Henceitisevidentthattheworking-men’smovementisdividedintotwosections，theChartistsandtheSocialists。TheChartistsaretheoreticallythemorebackward，thelessdeveloped，buttheyaregenuineproletariansallover，therepresentativesoftheirclass。TheSocialistsaremorefar-seeing，proposepracticalremediesagainstdistress，but，proceedingoriginallyfromthebourgeoisie，areforthisreasonunabletoamalgamatecompletelywiththeworking-class。TheunionofSocialismwithChartism，thereproductionofFrenchCommunisminanEnglishmanner，willbethenextstep，andhasalreadybegun。Thenonly，whenthishasbeenachieved，willtheworking-classbethetrueintellectualleaderofEngland。Meanwhile，politicalandsocialdevelopmentwillproceed，andwillfosterthisnewparty，thisnewdepartureofChartism。
Thesedifferentsectionsofworking-men，oftenunited，oftenseparated，TradesUnionists，Chartists，andSocialists，havefoundedontheirownhooknumbersofschoolsandreading-roomsfortheadvancementofeducation。
EverySocialist，andalmosteveryChartistinstitution，hassuchaplace，andsotoohavemanytrades。Herethechildrenreceiveapurelyproletarianeducation，freefromalltheinfluencesofthebourgeoisie；and，inthereading-rooms，proletarianjournalsandbooksalone，oralmostalone，aretobefound。Thesearrangementsareverydangerousforthebourgeoisie，whichhassucceededinwithdrawingseveralsuchinstitutes，”Mechanics’
Institutes”，fromproletarianinfluences，andmakingthemorgansforthedisseminationofthesciencesusefultothebourgeoisie。Herethenaturalsciencesarenowtaught，whichmaydrawtheworking-menawayfromtheoppositiontothebourgeoisie，andperhapsplaceintheirhandsthemeansofmakinginventionswhichbringinmoneyforthebourgeoisie；whilefortheworking-mantheacquaintancewiththenaturalsciencesisutterlyuselessnowwhenittoooftenhappensthathenevergetstheslightestglimpseofNatureinhislargetownwithhislongworking-hours。HerePoliticalEconomyispreached，whoseidolisfreecompetition，andwhosesumandsubstancefortheworking-manisthis，thathecannotdoanythingmorerationalthanresignhimselftostarvation。Herealleducationistame，flabby，subservienttotherulingpoliticsandreligion，sothatfortheworking-manitismerelyaconstantsermonuponquietobedience，passivity，andresignationtohisfate。
Themassofworking-mennaturallyhavenothingtodowiththeseinstitutes，andbetakethemselvestotheproletarianreading-roomsandtothediscussionofmatterswhichdirectlyconcerntheirowninterests，whereupontheself-sufficientbourgeoisiesaysitsDixietsalvavi，andturnswithcontemptfromaclasswhich”preferstheangryrantingofill-meaningdemagoguestotheadvantagesofsolideducation”。That，however，theworking-menappreciatesolideducationwhentheycangetitunmixedwiththeinterestedcantofthebourgeoisie，thefrequentlecturesuponscientific，aesthetic，andeconomicsubjectsprovewhicharedeliveredespeciallyintheSocialistinstitutes，andverywellattended。Ihaveoftenheardworking-men，whosefustianjacketsscarcelyheldtogether，speakupongeological，astronomical，andothersubjects，withmoreknowledgethanmost”cultivated”bourgeoisinGermanypossess。AndinhowgreatameasuretheEnglishproletariathassucceededinattainingindependenteducationisshownespeciallybythefactthattheepoch-makingproductsofmodernphilosophical，political，andpoeticalliteraturearereadbyworking-menalmostexclusively。Thebourgeois，enslavedbysocialconditionsandtheprejudicesinvolvedinthem，trembles，blesses，andcrosseshimselfbeforeeverythingwhichreallypavesthewayforprogress；theproletarianhasopeneyesforit，andstudiesitwithpleasureandsuccess。InthisrespecttheSocialists，especially，havedonewondersfortheeducationoftheproletariat。TheyhavetranslatedtheFrenchmaterialists，Helvetius，Holbach，Diderot，etc。，anddisseminatedthem，withthebestEnglishworks，incheapeditions。Strauss’LifeofJesusandProudhon’sPropertyalsocirculateamongtheworking-menonly。Shelley，thegenius，theprophet，Shelley，andByron，withhisglowingsensualityandhisbittersatireuponourexistingsociety，findmostoftheirreadersintheproletariat；thebourgeoisieownsonlycastratededitions，familyeditions，cutdowninaccordancewiththehypocriticalmoralityoftoday。Thetwogreatpracticalphilosophersoflatestdate，BenthamandGodwin，are，especiallythelatter，almostexclusivelythepropertyoftheproletariat；forthoughBenthamhasaschoolwithintheRadicalbourgeoisie，itisonlytheproletariatandtheSocialistswhohavesucceededindevelopinghisteachingsastepforward。Theproletariathasformeduponthisbasisaliterature，whichconsistschieflyofjournalsandpamphlets，andisfarinadvanceofthewholebourgeoisliteratureinintrinsicworth。
Onthispointmorelater。
Onemorepointremainstobenoticed。Thefactoryoperatives，andespeciallythoseofthecottondistrict，formthenucleusofthelabourmovement。
Lancashire，andespeciallyManchester，istheseatofthemostpowerfulUnions，thecentralpointofChartism，theplacewhichnumbersmostSocialists。
Themorethefactorysystemhastakenpossessionofabranchofindustry，themoretheworking-menemployedinitparticipateinthelabourmovement；
thesharpertheoppositionbetweenworking-menandcapitalists，theclearertheproletarianconsciousnessintheworking-men。ThesmallmastersofBirmingham，thoughtheysufferfromthecrises，stillstanduponanunhappymiddlegroundbetweenproletarianChartismandshopkeepers’Radicalism。
