthemoment，sinceanexceptionallyuniversalexcitementisnecessarytomakesuchafederationpossibleandeffective。
ThemeansusuallyemployedbytheseUnionsforattainingtheirendsarethefollowing:IfoneormoreemployersrefusetopaythewagespecifiedbytheUnion，adeputationissentorapetitionforwarded(theworking-men，yousee，knowhowtorecognisetheabsolutepowerofthelordofthefactoryinhislittleState)；ifthisprovesunavailing，theUnioncommandstheemployeestostopwork，andallhandsgohome。Thisstrikeiseitherpartialwhenoneorseveral，orgeneralwhenallemployersinthetraderefusetoregulatewagesaccordingtotheproposalsoftheUnion。SofargothelawfulmeansoftheUnion，assumingthestriketotakeeffectaftertheexpirationofthelegalnotice，whichisnotalwaysthecase。ButtheselawfulmeansareveryweakwhenthereareworkersoutsidetheUnion，orwhenmembersseparatefromitforthesakeofthemomentaryadvantageofferedbythebourgeoisie。EspecialIyinthecaseofpartialstrikescanthemanufacturerreadilysecurerecruitsfromtheseblacksheep(whoareknownasknobsticks)，andrenderfruitlesstheeffortsoftheunitedworkers。Knobsticksareusuallythreatened，insulted，beaten，orotherwisemaltreatedbythemembersoftheUnion；intimidated，inshort，ineveryway。Prosecutionfollows，andasthelaw-abidingbourgeoisiehasthepowerinitsownhands，theforceoftheUnionisbrokenalmosteverytimebythefirstunlawfulact，thefirstjudicialprocedureagainstitsmembers。
ThehistoryoftheseUnionsisalongseriesofdefeatsoftheworking-men，interruptedbyafewisolatedvictories。Alltheseeffortsnaturallycannotaltertheeconomiclawaccordingtowhichwagesaredeterminedbytherelationbetweensupplyanddemandinthelabourmarket。HencetheUnionsremainpowerlessagainstallgreatforceswhichinfluencethisrelation。InacommercialcrisistheUnionitselfmustreducewagesordissolvewholly；
andinatimeofconsiderableincreaseinthedemandforlabour，itcannotfixtherateofwageshigherthanwouldbereachedspontaneouslybythecompetitionofthecapitalistsamongthemselves。Butindealingwithminor，singleinfluencestheyarepowerful。Iftheemployerhadnoconcentrated，collectiveoppositiontoexpect，hewouldinhisowninterestgraduallyreducewagestoalowerandlowerpoint；indeed，thebattleofcompetitionwhichhehastowageagainsthisfellow-manufacturerswouldforcehimtodoso，andwageswouldsoonreachtheminimum。Butthiscompetitionofthemanufacturersamongthemselvesis，underaverageconditions，somewhatrestrictedbytheoppositionoftheworking-men。
Everymanufacturerknowsthattheconsequenceofareductionnotjustifiedbyconditionstowhichhiscompetitorsalsoaresubjected，wouldbeastrike，whichwouldmostcertainlyinjurehim，becausehiscapitalwouldbeidleaslongasthestrikelasted，andhismachinerywouldberusting，whereasitisverydoubtfulwhetherhecould，insuchacase，enforcehisreduction。
Thenhehasthecertaintythatifheshouldsucceed，hiscompetitorswouldfollowhim，reducingthepriceofthegoodssoproduced，andthusdeprivinghimofthebenefitofhispolicy。Then，too，theUnionsoftenbringaboutamorerapidincreaseofwagesafteracrisisthanwouldotherwisefollow。
Forthemanufacturer’sinterestistodelayraisingwagesuntilforcedbycompetition，butnowtheworking-mendemandanincreasedwageassoonasthemarketimproves，andtheycancarrytheirpointbyreasonofthesmallersupplyofworkersathiscommandundersuchcircumstances。But，forresistancetomoreconsiderableforceswhichinfluencethelabourmarket，theUnionsarepowerless。Insuchcaseshungergraduallydrivesthestrikerstoresumeworkonanyterms，andwhenonceafewhavebegun，theforceoftheUnionisbroken，becausethesefewknobsticks，withthereservesuppliesofgoodsinthemarket，enablethebourgeoisietoovercometheworsteffectsoftheinterruptionofbusiness。ThefundsoftheUnionaresoonexhaustedbythegreatnumbersrequiringrelief，thecreditwhichtheshopkeepersgiveathighinterestiswithdrawnafteratime，andwantcompelstheworking-mantoplacehimselfoncemoreundertheyokeofthebourgeoisie。Butstrikesenddisastrouslyfortheworkersmostly，becausethemanufacturers，intheirowninterest(whichhas，beitsaid，becometheirinterestonlythroughtheresistanceoftheworkers)，areobligedtoavoidalluselessreductions，whiletheworkersfeelineveryreductionimposedbythestateoftradeadeteriorationoftheircondition，againstwhichtheymustdefendthemselvesasfarasinthemlies。
Itwillbeasked，”Why，then，dotheworkersstrikeinsuchcases，whentheuselessnessofsuchmeasuresissoevident？”Simplybecausetheymustprotestagainsteveryreduction，evenifdictatedbynecessity；becausetheyfeelboundtoproclaimthatthey，ashumanbeings，shallnotbemadetobowtosocialcircumstances，butsocialconditionsoughttoyieldtothemashumanbeings；becausesilenceontheirpartwouldbearecognitionofthesesocialconditions，anadmissionoftherightofthebourgeoisietoexploittheworkersingoodtimesandletthemstarveinbadones。Againstthistheworking-menmustrebelsolongastheyhavenotlostallhumanfeeling，andthattheyprotestinthiswayandnoother，comesoftheir’beingpracticalEnglishpeople，whoexpressthemselvesinaction，anddonot，likeGermantheorists，gotosleepassoonastheirprotestisproperlyregisteredandplacedadacta，theretosleepasquietlyastheprotestersthemselves。TheactiveresistanceoftheEnglishworking-menhasitseffectinholdingthemoney-greedofthebourgeoisiewithincertainlimits，andkeepingalivetheoppositionoftheworkerstothesocialandpoliticalomnipotenceofthebourgeoisie，whileitcompelstheadmissionthatsomethingmoreisneededthanTradesUnionsandstrikestobreakthepoweroftherulingclass。ButwhatgivestheseUnionsandthestrikesarisingfromthemtheirrealimportanceisthis，thattheyarethefirstattemptoftheworkerstoabolishcompetition。Theyimplytherecognitionofthefactthatthesupremacyofthebourgeoisieisbasedwhollyuponthecompetitionoftheworkersamongthemselves；i。e。，upontheirwantofcohesion。AndpreciselybecausetheUnionsdirectthemselvesagainstthevitalnerveofthepresentsocialorder，howeverone-sidedly，inhowevernarrowaway，aretheysodangeroustothissocialorder。Theworking-