But，ingeneral，alltheworkersemployedinmanufacturearewonforoneformortheotherofresistancetocapitalandbourgeoisie；andallareuniteduponthispoint，thatthey，asworking-men，atitleofwhichtheyareproud，andwhichistheusualformofaddressinChartistmeetings，formaseparateclass，withseparateinterestsandprinciples，withaseparatewayoflookingatthingsincontrastwiththatofallproperty-owners；
andthatinthisclassreposesthestrengthandthecapacityofdevelopmentofthenation。
NOTES
1。”Whatkindofwildjusticemustitbeintheheartsofthesementhatpromptsthem，withcolddeliberation，inconclaveassembled，todoomtheirbrotherworkman，asthedeserterofhisorderandhisorder’scause。todieasatraitoranddeserter；andhavehimexecuted，sincenotbyanypublicjudgeandhangman，thenbyaprivateone；——likeyouroldChivalryFemgericht，andSecret-Tribunal，suddenlyinthisstrangeguisebecomenew；suddenlyrisingoncemoreontheastonishedeye，dressednownotinmail-shirts，butinfustianjackets，meetingnotinWestphalianforestsbutinthepavedGallowgateofGlasgow！……Suchtempermustbewidespread，virulentamongthemany，wheneveninitsworstacme，itcantakesuchaforminafew。”——Carlyle，Chartism，p。40——NotebyEngels。[1]
TheMiningProletariatF。EngelsTHECONDITION
OFTHEWORKING-CLASS
INENGLANDTHEMININGPROLETARIAT
TheproductionofrawmaterialsandfuelforamanufacturesocolossalasthatofEnglandrequiresaconsiderablenumberofworkers。Butofallthematerialsneededforitsindustries(exceptwool，whichbelongstotheagriculturaldistricts)，Englandproducesonlytheminerals:themetalsandthecoal。WhileCornwallpossessesrichcopper，tin，zinc，andleadmines，Staffordshire，Wales，andotherdistrictsyieldgreatquantitiesofiron，andalmostthewholeNorthandWestofEngland，centralScotland，andcertaindistrictsofIreland，produceasuperabundanceofcoal。[1]
IntheCornishminesabout19，000men，and11，000womenandchildrenareemployed，inpartaboveandinpartbelowground。Withintheminesbelowground，menandboysabovetwelveyearsoldareemployedalmostexclusively。
Theconditionoftheseworkersseems，accordingtotheChildren’sEmploymentCommission’sReport，tobecomparativelyendurable，materially，andtheEnglishoftenenoughboastoftheirstrong，boldminers，whofollowtheveinsofmineralbelowthebottomoftheverysea。Butinthematterofthehealthoftheseworkers，thissameChildren’sEmploymentCommission’sReportjudgesdifferently。ItshowsinDr。Barham’sintelligentreporthowtheinhalationofanatmospherecontaininglittleoxygen，andmixedwithdustamidthesmokeofblastingpowder，suchasprevailsinthemines，seriouslyaffectsthelungs，disturbstheactionoftheheart，anddiminishestheactivityofthedigestiveorgans；thatwearingtoil，andespeciallytheclimbingupanddownofladders，uponwhichevenvigorousyoungmenhavetospendinsomeminesmorethananhouraday，andwhichprecedesandfollowsdailywork，contributesgreatlytothedevelopmentoftheseevils，sothatmenwhobeginthisworkinearlyyoutharefarfromreachingthestatureofwomenwhoworkaboveground；thatmanydieyoungofgallopingconsumption，andmostminersatmiddleageofslowconsumption；thattheyageprematurelyandbecomeunfitforworkbetweenthethirty-fifthandforty-fifthyears；thatmanyareattackedbyacuteinflammationsoftherespiratoryorganswhenexposedtothesuddenchangefromthewarmairoftheshaft(afterclimbingtheladderinprofuseperspiration)tothecoldwindaboveground；andthattheseacuteinflammationsareveryfrequentlyfatal。Workaboveground，breakingandsortingtheore，isdonebygirlsandchildren，andisdescribedasverywholesome，beingdoneintheopenair。
IntheNorthofEngland，onthebordersofNorthumberlandandDurham，aretheextensivelead-minesofAlstonMoor。ThereportsfromthisdistrictsagreealmostwhollywiththosefromCornwall。Here，too，therearecomplaintsofwantofoxygen，excessivedust，powdersmoke，carbonicacidgas，andsulphur，intheatmosphereoftheworkings。Inconsequence，theminershere，asinCornwall，aresmallofstature，andnearlyallsufferfromthethirtiethyearthroughoutlifefromchestaffections，whichend，especiallywhenthisworkispersistedin，asisalmostalwaysthecase，inconsumption，sogreatlyshorteningtheaverageoflifeofthesepeople。IftheminersofthisdistrictaresomewhatlongerlivedthanthoseofCornwall，thisisthecase，becausetheydonotentertheminesbeforereachingthenineteenthyear，whileinCornwall，aswehaveseen，thisworkisbeguninthetwelfthyear。Nevertheless，themajoritydiehere，too，betweenfortyandfiftyyearsofage，accordingtomedicaltestimony。Of79miners，whosedeathwasentereduponthepublicregisterofthedistrict，andwhoattainedanaverageof45years，37haddiedofconsumptionand6ofasthma。Inthesurroundingdistricts，Allendale，Stanhope，andMiddleton，theaveragelengthoflifewas49，48，and47yearsrespectively，andthedeathsfromchestaffectionscomposed48，54，and56percentofthewholenumber。
Letuscomparethesefigureswiththeso-calledSwedishtables，detailedtablesofmortalityembracingalltheinhabitantsofSweden，andrecognisedinEnglandasthemostcorrectstandardhithertoattainablefortheaveragelengthoflifeoftheBritishworking-class。Accordingtothem，malepersonswhosurvivethenineteenthyearattainanaverageof571/2years；but，accordingtothis，theNorthofEnglandminersarerobbedbytheirworkofanaverageoftenyearsoflife。YettheSwedishtablesareacceptedasthestandardoflongevityoftheworkers，andpresent，therefore，theaveragechancesoflifeasaffectedbytheunfavourableconditionsinwhichtheproletariatlives，astandardoflongevitylessthanthenormalone。Inthisdistrictwefindagainthelodging-housesandsleeping-placeswithwhichwehavealreadybecomeacquaintedinthetowns，andinquiteasfilthy，disgusting，andovercrowdedastateasthere。CommissionerMitchellvisitedonesuchsleepingbarrack，18feetlong，15feetwide，andarrangedforthereceptionof42menand14boys，or56personsaltogether，one-halfofwhomsleptabovetheotherinberthsasonshipboard。Therewasnoopeningfortheescapeofthefoulair；and，althoughnoonehadsleptinthispenforthreenightsprecedingthevisit，thesmellandtheatmosphereweresuchthatCommissionerMitchellcouldnotendureitamoment。Whatmustitbethroughahotsummernight，withfifty-sixoccupants？AndthisisnotthesteerageofanAmericanslaveship，itisthedwellingoffree-bornBritons！
LetusturnnowtothemostimportantbranchofBritishmining，theironandcoal-mines，whichtheChildren’sEmploymentCommissiontreatsincommon，andwithallthedetailwhichtheimportanceofthesubjectdemands。Nearlythewholeofthefirstpartofthisreportisdevotedtotheconditionoftheworkersemployedinthesemines。AfterthedetaileddescriptionwhichIhavefurnishedofthestateoftheindustrialworkers，Ishall，however，beabletobeasbriefindealingwiththissubjectasthescopeofthepresentworkrequires。
Inthecoalandironmineswhichareworkedinprettymuchthesameway，childrenoffour，five，andsevenyearsareemployed。Theyaresettotransportingtheoreorcoalloosenedbytheminerfromitsplacetothehorse-pathorthemainshaft，andtoopeningandshuttingthedoors(whichseparatethedivisionsofthemineandregulateitsventilation)
forthepassageofworkersandmaterial。Forwatchingthedoorsthesmallestchildrenareusuallyemployed，whothuspasstwelvehoursdaily，inthedark，alone，sittingusuallyindamppassageswithoutevenhavingworkenoughtosavethemfromthestupefying，brutalisingtediumofdoingnothing。
Thetransportofcoalandiron-stone，ontheotherhand，isveryhardlabour，thestuffbeingshovedinlargetubs，withoutwheels，overtheunevenfloorofthemine；oftenovermoistclay，orthroughwater，andfrequentlyupsteepinclinesandthroughpathssolow-roofedthattheworkersareforcedtocreeponhandsandknees。Forthismorewearinglabour，therefore，olderchildrenandhalf-growngirlsareemployed。Onemanortwoboyspertubareemployed，accordingtocircumstances；and，iftwoboys，onepushesandtheotherpulls。Thelooseningoftheoreorcoal，whichisdonebymenorstrongyouthsofsixteenyearsormore，isalsoverywearywork。
Theusualworking-dayiseleventotwelvehours，oftenlonger；inScotlanditreachesfourteenhours，anddoubletimeisfrequent，whenalltheemployeesareatworkbelowgroundtwenty-four，andeventhirty-sixhoursatastretch。
Settimesformealsarealmostunknown，sothatthesepeopleeatwhenhungerandtimepermit。
Thestandardoflivingoftheminersisingeneraldescribedasfairlygoodandtheirwageshighincomparisonwiththoseoftheagriculturallabourerssurroundingthem(who，however，liveatstarvationrates)，exceptincertainpartsofScotlandandintheIrishmines，wheregreatmiseryprevails。Weshallhaveoccasiontoreturnlatertothisstatement，which，bytheway，ismerelyrelative，implyingcomparisontothepoorestclassinallEngland。Meanwhile，weshallconsidertheevilswhicharisefromthepresentmethodofmining，andthereadermayjudgewhetheranypayinmoneycanindemnifytheminerforsuchsuffering。
Thechildrenandyoungpeoplewhoareemployedintransportingcoalandiron-stoneallcomplainofbeingovertired。Eveninthemostrecklesslyconductedindustrialestablishmentsthereisnosuchuniversalandexaggeratedoverwork。Thewholereportprovesthis，withanumberofexamplesoneverypage。Itisconstantlyhappeningthatchildrenthrowthemselvesdownonthestonehearthorthefloorassoonastheyreachhome，fallasleepatoncewithoutbeingabletotakeabiteoffood，andhavetobewashedandputtobedwhileasleep；itevenhappensthattheyliedownonthewayhome，andarefoundbytheirparentslateatnightasleepontheroad。
ItseemstobeauniversalpracticeamongthesechildrentospendSundayinbedtorecoverinsomedegreefromtheoverexertionoftheweek。Churchandschoolarevisitedbybutfew，andevenofthesetheteacherscomplainoftheirgreatsleepinessandthewantofalleagernesstolearn。Thesamethingistrueoftheeldergirlsandwomen。Theyareoverworkedinthemostbrutalmanner。Thisweariness，whichisalmostalwayscarriedtoamostpainfulpitch，cannotfailtoaffecttheconstitution。Thefirstresultofsuchoverexertionisthediversionofvitalitytotheone-sideddevelopmentofthemuscles，sothatthoseespeciallyofthearms，legs，andback，oftheshouldersandchest，whicharechieflycalledintoactivityinpushingandpulling，attainanuncommonlyvigorousdevelopment，whilealltherestofthebodysuffersandisatrophiedfromwantofnourishment。Morethanallelsethestaturesuffers，beingstuntedandretarded；nearlyallminersareshort，exceptthoseofLeicestershireandWarwickshire，whoworkunderexceptionallyfavourableconditions。Further，amongboysaswellasgirls，pubertyisretarded，amongtheformeroftenuntiltheeighteenthyear；
indeed，anineteenyearsoldboyappearedbeforeCommissionerSymons，showingnoevidencebeyondthatoftheteeth，thathewasmorethanelevenortwelveyearsold。Thisprolongationoftheperiodofchildhoodisatbottomnothingmorethanasignofcheckeddevelopment，whichdoesnotfailtobearfruitinlateryears。Distortionsofthelegs，kneesbentinwardsandfeetbentoutwards，deformitiesofthespinalcolumnandothermalformations，appearthemorereadilyinconstitutionsthusweakened，inconsequenceofthealmostuniversallyconstrainedpositionduringwork；andtheyaresofrequentthatinYorkshireandLancashire，asinNorthumberlandandDurham，theassertionismadebymanywitnesses，notonlybyphysicians，thataminermayberecognisedbyhisshapeamongahundredotherpersons。Thewomenseemtosufferespeciallyfromthiswork，andareseldom，ifever，asstraightasotherwomen。