mencannotattackthebourgeoisie，andwithitthewholeexistingorderofsociety，atanysorerpointthanthis。Ifthecompetitionoftheworkersamongthemselvesisdestroyed，ifalldeterminenottobefurtherexploitedbythebourgeoisie，theruleofpropertyisatanend。Wagesdependupontherelationofdemandtosupply，upontheaccidentalstateofthelabourmarket，simplybecausetheworkershavehithertobeencontenttobetreatedaschattels，tobeboughtandsold。Themomenttheworkersresolvetobeboughtandsoldnolonger，when，inthedeterminationofthevalueoflabour，theytakethepartofmenpossessedofawillaswellasofworking-power，atthatmomentthewholePoliticalEconomyoftodayisatanend。
Thelawsdeterminingtherateofwageswould，indeed，comeintoforceagaininthelongrun，iftheworking-mendidnotgobeyondthisstepofabolishingcompetitionamongthemselves。Buttheymustgobeyondthatunlesstheyarepreparedtorecedeagainandtoallowcompetitionamongthemselvestoreappear。Thusonceadvancedsofar，necessitycompelsthemtogofarther；
toabolishnotonlyonekindofcompetition，butcompetitionitselfaltogether，andthattheywilldo。
Theworkersarecomingtoperceivemoreclearlywitheverydayhowcompetitionaffectsthem；theyseefarmoreclearlythanthebourgeoisthatcompetitionofthecapitalistsamongthemselvespressesupontheworkerstoo，bybringingoncommercialcrises，andthatthiskindofcompetition，too，mustbeabolished。
Theywillsoonlearnhowtheyhavetogoaboutit。
ThattheseUnionscontributegreatlytonourishthebitterhatredoftheworkersagainsttheproperty-holdingclassneedhardlybesaid。Fromthemproceed，therefore，withorwithouttheconnivanceoftheleadingmembers，intimesofunusualexcitement，individualactionswhichcanbeexplainedonlybyhatredwroughttothepitchofdespair，byawildpassionoverwhelmingallrestraints。Ofthissortaretheattackswithvitriolmentionedintheforegoingpages，andaseriesofothers，ofwhichIshallciteseveral。In1831，duringaviolentlabourmovement，youngAshton，amanufacturerinHyde，nearManchester，wasshotoneeveningwhencrossingafield，andnotraceoftheassassindiscovered。Thereisnodoubtthatthiswasadeedofvengeanceoftheworking-men。Incendiarismsandattemptedexplosionsareverycommon。OnFriday，September29th，1845，anattemptwasmadetoblowupthesaw-worksofPadgin，inHowardStreet，Sheffield。
Aclosedirontubefilledwithpowderwasthemeansemployed，andthedamagewasconsiderable。Onthefollowingday，asimilarattemptwasmadeinIbbetson’sknifeandfileworksatShalesMoor，nearSheffield。Mr。Ibbetsonhadmadehimselfobnoxiousbyanactiveparticipationinbourgeoismovements，bylowwages，theexclusiveemploymentofknobsticks，andtheexploitationofthePoorLawforhisownbenefit。Hehadreported，duringthecrisisof1842，suchoperativesasrefusedtoacceptreducedwages，aspersonswhocouldfindworkbutwouldnottakeit，andwere，therefore，notdeservingofrelief，socompellingtheacceptanceofareduction。Considerabledamagewasinflictedbytheexplosion，andalltheworking-menwhocametoviewitregrettedonly”thatthewholeconcernwasnotblownintotheair”。
OnFriday，October6th，1843，anattempttosetfiretothefactoryofAinsworthandCrompton，atBolton，didnodamage；itwasthethirdorfourthattemptinthesamefactorywithinaveryshorttime。InthemeetingoftheTownCouncilofSheffield，onWednesday，January10th，1844，theCommissionerofPoliceexhibitedacast-ironmachine，madefortheexpresspurposeofproducinganexplosion，andfoundfilledwithfourpoundsofpowder，andafusewhichhadbeenlightedbuthadnottakeneffect，intheworksofMr。Kitchen，EarlStreet，Sheffield。OnSunday，January21st，1844，anexplosioncausedbyapackageofpowdertookplaceinthesawmillofBentley&；White，atBury，inLancashire，andproducedconsiderabledamage。
OnThursday，February1st，1844，theSohoWheelWorks，inSheffield，weresetonfireandburntup。
Herearesixsuchcasesinfourmonths，allofwhichhavetheirsoleoriginintheembittermentoftheworking-menagainsttheemployers。WhatsortofasocialstateitmustbeinwhichsuchthingsarepossibleIneedhardlysay。ThesefactsareproofenoughthatinEngland，eveningoodbusinessyears，suchas1843，thesocialwarisavowedandopenlycarriedon，andstilltheEnglishbourgeoisiedoesnotstoptoreflect！ButthecasewhichspeaksmostloudlyisthatoftheGlasgowThugs，whichcameupbeforetheAssizesfromthe3rdtothe11thofJanuary，1838。ItappearsfromtheproceedingsthattheCotton-Spinners’Union，whichexistedherefromtheyear1816，possessedrareorganisationandpower。Thememberswereboundbyanoathtoadheretothedecisionofthemajority，andhadduringeveryturnoutasecretcommitteewhichwasunknowntothemassofthemembers，andcontrolledthefundsoftheUnionabsolutely。Thiscommitteefixedapriceupontheheadsofknobsticksandobnoxiousmanufacturersanduponincendiarismsinmills。Amillwasthussetonfireinwhichfemaleknobstickswereemployedinspinningintheplaceofmen；aMrs。M’Pherson，motherofoneofthesegirls，wasmurdered，andbothmurdererssenttoAmericaattheexpenseoftheassociation。Asearlyas1820，aknobsticknamedM’Quarrywasshotatandwounded，forwhichdeedthedoerreceivedtwentypoundsfromtheUnion，butwasdiscoveredandtransportedforlife。