Thereistestimonyhere，too，tothefactthatdeformitiesofthepelvisandconsequentdifficult，evenfatal，child-bearingarisefromtheworkofwomeninthemines。Butapartfromtheselocaldeformities，thecoal-minerssufferfromanumberofspecialaffectionseasilyexplainedbythenatureofthework。Diseasesofthedigestiveorgansarefirstinorder；wantofappetite，painsinthestomach，nausea，andvomiting，aremostfrequent，withviolentthirst，whichcanbequenchedonlywiththedirty，lukewarmwaterofthemine；thedigestionischeckedandalltheotheraffectionsarethusinvited。Diseasesoftheheart，especiallyhypertrophy，inflammationoftheheartandpericardium，contractionoftheauriculo-ventricularcommunicationsandtheentranceoftheaortaarealsomentionedrepeatedlyasdiseasesoftheminers，andarereadilyexplainedbyoverwork；andthesameistrueofthealmostuniversalrupturewhichisadirectconsequenceofprotractedoverexertion。Inpartfromthesamecauseandinpartfromthebad，dust-filledatmospheremixedwithcarbonicacidandhydrocarbongas，whichmightsoreadilybeavoided，therearisenumerouspainfulanddangerousaffectionsofthelungs，especiallyasthma，whichinsomedistrictsappearsinthefortieth，inothersinthethirtiethyearinmostoftheminers，andmakesthemunfitforworkinashorttime。Amongthoseemployedinwetworkingstheoppressioninthechestnaturallyappearsmuchearlier；
insomedistrictsofScotlandbetweenthetwentiethandthirtiethyears，duringwhichtimetheaffectedlungsareespeciallysusceptibletoinflammationsanddiseasesofafeverishnature。Thepeculiardiseaseofworkersofthissortis”blackspittle”，whicharisesfromthesaturationofthewholelungwithcoalparticles，andmanifestsitselfingeneraldebility，headache，oppressionofthechest，andthick，blackmucousexpectoration。Insomedistrictsthisdiseaseappearsinamildform；inothers，onthecontrary，itiswhollyincurable，especiallyinScotland。Here，besidesthesymptomsjustmentioned，whichappearinanintensifiedform，short，wheezingbreathing，rapidpulse(exceeding100perminute)，andabruptcoughing，withincreasingleannessanddebility，speedilymakethepatientunfitforwork。Everycaseofthisdiseaseendsfatally。Dr。Mackellar，inPencaitland，EastLothian，testifiedthatinallthecoal-mineswhichareproperlyventilatedthisdiseaseisunknown，whileitfrequentlyhappensthatminerswhogofromwell-toill-ventilatedminesareseizedbyit。Theprofit-greedofmineownerswhichpreventstheuseofventilatorsisthereforeresponsibleforthefact，thatthisworking-men’sdiseaseexistsatall。Rheumatism，too，is，withtheexceptionoftheWarwickandLeicestershireworkers，auniversaldiseaseofthecoal-miners，andarisesespeciallyfromthefrequentlydampworking-places。Theconsequenceofallthesediseasesisthat，inalldistrictswithoutexception，thecoal-minersageearlyandbecomeunfitforworksoonafterthefortiethyear，thoughthisisdifferentindifferentplaces。Acoal-minerwhocanfollowhiscallingafterthe45thor50thyearisaverygreatrarityindeed。Itisuniversallyrecognisedthatsuchworkersenteruponoldageatforty。Thisappliestothosewholoosenthecoalfromthebed；theloaders，whohaveconstantlytoliftheavyblocksofcoalintothetubs，agewiththetwenty-eighthorthirtiethyear，sothatitisproverbialinthecoal-miningdistrictsthattheloadersareoldbeforetheyareyoung。Thatthisprematureoldageisfollowedbytheearlydeathofthecolliersisamatterofcourse，andamanwhoreachessixtyisagreatexceptionamongthem。EveninSouthStaffordshire，wheretheminesarecomparativelywholesome，fewmenreachtheirfifty-firstyear。Alongwiththisearlysuperannuationoftheworkerswenaturallyfind，justasinthecaseofthemills，frequentlackofemploymentoftheeldermen，whoareoftensupportedbyveryyoungchildren。Ifwesumupbrieflytheresultsoftheworkincoal-mines，wefind，asDr。SouthwoodSmith，oneofthecommissioners，does，thatthroughprolongedchildhoodontheonehandandprematureageontheother，thatperiodoflifeinwhichthehumanbeingisinfullpossessionofhispowers，theperiodofmanhood，isgreatlyshortened，whilethelengthoflifeingeneralisbelowtheaverage。This，too，onthedebitsideofthebourgeoisie’sreckoning！
AllthisdealsonlywiththeaverageoftheEnglishcoal-mines。Buttherearemanyinwhichthestateofthingsismuchworse，those，namely，inwhichthinseamsofcoalareworked。Thecoalwouldbetooexpensiveifapartoftheadjacentsandandclaywereremoved；sothemineownerspermitonlytheseamstobeworked；wherebythepassageswhichelsewherearefourorfivefeethighandmoreareherekeptsolowthattostanduprightinthemisnottobethoughtof。Theworking-manliesonhissideandloosensthecoalwithhispick；restinguponhiselbowasapivot，whencefollowinflammationsofthejoint，andincaseswhereheisforcedtokneel，ofthekneealso。Thewomenandchildrenwhohavetotransportthecoalcrawlupontheirhandsandknees，fastenedtothetubbyaharnessandchain(whichfrequentlypassesbetweenthelegs)，whileamanbehindpusheswithhandsandhead。Thepushingwiththeheadengenderslocalirritations，painfulswellings，andulcers。Inmanycases，too，theshaftsarewet，sothattheseworkershavetocrawlthroughdirtyorsaltwaterseveralinchesdeep，beingthusexposedtoaspecialirritationoftheskin。Itcanbereadilyimaginedhowgreatlythediseasesalreadypeculiartotheminersarefosteredbythisespeciallyfrightful，slavishtoil。
Butthesearenotalltheevilswhichdescendupontheheadofthecoal-miner。
InthewholeBritishEmpirethereisnooccupationinwhichamanmaymeethisendinsomanydiversewaysasinthisone。Thecoal-mineisthesceneofamultitudeofthemostterrifyingcalamities，andthesecomedirectlyfromtheselfishnessofthebourgeoisie。Thehydrocarbongaswhichdevelopssofreelyinthesemines，forms，whencombinedwithatmosphericair，anexplosivewhichtakesfireuponcomingintocontactwithaflame，andkillseveryonewithinitsreach。Suchexplosionstakeplace，inonemineoranother，nearlyeveryday；onSeptember28th，1844，onekilled96meninHaswellColliery，Durham。Thecarbonicacidgas，whichalsodevelopsingreatquantities，accumulatesinthedeeperpartsofthemine，frequentlyreachingtheheightofaman，andsuffocateseveryonewhogetsintoit。
Thedoorswhichseparatethesectionsoftheminesaremeanttopreventthepropagationofexplosionsandthemovementofthegases；butsincetheyareentrustedtosmallchildren，whooftenfallasleeporneglectthem，thismeansofpreventionisillusory。Aproperventilationoftheminesbymeansoffreshair-shaftscouldalmostentirelyremovetheinjuriouseffectsofboththesegases。Butforthispurposethebourgeoisiehasnomoneytospare，preferringtocommandtheworking-mentousetheDavylamp，whichiswhollyuselessbecauseofitsdulllight，andis，therefore，usuallyreplacedbyacandle。Ifanexplosionoccurs，therecklessnessoftheminerisblamed，thoughthebourgeoismighthavemadetheexplosionwell-nighimpossiblebysupplyinggoodventilation。Further，everyfewdaystheroofofaworkingfallsin，andburiesormanglestheworkersemployedinit。
Itistheinterestofthebourgeoistohavetheseamsworkedoutascompletelyaspossible，andhencetheaccidentsofthissort。Then，too，theropesbywhichthemendescendintotheminesareoftenrotten，andbreak，sothattheunfortunatesfall，andarecrushed。Alltheseaccidents，andI
havenoroomforspecialcases，carryoffyearly，accordingtotheMiningJournal，somefourteenhundredhumanbeings。TheManchesterGuardianreportsatleasttwoorthreeaccidentseveryweekforLancashirealone。
Innearlyallminingdistrictsthepeoplecomposingthecoroner’sjuriesare，inalmostallcases，dependentuponthemineowners，andwherethisisnotthecase，immemorialcustominsuresthattheverdictshallbe:”AccidentalDeath”。Besides，thejurytakesverylittleinterestinthestateofthemine，becauseitdoesnotunderstandanythingaboutthematter。ButtheChildren’sEmploymentCommissiondoesnothesitatetomakethemineownersdirectlyresponsibleforthegreaternumberofthesecases。
Astotheeducationandmoralsoftheminingpopulation，theyare，accordingtotheChildren’sEmploymentCommission，prettygoodinCornwall，andexcellentinAlstonMoor；inthecoaldistricts，ingeneral，theyare，onthecontrary，reportedasonanexcessivelylowplane。Theworkersliveinthecountryinneglectedregions，andiftheydotheirwearywork，nohumanbeingoutsidethepoliceforcetroubleshimselfaboutthem。Hence，andfromthetenderageatwhichchildrenareputtowork，itfollowsthattheirmentaleducationiswhollyneglected。Thedayschoolsarenotwithintheirreach，theeveningandSundayschoolsmereshams，theteachersworthless。Hence，fewcanreadandstillfewerwrite。Theonlypointuponwhichtheireyesareasyetopenisthefactthattheirwagesarefartoolowfortheirhatefulanddangerouswork。Tochurchtheygoseldomornever；alltheclergycomplainoftheirirreligionasbeyondcomparison。Asamatteroffact，theirignoranceofreligiousandofsecularthings，alike，issuchthattheignoranceofthefactoryoperatives，showninnumerousexamplesintheforegoingpages，istriflingincomparisonwithit。Thecategoriesofreligionareknowntothemonlyfromthetermsoftheiroaths。Theirmoralityisdestroyedbytheirworkitself。Thattheoverworkofallminersmustengenderdrunkennessisself-evident。Astotheirsexualrelations，men，women，andchildrenworkinthemines，inmanycases，whollynaked，andinmostcases，nearlyso，byreasonoftheprevailingheat，andtheconsequencesinthedark，lonelyminesmaybeimagined。Thenumberofillegitimatechildrenisheredisproportionatelylarge，andindicateswhatgoesonamongthehalf-savagepopulationbelowground；butprovestoo，thattheillegitimateintercourseofthesexeshasnothere，asinthegreatcities，sunktothelevelofprostitution。Thelabourofwomenentailsthesameconsequencesasinthefactories，dissolvesthefamily，andmakesthemothertotallyincapableofhouseholdwork。
WhentheChildren’sEmploymentCommission’sReportwaslaidbeforeParliament，LordAshleyhastenedtobringinabillwhollyforbiddingtheworkofwomeninthemines，andgreatlylimitingthatofchildren。Thebillwasadopted，buthasremainedadeadletterinmostdistricts，becausenomineinspectorswereappointedtowatchoveritsbeingcarriedintoeffect。Theevasionofthelawisveryeasyinthecountrydistrictsinwhichtheminesaresituated；andnooneneedbesurprisedthattheMiners’UnionlaidbeforetheHomeSecretaryanofficialnotice，lastyear，thatintheDukeofHamilton’scoal-minesinScotland，morethansixtywomenwereatwork；orthattheManchesterGuardianreportedthatagirlperishedinanexplosioninaminenearWigan，andnoonetroubledhimselffurtheraboutthefactthataninfringementofthelawwasthusrevealed。Insinglecasestheemploymentofwomenmayhavebeendiscontinued，butingeneraltheoldstateofthingsremainsasbefore。
Theseare，however，notalltheafflictionsknowntothecoal-miners。
Thebourgeoisie，notcontentwithruiningthehealthofthesepeople，keepingthemindangerofsuddenlossoflife，robbingthemofallopportunityforeducation，plunderstheminotherdirectionsinthemostshamelessmanner。Thetrucksystemisheretherule，nottheexception，andiscarriedoninthemostdirectandundisguisedmanner。Thecottagesystem，likewise，isuniversal，andherealmostanecessity；butitisusedhere，too，forthebetterplunderingoftheworkers。Tothesemeansofoppressionmustbeaddedallsortsofdirectcheating。Whilecoalissoldbyweight，theworker’swagesarereckonedchieflybymeasure；andwhenhistubisnotperfectlyfullhereceivesnopaywhatever，whilehegetsnotafarthingforovermeasure。Ifthereismorethanaspecifiedquantityofdustinthetub，amatterwhichdependsmuchlessupontheminerthanuponthenatureoftheseam，henotonlyloseshiswholewagebutisfinedbesides。