Finally，in1837，inMay，disturbancesoccurredinconsequenceofaturnoutintheOatbankandMileEndfactories，inwhichperhapsadozenknobsticksweremaltreated。InJuly，ofthesameyear，thedisturbancesstillcontinued，andacertainSmith，aknobstick，wassomaltreatedthathedied。Thecommitteewasnowarrested，aninvestigationbegun，andtheleadingmembersfoundguiltyofparticipationinconspiracies，maltreatmentofknobsticks，andincendiarisminthemillofJamesandFrancisWood，andtheyweretransportedforsevenyears。WhatdoourgoodGermanssaytothisstory？[1]
Theproperty-holdingclass，andespeciallythemanufacturingportionofitwhichcomesintodirectcontactwiththeworking-men，declaimswiththegreatestviolenceagainsttheseUnions，andisconstantlytryingtoprovetheiruselessnesstotheworking-menupongroundswhichareeconomicallyperfectlycorrect，butforthatveryreasonpartiallymistaken，andfortheworking-man’sunderstandingtotallywithouteffect。Theveryzealofthebourgeoisieshowsthatitisnotdisinterestedinthematter；andapartfromthedirectlossinvolvedinaturnout，thestateofthecaseissuchthatwhatevergoesintothepocketsofthemanufacturerscomesofnecessityoutofthoseoftheworker。Sothateveniftheworking-mendidnotknowthattheUnionsholdtheemulationoftheirmastersinthereductionofwages，atleastinameasure，incheck，theywouldstillstandbytheUnions，simplytotheinjuryoftheirenemies，themanufacturers。Inwartheinjuryofonepartyisthebenefitoftheother，andsincetheworking-menareonawarfootingtowardstheiremployers，theydomerelywhatthegreatpotentatesdowhentheygetintoaquarrel。BeyondallotherbourgeoisisourfriendDr。Ure，themostfuriousenemyoftheUnions。Hefoamswithindignationatthe”secrettribunals”ofthecotton-spinners，themostpowerfulsectionoftheworkers，tribunalswhichboasttheirabilitytoparalyseeverydisobedientmanufacturer，”andsobringruinonthemanwhohadgiventhemprofitableemploymentformanyayear”。Hespeaksofatime”whentheinventiveheadandthesustainingheartoftradewereheldinbondagebytheunrulylowermembers”。ApitythattheEnglishworking-menwillnotletthemselvesbepacifiedsoeasilywiththyfableastheRomanPlebs，thoumodernMeneniusAgrippa！Finally，herelatesthefollowing:
Atonetimethecoarsemule-spinnershadmisusedtheirpowerbeyondallendurance。Highwages，insteadofawakeningthankfulnesstowardsthemanufacturersandleadingtointellectualimprovement(inharmlessstudyofsciencesusefultothebourgeoisie，ofcourse)，inmanycasesproduced。prideandsuppliedfundsforsupportingrebelliousspiritsinstrikes，withwhichanumberofmanufacturerswerevisitedoneaftertheotherinapurelyarbitrarymanner。DuringanunhappydisturbanceofthissortinHyde，Dukinfield，andthesurroundingneighbourhood，themanufacturersofthedistrict，anxiouslesttheyshouldbedrivenfromthemarketbytheFrench，Belgians，andAmericans，addressedthemselvestothemachine-worksofSharp，Roberts&；Co。，andrequestedMr。Sharptoturnhisinventivemindtotheconstructionofanautomaticmuleinorder”toemancipatethetradefromgallingslaveryandimpendingruin”。”Heproducedinthecourseofafewmonths，amachineapparentlyinstinctwiththethought，feeling，andtactoftheexperiencedworkman——whicheveninitsinfancydisplayedanewprincipleofregulation，readyinitsmaturestatetofulfilthefunctionsofafinishedspinner。Thus，theIronMan，astheoperativesfitlycallit，sprangoutofthehandsofourmodernPrometheusatthebiddingofMinerva——acreationdestinedtorestoreorderamongtheindustriousclasses，andtoconfirmtoGreatBritaintheempireofart。ThenewsofthisHerculeanprodigyspreaddismaythroughtheUnion，andevenlongbeforeitleftitscradle，sotospeak，itstrangledtheHydraofmisrule。”Ureprovesfurtherthattheinventionofthemachine，withwhichfourandfivecoloursareprintedatonce，wasaresultofthedisturbancesamongthecalicoprinters；thattherefractorinessoftheyarn-dressersinthepower-loomweavingmillsgaverisetoanewandperfectedmachineforwarp-dressing，andmentionsseveralothersuchcases。AfewpagesearlierthissameUregiveshimselfagreatdealoftroubletoproveindetailthatmachineryisbeneficialtotheworkers！ButUreisnottheonlyone；intheFactoryReport，Mr。Ashworth，themanufacturer，andmanyanother，losenoopportunitytoexpresstheirwrathagainsttheUnions。Thesewisebourgeois，likecertaingovernments，traceeverymovementwhichtheydonotunderstandtotheinfluenceofill-intentionedagitators，demagogues，traitors，spoutingidiots，andill-balancedyouth。TheydeclarethatthepaidagentsoftheUnionsareinterestedintheagitationbecausetheyliveuponit，asthoughthenecessityforthispaymentwerenotforceduponthembythebourgeois，whowillgivesuchmennoemployment！
TheincrediblefrequencyofthesestrikesprovesbestofalltowhatextentthesocialwarhasbrokenoutalloverEngland。Noweekpasses，scarcelyaday，indeed，inwhichthereisnotastrikeinsomedirection，nowagainstareduction，thenagainstarefusaltoraisetherateofwages，againbyreasonoftheemploymentofknobsticksorthecontinuanceofabuses，sometimesagainstnewmachinery，orforahundredotherreasons。Thesestrikes，atfirstskirmishes，sometimesresultinweightystruggles；theydecidenothing，itistrue，buttheyarethestrongestproofthatthedecisivebattlebetweenbourgeoisieandproletariatisapproaching。Theyarethemilitaryschooloftheworking-meninwhichtheypreparethemselvesforthegreatstrugglewhichcannotbeavoided；theyarethepronunciamentosofsinglebranchesofindustrythatthesetoohavejoinedthelabourmovement。
Andwhenoneexaminesayear’sfileoftheNorthernStar，theonlysheetwhichreportsallthemovementsoftheproletariat，onefindsthatalltheproletariansofthetownsandofcountrymanufacturehaveunitedinassociations，andhaveprotestedfromtimetotime，bymeansofageneralstrike，againstthesupremacyofthebourgeoisie。Andasschoolsofwar，theUnionsareunexcelled。InthemisdevelopedthepeculiarcourageoftheEnglish。ItissaidontheContinentthattheEnglish，andespeciallytheworking-men，arecowardly，thattheycannotcarryoutarevolutionbecause，unliketheFrench，theydonotriotatintervals，becausetheyapparentlyacceptthebourgeoisregimesoquietly。Thisisacompletemistake。
TheEnglishworking-menaresecondtononeincourage；theyarequiteasrestlessastheFrench，buttheyfightdifferently。TheFrench，whoarebynaturepolitical，struggleagainstsocialevilswithpoliticalweapons；
theEnglish，forwhompoliticsexistonlyasamatterofinterest，solelyintheinterestofbourgeoissociety，fight，notagainsttheGovernment，butdirectlyagainstthebourgeoisie；andforthetime，thiscanbedoneonlyinapeacefulmanner。Stagnationinbusiness，andthewantconsequentuponit，engenderedtherevoltatLyons，in1834，infavouroftheRepublic:
in1842，atManchester，asimilarcausegaverisetoauniversalturnoutfortheCharterandhigherwages。Thatcourageisrequiredforaturnout，oftenindeedmuchloftiercourage，muchbolder，firmerdeterminationthanforaninsurrection，isself-evident。Itis，intruth，notrifleforaworking-manwhoknowswantfromexperience，tofaceitwithwifeandchildren，toendurehungerandwretchednessformonthstogether，andstandfirmandunshakenthroughitall。Whatisdeath，whatthegalleyswhichawaittheFrenchrevolutionist，incomparisonwithgradualstarvation，withthedailysightofastarvingfamily，withthecertaintyoffuturerevengeonthepartofthebourgeoisie，allofwhichtheEnglishworking-manchoosesinpreferencetosubjectionundertheyokeoftheproperty-holdingclass？
Weshallmeetlateranexampleofthisobstinate，unconquerablecourageofmenwhosurrendertoforceonlywhenallresistancewouldbeaimlessandunmeaning。Andpreciselyinthisquietperseverance，inthislastingdeterminationwhichundergoesahundredtestseveryday，theEnglishworking-mandevelopsthatsideofhischaracterwhichcommandsmostrespect。Peoplewhoenduresomuchtobendonesinglebourgeoiswillbeabletobreakthepowerofthewholebourgeoisie。
Butapartfromthat，theEnglishworking-manhasprovedhiscourageoftenenough。Thattheturnoutof1842hadnofurtherresultscamefromthefactthatthemenwereinpartforcedintoitbythebourgeoisie，inpartneitherclearnorunitedastoitsobject。Butasidefromthis，theyhaveshowntheircourageoftenenoughwhenthematterinquestionwasaspecificsocialone。NottomentiontheWelshinsurrectionof1839，acompletebattlewaswagedinManchesterinMay，1843，duringmyresidencethere。
Pauling&；Henfrey，abrickfirm，hadincreasedthesizeofthebrickswithoutraisingwages，andsoldthebricks，ofcourse，atahigherprice。
Theworkers，towhomhigherwageswererefused，struckwork，andtheBrickmakers’
Uniondeclaredwaruponthefirm。Thefirm，meanwhile，succeededwithgreatdifficultyinsecuringhandsfromtheneighbourhood，andamongtheknobsticks，againstwhominthebeginningintimidationwasused；theproprietorssettwelvementoguardtheyard，allex-soldiersandpolicemen，armedwithguns。Whenintimidationprovedunavailing，thebrick-yard，whichlayscarcelyfourhundredpacesfromaninfantrybarracks，wasstormedatteno’clockonenightbyacrowdofbrickmakers，whoadvancedinmilitaryorder，thefirstranksarmedwithguns。Theyforcedtheirwayin，fireduponthewatchmenassoonastheysawthem，stampedoutthewetbricksspreadouttodry，toredownthepiled-uprowsofthosealreadydry，demolishedeverythingwhichcameintheirway，pressedintoabuilding，wheretheydestroyedthefurnitureandmaltreatedthewifeoftheoverlookerwhowaslivingthere。Thewatchmen，meanwhile，hadplacedthemselvesbehindahedge，whencetheycouldfiresafelyandwithoutinterruption。Theassailantsstoodbeforeaburningbrick-kiln，whichthrewabrightlightuponthem，sothateveryballoftheirenemiesstruckhome，whileeveryoneoftheirownshotsmisseditsmark。Nevertheless，thefiringlastedhalf-an-hour，untiltheammunitionwasexhausted，andtheobjectofthevisit——thedemolitionofallthedestructibleobjectsintheyard——wasattained。Thenthemilitaryapproached，andthebrickmakerswithdrewtoEccles，threemilesfromManchester。A
shorttimebeforereachingEcclestheyheldroll-call，andeachmanwascalledaccordingtohisnumberinthesectionwhentheyseparated，onlytofallthemorecertainlyintothehandsofthepolice，whowereapproachingfromallsides。Thenumberofthewoundedmusthavebeenveryconsiderable，butthoseonlycouldbecountedwhowerearrested。Oneofthesehadreceivedthreebullets(inthethigh，thecalf，andtheshoulder)，andhadtravelledinspiteofthemmorethanfourmilesonfoot。Thesepeoplehaveprovedthatthey，too，possessrevolutionarycourage，anddonotshunarainofbullets。Andwhenanunarmedmultitude，withoutapreciseaimcommontothemall，areheldincheckinashut-offmarket-place，whoseoutletsareguardedbyacoupleofpolicemenanddragoons，ashappenedin1842，thisbynomeansprovesawantofcourage。Onthecontrary，themultitudewouldhavestirredquiteaslittleiftheservantsofpublic(i。e。，ofthebourgeois)
orderhadnotbeenpresent。Wheretheworking-peoplehaveaspecificendinview，theyshowcourageenough；as，forinstance，intheattackuponBirley’smill，whichhadlatertobeprotectedbyartillery。