Thefinesystemingeneralissohighlyperfectedinthecoal-mines，thatapoordevilwhohasworkedthewholeweekandcomesforhiswages，sometimeslearnsfromtheoverseer，whofinesatdiscretionandwithoutsummoningtheworkers，thathenotonlyhasnowagesbutmustpaysoandsomuchinfinesextra！Theoverseerhas，ingeneral，absolutepoweroverwages；
henotestheworkdone，andcanpleasehimselfastowhathepaystheworker，whoisforcedtotakehisword。Insomemines，wherethepayisaccordingtoweight，falsedecimalscalesareused，whoseweightsarenotsubjecttotheinspectionoftheauthorities；inonecoal-minetherewasactuallyaregulationthatanyworkmanwhointendedtocomplainofthefalsenessofthescalesmustgivenoticetotheoverseerthreeweeksinadvance！Inmanydistricts，especiallyintheNorthofEngland，itiscustomarytoengagetheworkersbytheyear；theypledgethemselvestoworkfornootheremployerduringthattime，butthemineownerbynomeanspledgeshimselftogivethemwork，sothattheyareoftenwithoutitformonthstogether，andiftheyseekelsewhere，theyaresenttothetreadmillforsixweeksforbreachofcontract。Inothercontracts，worktotheamountof26s。every14days，ispromisedtheminers，butnotfurnished；inothersstill，theemployersadvancetheminerssmallsumstobeworkedoutafterwards，thusbindingthedebtorstothemselves。IntheNorth，thecustomisgeneralofkeepingthepaymentofwagesoneweekbehindhand，chainingtheminersinthiswaytotheirwork。Andtocompletetheslaveryoftheseenthralledworkers，nearlyalltheJusticesofthePeaceinthecoaldistrictsaremineownersthemselves，orrelativesorfriendsofmineowners，andpossessalmostunlimitedpowerinthesepoor，uncivilisedregionswheretherearefewnewspapers，thesefewintheserviceoftherulingclass，andbutlittleotheragitation。Itisalmostbeyondconceptionhowthesepoorcoal-minershavebeenplunderedandtyrannisedoverbyJusticesofthePeaceactingasjudgesintheirowncause。
Soitwentonforalongtime。Theworkersdidnotknowanybetterthanthattheywerethereforthepurposeofbeingswindledoutoftheirverylives。Butgradually，evenamongthem，andespeciallyinthefactorydistricts，wherecontactwiththemoreintelligentoperativescouldnotfailofitseffect，therearoseaspiritofoppositiontotheshamelessoppressionofthe”coalkings”。ThemenbegantoformUnionsandstrikefromtimetotime。InciviliseddistrictstheyjoinedtheChartistsbodyandsoul。
ThegreatcoaldistrictoftheNorthofEngland，shutofffromallindustrialintercourse，remainedbackwarduntil，aftermanyefforts，partlyoftheChartistsandpartlyofthemoreintelligentminersthemselves，ageneralspiritofoppositionarosein1843。SuchamovementseizedtheworkersofNorthumberlandandDurhamthattheyplacedthemselvesattheforefrontofageneralUnionofcoal-minersthroughoutthekingdom，andappointedW。P。Roberts，aChartistsolicitor，ofBristol，their”AttorneyGeneral”，hehavingdistinguishedhimselfinearlierChartisttrials。TheUnionsoonspreadoveragreatmajorityofthedistricts；agentswereappointedinalldirections，whoheldmeetingseverywhereandsecurednewmembers；atthefirstconferenceofdelegates，inManchester，in1844，therewere60，000
membersrepresented，andatGlasgow，sixmonthslater，atthesecondconference，100，000。Herealltheaffairsofthecoal-minerswerediscussedanddecisionsastothegreaterstrikesarrivedat。Severaljournalswerefounded，especiallytheMiner’sAdvocateatNewcastle-upon-Tyne，fordefendingtherightsoftheminers。OnMarch31st，1844，thecontractsofalltheminersofNorthumberlandandDurhamexpired。Robertswasempoweredtodrawupanewagreement，inwhichthemendemanded:(1)Paymentbyweightinsteadofmeasure；(2)Determinationofweightbymeansofordinaryscalessubjecttothepublicinspectors；(3)Half-yearlyrenewalofcontracts；(4)Abolitionofthefinessystemandpaymentaccordingtoworkactuallydone；(5)Theemployerstoguaranteetominersintheirexclusiveserviceatleastfourdays’workperweek，orwagesforthesame。Thisagreementwassubmittedtothe”coalkings”，andadeputationappointedtonegotiatewiththem；
theyanswered，however，thatforthemtheUniondidnotexist，thattheyhadtodealwithsingleworkmenonly，andshouldneverrecognisetheUnion。
Theyalsosubmittedanagreementoftheirownwhichignoredalltheforegoingpoints，andwas，naturally，refusedbytheminers。Warwasthusdeclared。
OnMarch31st，1844，40，000minerslaiddowntheirpicks，andeverymineinthecountystoodempty。ThefundsoftheUnionweresoconsiderablethatforseveralmonthsaweeklycontributionof2s。6d。couldbeassuredtoeachfamily。Whiletheminerswerethusputtingthepatienceoftheirmasterstothetest，Robertsorganisedwithincomparableperseverancebothstrikeandagitation，arrangedfortheholdingofmeetings，traversedEnglandfromoneendtotheother，preachedpeacefulandlegalagitation，andcarriedonacrusadeagainstthedespoticJusticesofthePeaceandtruckmasters，suchashadneverbeenknowninEngland。Thishehadbegunatthebeginningoftheyear。WhereveraminerhadbeencondemnedbyaJusticeofthePeace，heobtainedahabeascorpusfromtheCourtofQueen’sbench，broughthisclienttoLondon，andalwayssecuredanacquittal。Thus，January13th，JudgeWilliamsofQueen’sbenchacquittedthreeminerscondemnedbytheJusticesofthePeaceofBilston，SouthStaffordshire；theoffenceofthesepeoplewasthattheyrefusedtoworkinaplacewhichthreatenedtocavein，andhadactuallycavedinbeforetheirreturn！Onanearlieroccasion，JudgePattesonhadacquittedsixworking-men，sothatthenameRobertsbegantobeaterrortothemineowners。