Inthisconnection，awordortwoastotherespectforthelawinEngland。
True，thelawissacredtothebourgeois，foritishisowncomposition，enactedwithhisconsent，andforhisbenefitandprotection。Heknowsthat，evenifanindividuallawshouldinjurehim，thewholefabricprotectshisinterests；andmorethanall，thesanctityofthelaw，thesacrednessoforderasestablishedbytheactivewillofonepartofsociety，andthepassiveacceptanceoftheother，isthestrongestsupportofhissocialposition。BecausetheEnglishbourgeoisfindshimselfreproducedinhislaw，ashedoesinhisGod，thepoliceman’struncheonwhich，inacertainmeasure，ishisownclub，hasforhimawonderfullysoothingpower。Butfortheworking-manquiteotherwise！Theworking-manknowstoowell，haslearnedfromtoooft-repeatedexperience，thatthelawisarodwhichthebourgeoishaspreparedforhim；andwhenheisnotcompelledtodoso，heneverappealstothelaw。ItisridiculoustoassertthattheEnglishworking-manfearsthepolice，wheneveryweekinManchesterpolicemenarebeaten，andlastyearanattemptwasmadetostormastation-housesecuredbyirondoorsandshutters。Thepowerofthepoliceintheturnoutof1842
lay，asIhavealreadysaid，inthewantofaclearlydefinedobjectonthepartoftheworking-menthemselves。
Sincetheworking-mendonotrespectthelaw，butsimplysubmittoitspowerwhentheycannotchangeit，itismostnaturalthattheyshouldatleastproposealterationsinit，thattheyshouldwishtoputaproletarianlawintheplaceofthelegalfabricofthebourgeoisie。ThisproposedlawisthePeople’sCharter，whichinformispurelypolitical，anddemandsademocraticbasisfortheHouseofCommons。Chartismisthecompactformoftheiroppositiontothebourgeoisie。IntheUnionsandturnoutsoppositionalwaysremainedisolated:itwassingleworking-menorsectionswhofoughtasinglebourgeois。Ifthefightbecamegeneral，thiswasscarcelybytheintentionoftheworking-men；or，whenitdidhappenintentionally，Chartismwasatthebottomofit。ButinChartismitisthewholeworking-classwhicharisesagainstthebourgeoisie，andattacks，firstofall，thepoliticalpower，thelegislativerampartwithwhichthebourgeoisiehassurroundeditself。ChartismhasproceededfromtheDemocraticpartywhicharosebetween1780and1790withandintheproletariat，gainedstrengthduringtheFrenchRevolution，andcameforthafterthepeaceastheRadicalparty。IthaditsheadquarterstheninBirminghamandManchester，andlaterinLondon；
extortedtheReformBillfromtheOligarchsoftheoldParliamentbyaunionwiththeLiberalbourgeoisie，andhassteadilyconsolidateditself，sincethen，asamoreandmorepronouncedworking-men’spartyinoppositiontothebourgeoisie。In1858acommitteeoftheGeneralWorking-men’sAssociationofLondon，withWilliamLovettatitshead，drewupthePeople’sCharter，whosesixpointsareasfollows:(1)Universalsuffrageforeverymanwhoisofage，saneandunconvictedofcrime；(2)AnnualParliaments；(3)PaymentofmembersofParliament，toenablepoormentostandforelection；(4)
Votingbyballottopreventbriberyandintimidationbythebourgeoisie；
(5)Equalelectoraldistrictstosecureequalrepresentation；and(6)Abolitionoftheevennowmerelynominalpropertyqualificationof£；300inlandforcandidatesinordertomakeeveryvotereligible。Thesesixpoints，whicharealllimitedtothereconstitutionoftheHouseofCommons，harmlessastheyseem，aresufficienttooverthrowthewholeEnglishConstitution，QueenandLordsincluded。Theso-calledmonarchicalandaristocraticelementsoftheConstitutioncanmaintainthemselvesonlybecausethebourgeoisiehasaninterestinthecontinuanceoftheirshamexistence；andmorethanashamexistenceneitherpossessestoday。ButassoonasrealpublicopinioninitstotalitybackstheHouseofCommons，assoonastheHouseofCommonsincorporatesthewill，notofthebourgeoisiealone，butofthewholenation，itwillabsorbthewholepowersocompletelythatthelasthalomustfallfromtheheadofthemonarchandthearistocracy。TheEnglishworking-manrespectsneitherLordsnorQueen。Thebourgeois，whileinrealityallowingthembutlittleinfluence，yetofferstothempersonallyashamworship。
TheEnglishChartistispoliticallyarepublican，thoughherarelyornevermentionstheword，whilebesympathiseswiththerepublicanpartiesofallcountries，andcallshimselfinpreferenceademocrat。Butheismorethanamererepublican，hisdemocracyisnotsimplypolitical。
Chartismwasfromthebeginningof1835chieflyamovementamongtheworking-men，thoughnotyetsharplyseparatedfromthebourgeoisie。TheRadicalismoftheworkerswenthandinhandwiththeRadicalismofthebourgeoisie；theCharterwastheshibbolethofboth。TheyheldtheirNationalConventioneveryyearincommon，seemingtobeoneparty。Thelowermiddle-classwasjusttheninaverybellicoseandviolentstateofmindinconsequenceofthedisappointmentovertheReformBillandofthebadbusinessyearsof1837-1839，andviewedtheboisterousChartistagitationwithaveryfavourableeye。OfthevehemenceofthisagitationnooneinGermanyhasanyidea。Thepeoplewerecalledupontoarmthemselves，werefrequentlyurgedtorevolt；pikesweregotready，asintheFrenchRevolution，andin1838，oneStephens，aMethodistparson，saidtotheassembledworking-
peopleofManchester:”YouhavenoneedtofearthepowerofGovernment，thesoldiers，bayonets，andcannonthatareatthedisposalofyouroppressors；youhaveaweaponthatisfarmightierthanallthese，aweaponagainstwhichbayonetsandcannonarepowerless，andachildoftenyearscanwieldit。Youhaveonlytotakeacoupleofmatchesandabundleofstrawdippedinpitch，andIwillseewhattheGovernmentanditshundredsofthousandsofsoldierswilldoagainstthisoneweaponifitisusedboldly。”Asearlyasthatyearthepeculiarlysocialcharacteroftheworking-men’sChartismmanifesteditself。ThesameStephenssaid，inameetingof200，000