InPrestonfourofhisclientswereinjail。InthefirstweekofJanuaryheproceededthithertoinvestigatethecaseonthespot，butfound，whenhearrived，thecondemnedallreleasedbeforetheexpirationofthesentence。InManchestertherewereseveninjail；RobertsobtainedahabeascorpusandacquittalforallfromJudgeWightman。InPrescottninecoal-minerswereinjail，accusedofcreatingadisturbanceinSt。Helens，SouthLancashire，andawaitingtrial；whenRobertsarriveduponthespot，theywerereleasedatonce。AllthistookplaceinthefirsthalfofFebruary。InApril，RobertsreleasedaminerfromjailinDerby，fourinWakefield，andfourinLeicester。SoitwentonforatimeuntiltheseDogberriescametohavesomerespectfortheminers。Thetrucksystemsharedthesamefate。OneafteranotherRobertsbroughtthedisreputablemineownersbeforethecourts，andcompelledthereluctantJusticesofthePeacetocondemnthem；suchdreadofthis”lightning””AttorneyGeneral”whoseemedtobeeverywhereatoncespreadamongthem，thatatBelper，forinstance，uponRoberts’arrival，atruckfirmpublishedthefollowingnotice:N0TICE！PentrichCollieryMessrs。Haslamthinkitright(topreventmistake)，togivenoticethatallmenemployedattheircollierywillreceivetheirwageswhollyinmoney，andbeatlibertytospenditwheretheylike。IftheybuyatMessrs。Haslam’sshoptheywillbesupplied(asheretofore)atwholesaleprices；buttheyarenotexpectedtobuythere，andwillhavethesameworkandwageswhethertheygotothatshoporanyother。ThistriumpharousedthegreatestjubilationthroughouttheEnglishworking-class，andbroughttheUnionamassofnewmembers。MeanwhilethestrikeintheNorthwasproceeding。Notahandstirred，andNewcastle，thechiefcoalport，wassostrippedofitscommoditythatcoalhadtobebroughtfromtheScotchcoast，inspiteoftheproverb。Atfirst，whiletheUnion’sfundsheldout，allwentwell，buttowardssummerthestrugglebecamemuchmorepainfulfortheminers。Thegreatestwantprevailedamongthem；theyhadnomoney，forthecontributionsoftheworkersofallbranchesofindustryinEnglandavailedlittleamongthevastnumberofstrikers，whowereforcedtoborrowfromthesmallshopkeepersataheavyloss。Thewholepress，withthesingleexceptionofthefewproletarianjournals，wasagainstthem；thebourgeois，eventhefewamongthemwhomighthavehadenoughsenseofjusticetosupporttheminers，learntfromthecorruptLiberalandConservativesheetsonlyliesaboutthem。AdeputationoftwelveminerswhowenttoLondonreceivedasumfromtheproletariatthere，butthis，too，availedlittleamongthemasswhoneededsupport。Yet，inspiteofallthis，theminersremainedsteadfast，andwhatisevenmoresignificant，werequietandpeaceableinthefaceofallthehostilitiesandprovocationofthemineownersandtheirfaithfulservants。Noactofrevengewascarriedout，notarenegadewasmaltreated，notonesingletheftcommitted。Thusthestrikehadcontinuedwellontowardsfourmonths，andthemineownersstillhadnoprospectofgettingtheupperhand。Onewaywas，however，stillopentothem。Theyrememberedthecottagesystem；itoccurredtothemthatthehousesoftherebelliousspiritswereTHEIRproperty。InJuly，noticetoquitwasservedtheworkers，and，inaweek，thewholefortythousandwereputoutofdoors。Thismeasurewascarriedoutwithrevoltingcruelty。Thesick，thefeeble，oldmenandlittlechildren，evenwomeninchild-birth，weremercilesslyturnedfromtheirbedsandcastintotheroadsideditches。Oneagentdraggedbythehairfromherbed，andintothestreet，awomaninthepangsofchild-birth。Soldiersandpoliceincrowdswerepresent，readytofireatthefirstsymptomofresistance，ontheslightesthintoftheJusticesofthePeace，whohadbroughtaboutthewholebrutalprocedure。This，too，theworking-menenduredwithoutresistance。Thehopehadbeenthatthemenwoulduseviolence；theywerespurredonwithallforcetoinfringementsofthelaws，tofurnishanexcuseformakinganendofthestrikebytheinterventionofthemilitary。Thehomelessminers，rememberingthewarningsoftheirAttorneyGeneral，remainedunmoved，setuptheirhouseholdgoodsuponthemoorsortheharvestedfields，andheldout。Some，whohadnootherplace，encampedontheroadsidesandinditches，othersuponlandbelongingtootherpeople，whereupontheywereprosecuted，and，havingcaused”damageofthevalueofahalfpenny”，werefinedapound，and，beingunabletopayit，workeditoutonthetreadmill。
Thustheylivedeightweeksandmoreofthewetfag-endoflastsummerundertheopenskywiththeirfamilies，withnofurthershelterforthemselvesandtheirlittleonesthanthecalicocurtainsoftheirbeds；withnootherhelpthanthescantyallowancesoftheirUnionandthefastshrinkingcreditwiththesmalldealers。HereuponLordLondonderry，whoownsconsiderableminesinDurham，threatenedthesmalltradesmenin”his”townofSeahamwithhismosthighdispleasureiftheyshouldcontinuetogivecreditto”his”rebelliousworkers。This”noble”lordmadehimselfthefirstclownoftheturnoutinconsequenceoftheridiculous，pompous，ungrammaticalukasesaddressedtotheworkers，whichhepublishedfromtimetotime，withnootherresultthanthemerrimentofthenation。Whennoneoftheireffortsproducedanyeffect，themineownersimported，atgreatexpense，handsfromIrelandandsuchremotepartsofWalesashaveasyetnolabourmovement。Andwhenthecompetitionofworkersagainstworkerswasthusrestored，thestrengthofthestrikerscollapsed。ThemineownersobligedthemtorenouncetheUnion，abandonRoberts，andaccepttheconditionslaiddownbytheemployers。ThusendedatthecloseofSeptemberthegreatfivemonths’battleofthecoal-minersagainstthemineowners，abattlefoughtonthepartoftheoppressedwith。anendurance，courage，intelligence，andcoolnesswhichdemandsthehighestadmiration。