menonKersallMoor，theMonsSacerofManchester:”Chartism，myfriends，isnopoliticalmovement，wherethemainpointisyourgettingtheballot。Chartismisaknifeandforkquestion:
theChartermeansagoodhouse，goodfoodanddrink，prosperity，andshortworking-hours。”ThemovementsagainsttheNewPoorLawandfortheTenHours’BillwerealreadyintheclosestrelationtoChartism。InallthemeetingsofthattimetheToryOastlerwasactive，andhundredsofpetitionsforimprovementsofthesocialconditionsoftheworkerswerecirculatedalongwiththenationalpetitionforthePeople’sCharteradoptedinBirmingham。In1839
theagitationcontinuedasvigorouslyasever，andwhenitbegantorelaxsomewhatattheendoftheyear，Bussey，Taylor，andFrosthastenedtocallforthuprisingssimultaneouslyintheNorthofEngland，inYorkshire，andWales。Frost’splanbeingbetrayed，hewasobligedtoopenhostilitiesprematurely。ThoseintheNorthheardofthefailureofhisattemptintimetowithdraw。Twomonthslater，inJanuary，1840，severalso-calledspyoutbreakstookplaceinSheffieldandBradford，inYorkshire，andtheexcitementgraduallysubsided。Meanwhilethebourgeoisieturneditsattentiontomorepracticalprojects，moreprofitableforitself，namelytheCornLaws。TheAnti-Corn-LawAssociationwasformedinManchester，andtheconsequencewasarelaxationofthetiebetweentheRadicalbourgeoisieandtheproletariat。
Theworking-mensoonperceivedthatforthemtheabolitionoftheCornLawscouldbeoflittleuse，whileveryadvantageoustothebourgeoisie；
andtheycouldthereforenotbewonfortheproject。
Thecrisisof1842cameon。Agitationwasoncemoreasvigorousasin1839。Butthistimetherichmanufacturingbourgeoisie，whichwassufferingseverelyunderthisparticularcrisis，tookpartinit。TheAnti-CornLawLeague，asitwasnowcalled，assumedadecidedlyrevolutionarytone。Itsjournalsandagitatorsusedundisguisedlyrevolutionarylanguage，oneverygoodreasonforwhichwasthefactthattheConservativepartyhadbeeninpowersince1841。AstheChartistshadpreviouslydone，thesebourgeoisleaderscalleduponthepeopletorebel；andtheworking-menwhohadmosttosufferfromthecrisiswerenotinactive，astheyear’snationalpetitionfortheCharterwithitsthreeandahalfmillionsignaturesproves。Inshort，ifthetwoRadicalpartieshadbeensomewhatestranged，theyalliedthemselvesoncemore。AtameetingofLiberalsandChartistsheldinManchester，February14th，1842，apetitionurgingtherepealoftheCornLawsandtheadoptionoftheCharterwasdrawnup。Thenextdayitwasadoptedbybothparties。Thespringandsummerpassedamidstviolentagitationandincreasingdistress。ThebourgeoisiewasdeterminedtocarrytherepealoftheCornLawswiththehelpofthecrisis，thewantwhichitentailed，andthegeneralexcitement。Atthistime，theConservativesbeinginpower，theLiberalbourgeoisiehalfabandonedtheirlaw-abidinghabits；theywishedtobringaboutarevolutionwiththehelpoftheworkers。Theworking-menweretotakethechestnutsfromthefiretosavethebourgeoisiefromburningtheirownfingers。Theoldideaofa”holymonth”，ageneralstrike，broachedin1839bytheChartists，wasrevived。Thistime，however，itwasnottheworking-menwhowishedtoquitwork，butthemanufacturerswhowishedtoclosetheirmillsandsendtheoperativesintothecountryparishesuponthepropertyofthearistocracy，thusforcingtheToryParliamentandtheToryMinistrytorepealtheCornLaws。Arevoltwouldnaturallyhavefollowed，butthebourgeoisiestoodsafelyinthebackgroundandcouldawaittheresultwithoutcompromisingitselfiftheworstcametotheworst。AttheendofJulybusinessbegantoimprove；itwashightime。Inordernottolosetheopportunity，threefirmsinStaleybridgereducedwagesinspiteoftheimprovement。Whethertheydidsooftheirownmotionorinagreementwithothermanufacturers，especiallythoseoftheLeague，Idonotknow。
Twowithdrewafteratime，butthethird，WilliamBailey&；Brothers，stoodfirm，andtoldtheobjectingoperativesthat”ifthisdidnotpleasethem，theyhadbettergoandplayabit”。Thiscontemptuousanswerthehandsreceivedwithjeers。Theyleftthemill，paradedthroughthetown，andcalleduponalltheirfellowstoquitwork。Inafewhourseverymillstoodidle，andtheoperativesmarchedtoMottramMoortoholdameeting。
ThiswasonAugust5th。August8ththeyproceededtoAshtonandHydefivethousandstrong，closedallthemillsandcoal-pits，andheldmeetings，inwhich，however，thequestiondiscussedwasnot，asthebourgeoisiehadhoped，therepealoftheCornLaws，but，”afairday’swagesforafairday’swork”。August9ththeyproceededtoManchester，unresistedbytheauthorities(allLiberals)，andclosedthemills；onthe11ththeywereinStockport，wheretheymetwiththefirstresistanceastheywerestormingtheworkhouse，thefavouritechildofthebourgeoisie。OnthesamedaytherewasageneralstrikeanddisturbanceinBolton，towhichtheauthoritieshere，too，madenoresistance。Soontheuprisingspreadthroughoutthewholemanufacturingdistrict，andallemployments，exceptharvestingandtheproductionoffood，cametoastandstill。Buttherebelliousoperativeswerequiet。Theyweredrivenintothisrevoltwithoutwishingit。Themanufacturers，withthesingleexceptionoftheToryBirley，inManchester，had，contrarytotheircustom，notopposedit。Thethinghadbegunwithouttheworking-men’shavinganydistinctendinview，forwhichreasontheywereallunitedinthedeterminationnottobeshotatforthebenefitoftheCornLawrepealingbourgeoisie。Fortherest，somewantedtocarrytheCharter，otherswhothoughtthisprematurewishedmerelytosecurethewagesrateof1840。Onthispointthewholeinsurrectionwaswrecked。Ifithadbeenfromthebeginninganintentional，determinedworking-men’sinsurrection，itwouldsurelyhavecarrieditspoint；butthesecrowdswhohadbeendrivenintothestreetsbytheirmasters，againsttheirownwill，andwithnodefinitepurpose，coulddonothing。Meanwhilethebourgeoisie，whichhadnotmovedafingertocarrytheallianceofFebruary15thintoeffect，soonperceivedthattheworking-mendidnotproposetobecomeitstools，andthattheillogicalmannerinwhichithadabandoneditslaw-abidingstandpointthreateneddanger。Itthereforeresumeditslaw-abidingattitude，andplaceditselfuponthesideofGovernmentasagainsttheworking-men。
Itsworeintrustyretainersasspecialconstables(theGermanmerchantsinManchestertookpartinthisceremony，andmarchedinanentirelysuperfluousmannerthroughthecitywiththeircigarsintheirmouthsandthicktruncheonsintheirhands)。ItgavethecommandtofireuponthecrowdinPreston，sothattheunintentionalrevoltofthepeoplestoodallatoncefacetoface，notonlywiththewholemilitarypoweroftheGovernment，butwiththewholeproperty-holdingclassaswell。Theworking-men，whohadnoespecialaim，separatedgradually，andtheinsurrectioncametoanendwithoutevilresults。Later，thebourgeoisiewasguiltyofoneshamefulactafteranother，triedtowhitewashitselfbyexpressingahorrorofpopularviolencebynomeansconsistentwithitsownrevolutionarylanguageofthespring；
laidtheblameofinsurrectionuponChartistinstigators，whereasithaditselfdonemorethanallofthemtogethertobringabouttheuprising；
andresumeditsoldattitudeofsanctifyingthenameofthelawwithashamelessnessperfectlyunequalled。TheChartists，whowereallbutinnocentofbringingaboutthisuprising，whosimplydidwhatthebourgeoisiemeanttodowhentheymadethemostoftheiropportunity，wereprosecutedandconvicted，whilethebourgeoisieescapedwithoutloss，andhad，besides，soldoffitsoldstockofgoodswithadvantageduringthepauseinwork。
Thefruitoftheuprisingwasthedecisiveseparationoftheproletariatfromthebourgeoisie。TheChartistshadnothithertoconcealedtheirdeterminationtocarrytheCharteratallcosts，eventhatofarevolution；thebourgeoisie，whichnowperceived，allatonce，thedangerwithwhichanyviolentchangethreateneditsposition，refusedtohearanythingfurtherofphysicalforce，andproposedtoattainitsendbymoralforce，asthoughthiswereanythingelsethanthedirectorindirectthreatofphysicalforce。’I’hiswasonepointofdissension，thougheventhiswasremovedlaterbytheassertionoftheChartists(whoareatleastasworthyofbeingbelievedasthebourgeoisie)
thatthey，too，refrainedfromappealingtophysicalforce。Thesecondpointofdissensionandthemainone，whichbroughtChartismtolightinitspurity，wastherepealoftheCornLaws。Inthisthebourgeoisiewasdirectlyinterested，theproletariatnot。TheChartiststhereforedividedintotwopartieswhosepoliticalprogrammesagreedliterally，butwhichwereneverthelessthoroughlydifferentandincapableofunion。AttheBirminghamNationalConvention，inJanuary，1843，Sturge，therepresentativeoftheRadicalbourgeoisie，proposedthatthenameoftheCharterbeomittedfromtherulesoftheChartistAssociation，nominallybecausethisnamehadbecomeconnectedwithrecollectionsofviolenceduringtheinsurrection，aconnection，bytheway，whichhadexistedforyears，andagainstwhichMr。Sturgehadhithertoadvancednoobjection。Theworking-menrefusedtodropthename，andwhenMr。Sturgewasoutvoted，thatworthyQuakersuddenlybecameloyal，betookhimselfoutofthehall，andfoundeda”CompleteSuffrageAssociation”withintheRadicalbourgeoisie。SorepugnanthadtheserecollectionsbecometotheJacobinicalbourgeoisie，thathealteredeventhenameUniversalSuffrageintotheridiculoustitle，CompleteSuffrage。
Theworking-menlaughedathimandquietlywenttheirway。
FromthismomentChartismwaspurelyaworking-men’scausefreedfromallbourgeoiselements。The”Complete”journals，theWeeklyDispatch，WeeklyChronicle，Examiner，etc。，fellgraduallyintothesleepytoneoftheotherLiberalsheets，espousedthecauseofFreeTrade，attackedtheTenHours’Billandallexclusivelyworking-men’sdemands，andlettheirRadicalismasawholefallratherintothebackground。TheRadicalbourgeoisiejoinedhandswiththeLiberalsagainsttheworking-menineverycollision，andingeneralmadetheCornLawquestion，whichfortheEnglishistheFreeTradequestion，theirmainbusiness。TheytherebyfellunderthedominionoftheLiberalbourgeoisie，andnowplayamostpitifulrole。
TheChartistworking-men，onthecontrary，espousedwithredoubledzealallthestrugglesoftheproletariatagainstthebourgeoisie。Freecompetitionhascausedtheworkerssufferingenoughtobehatedbythem；itsapostles，thebourgeoisie，aretheirdeclaredenemies。Theworking-manhasonlydisadvantagestoawaitfromthecompletefreedomofcompetition。Thedemandshithertomadebyhim，theTenHours’Bill，protectionoftheworkersagainstthecapitalist，goodwages，aguaranteedposition，repealoftheNewPoorLaw，allofthethingswhichbelongtoChartismquiteasessentiallyasthe”SixPoints”，aredirectlyopposedtofreecompetitionandFreeTrade。
Nowonder，then，thattheworking-menwillnothearofFreeTradeandtherepealoftheCornLaws(afactincomprehensibletothewholeEnglishbourgeoisie)，andwhileatleastwhollyindifferenttotheCornLawquestion，aremostdeeplyembitteredagainstitsadvocates。Thisquestionispreciselythepointatwhichtheproletariatseparatesfromthebourgeoisie，ChartismfromRadicalism；andthebourgeoisunderstandingcannotcomprehendthis，becauseitcannotcomprehendtheproletariat。
ThereinliesthedifferencebetweenChartistdemocracyandallpreviouspoliticalbourgeoisdemocracy。Chartismisofanessentiallysocialnature，aclassmovement。The”SixPoints”whichfortheRadicalbourgeoisarethebeginningandendofthematter，whicharemeant，attheutmost，tocallforthcertainfurtherreformsoftheConstitution，arefortheproletarianameremeanstofurtherends。”Politicalpowerourmeans，socialhappinessourend”，isnowtheclearlyformulatedwar-cryoftheChartists。The”knifeandforkquestion”ofthepreacherStephenswasatruthforapartoftheChartistsonly，in1858；itisatruthforallofthemin1845。ThereisnolongeramerepoliticianamongtheChartists，andeventhoughtheirSocialismisverylittledeveloped，thoughtheirchiefremedyforpovertyhashithertoconsistedintheland-allotmentsystem，whichwassupersededbytheintroductionofmanufacture，thoughtheirchiefpracticalpropositionsareapparentlyofareactionarynature，yettheseverymeasuresinvolvethealternativethattheymusteithersuccumbtothepowerofcompetitiononcemoreandrestoretheoldstateofthings，ortheymustthemselvesentirelyovercomecompetitionandabolishit。Ontheotherhand，thepresentindefinitestateofChartism，theseparationfromthepurelypoliticalparty，involvesthatpreciselythecharacteristicfeature，itssocialaspect，willhavetobefurtherdeveloped。TheapproachtoSocialismcannotfail，especiallywhenthenextcrisisdirectstheworking-menbyforceofsheerwanttosocialinsteadofpoliticalremedies。Andacrisismustfollowthepresentactivestateofindustryandcommercein1847atthelatest，andprobablyin1846；one，too，whichwillfarexceedinextentandviolenceallformercrises。Theworking-menwillcarrytheirCharter，naturally；
butmeanwhiletheywilllearntoseeclearlywithregardtomanypointswhichtheycanmakebymeansofitandofwhichtheynowknowverylittle。
MeanwhiletheSocialistagitationalsogoesforward。EnglishSocialismcomesunderourconsiderationsofaronlyasitaffectstheworking-class。
TheEnglishSocialistsdemandthegradualintroductionofpossessionincommoninhomecoloniesembracingtwotothreethousandpersonswhoshallcarryonbothagricultureandmanufactureandenjoyequalrightsandequaleducation。Theydemandgreaterfacilityofobtainingdivorce，theestablishmentofarationalgovernment，withcompletefreedomofconscienceandtheabolitionofpunishment，thesametobereplacedbyarationaltreatmentoftheoffender。
Thesearetheirpracticalmeasures，theirtheoreticalprinciplesdonotconcernushere。EnglishSocialismarosewithOwen，amanufacturer，andproceedsthereforewithgreatconsiderationtowardthebourgeoisieandgreatinjusticetowardtheproletariatinitsmethods，althoughitculminatesindemandingtheabolitionoftheclassantagonismbetweenbourgeoisieandproletariat。
TheSocialistsarethoroughlytameandpeaceable，acceptourexistingorder，badasitis，sofarastorejectallothermethodsbutthatofwinningpublicopinion。Yettheyaresodogmaticthatsuccessbythismethodisforthem，andfortheirprinciplesasatpresentformulated，utterlyhopeless。Whilebemoaningthedemoralisationofthelowerclasses，theyareblindtotheelementofprogressinthisdissolutionoftheoldsocialorder，andrefusetoacknowledgethatthecorruptionwroughtbyprivateinterestsandhypocrisyintheproperty-holdingclassismuchgreater。
Theyacknowledgenohistoricdevelopment，andwishtoplacethenationinastateofCommunismatonce，overnight，notbytheunavoidablemarchofitspoliticaldevelopmentuptothepointatwhichthistransitionbecomesbothpossibleandnecessary。Theyunderstand，itistrue，whytheworking-manisresentfulagainstthebourgeois，butregardasunfruitfulthisclasshatred，whichis，afterall，theonlymoralincentivebywhichtheworkercanbebroughtnearerthegoal。Theypreachinstead，aphilanthropyanduniversallovefarmoreunfruitfulforthepresentstateofEngland。Theyacknowledgeonlyapsychologicaldevelopment，adevelopmentofmanintheabstract，outofallrelationtothePast，whereasthewholeworldrestsuponthatPast，theindividualmanincluded。Hencetheyaretooabstract，toometaphysical，andaccomplishlittle。Theyarerecruitedinpartfromtheworking-class，ofwhichtheyhaveenlistedbutaverysmallfractionrepresenting，however，itsmosteducatedandsolidelements。Initspresentform，Socialismcanneverbecomethecommoncreedoftheworking-class；
itmustcondescendtoreturnforamomenttotheChartiststandpoint。ButthetrueproletarianSocialismhavingpassedthroughChartism，purifiedofitsbourgeoiselements，assumingtheformwhichithasalreadyreachedinthemindsofmanySocialistsandChartistleaders(whoarenearlyallSocialists)，must，withinashorttime，playaweightypartinthehistoryofthedevelopmentoftheEnglishpeople。EnglishSocialism，thebasisofwhichismuchmoreamplethanthatoftheFrench，isbehinditintheoreticaldevelopment，willhavetorecedeforamomenttotheFrenchstandpointinordertoproceedbeyonditlater。MeanwhiletheFrench，too，willdevelopfarther。EnglishSocialismaffordsthemostpronouncedexpressionoftheprevailingabsenceofreligionamongtheworking-men，anexpressionsopronouncedindeedthatthemassoftheworking-men，beingunconsciouslyandmerelypracticallyirreligious，oftendrawbackbeforeit。Buthere，too，necessitywillforcetheworking-mentoabandontheremnantsofabeliefwhich，astheywillmoreandmoreclearlyperceive，servesonlytomakethemweakandresignedtotheirfate，obedientandfaithfultothevampireproperty-holdingclass。