Whatadegreeoftruehumanculture，ofenthusiasmandstrengthofcharacter，suchabattleimpliesonthepartofmenwho，aswehaveseenintheChildren’sEmploymentCommission’sReport，weredescribedaslateas1840，asbeingthoroughlybrutalandwantinginmoralsense！Buthowhard，too，musthavebeenthepressurewhichbroughtthesefortythousandcollierstoriseasonemanandtofightoutthebattlelikeanarmynotonlywell-disciplinedbutenthusiastic，anarmypossessedofonesingledetermination，withthegreatestcoolnessandcomposure，toapointbeyondwhichfurtherresistancewouldhavebeenmadness。Andwhatabattle！Notagainstvisible，mortalenemies，butagainsthunger，want，misery，andhomelessness，againsttheirownpassionsprovokedtomadnessbythebrutalityofwealth。Iftheyhadrevoltedwithviolence，they，theunarmedanddefenceless，wouldhavebeenshotdown，andadayortwowouldhavedecidedthevictoryoftheowners。Thislaw-abidingreservewasnofearoftheconstable’sstaff，itwastheresultofdeliberation，thebestproofoftheintelligenceandself-controloftheworking-men。
Thusweretheworking-menforcedoncemore，inspiteoftheirunexampledendurance，tosuccumbtothemightofcapital。Butthefighthadnotbeeninvain。Firstofall，thisnineteenweeks’strikehadtomtheminersoftheNorthofEnglandforeverfromtheintellectualdeathinwhichtheyhadhithertolain；theyhavelefttheirsleep，arealerttodefendtheirinterests，andhaveenteredthemovementofcivilisation，andespeciallythemovementoftheworkers。Thestrike，whichfirstbroughttolightthewholecrueltyoftheowners，hasestablishedtheoppositionoftheworkershere，forever，andmadeatleasttwo-thirdsofthemChartists；andtheacquisitionofthirtythousandsuchdetermined，experiencedmeniscertainlyofgreatvaluetotheChartists。Then，too，theenduranceandlaw-abidingwhichcharacterisedthewholestrike，coupledwiththeactiveagitationwhichaccompaniedit，hasfixedpublicattentionupontheminers。Ontheoccasionofthedebateupontheexportdutyoncoal，ThomasDuncombe，theonlydecidedlyChartistmemberoftheHouseofCommons，broughtuptheconditionofthecoal-miners，hadtheirpetitionread，andbyhisspeechforcedthebourgeoisjournalstopublish，atleastintheirreportsofParliamentaryproceedings，acorrectstatementofthecase。Immediatelyafterthestrike，occurredtheexplosionatHaswell；RobertswenttoLondon，demandedanaudiencewithPeel，insistedasrepresentativeoftheminersuponathoroughinvestigationofthecase，andsucceededinhavingthefirstgeologicalandchemicalnotabilitiesofEngland，ProfessorsLyellandFaraday，commissionedtovisitthespot。Asseveralotherexplosionsfollowedinquicksuccession，andRobertsagainlaidthedetailsbeforethePrimeMinister，thelatterpromisedtoproposethenecessarymeasuresfortheprotectionoftheworkers，ifpossible，inthenextsessionofParliament，i。e。，thepresentoneof1845。Allthiswouldnothavebeenaccomplishediftheseworkershadnot，bymeansofthestrike，provedthemselvesfreedom-lovingmenworthyofallrespect，andiftheyhadnotengagedRobertsastheircounsel。
Scarcelyhaditbecomeknownthatthecoal-minersoftheNorthhadbeenforcedtorenouncetheUnionanddischargeRoberts，whentheminersofLancashireformedaUnionofsometenthousandmen，andguaranteedtheirAttorneyGeneralasalaryof£；1，200ayear。Intheautumnoflastyeartheycollectedmorethan£；700，rathermorethan£；200ofwhichtheyexpendeduponsalariesandjudicialexpenses，andtherestchieflyinsupportofmenoutofwork，eitherthroughwantofemploymentorthroughdissensionswiththeiremployers。Thustheworking-menareconstantlycomingtoseemoreclearlythat，united，theytooarearespectablepower，andcan，inthelastextremity，defyeventhemightofthebourgeoisie。Andthisinsight，thegainofalllabourmovements，hasbeenwonforalltheminersofEnglandbytheUnionandthestrikeof1844。Inaveryshorttimethedifferenceofintelligenceandenergywhichnowexistsinfavourofthefactoryoperativeswillhavevanished，andtheminersofthekingdomwillbeabletostandabreastofthemineveryrespect。Thusonepieceofstandinggroundafteranotherisunderminedbeneaththefeetofthebourgeoisie；andhowlongwillitbebeforetheirwholesocialandpoliticaledificecollapseswiththebasisuponwhichitrests？
Butthebourgeoisiewillnottakewarning。Theresistanceoftheminersdoesbutembitteritthemore。Insteadofappreciatingthisforwardstepinthegeneralmovementoftheworkers，theproperty-holdingclasssawinitonlyasourceofrageagainstaclassofpeoplewhoarefoolsenoughtodeclarethemselvesnolongersubmissivetothetreatmenttheyhadhithertoreceived。Itsawinthejustdemandsofthenon-possessingworkersonlyimpertinentdiscontent，madrebellionagainst”Divineandhumanorder”，and，inthebestcase，asuccess(toberesistedbythebourgeoisiewithallitsmight)wonby”ill-intentioneddemagogueswholivebyagitationandaretoolazytowork”。Itsought，ofcourse，withoutsuccess，torepresenttotheworkersthatRobertsandtheUnion’sagents，whomtheUnionverynaturallyhadtopay，wereinsolentswindlers，whodrewthelastfarthingfromtheworking-men’spockets。Whensuchinsanityprevailsintheproperty-holdingclass，whenitissoblindedbyitsmomentaryprofitthatitnolongerhaseyesforthemostconspicuoussignsofthetimes，surelyallhopeofapeacefulsolutionofthesocialquestionforEnglandmustbeabandoned。
Theonlypossiblesolutionisaviolentrevolution，whichcannotfailtotakeplace。
NOTES
1。Accordingtothecensusof1841，thenumberofworking-menemployedinminesinGreatBritain，withoutIreland，was:Coalmines……83，40832，4751，1851，165118，233
Coppermines……9，8663，4289131，20015，407
Lead……9，4271，932402011，419
Iron……7，7732，6794247310，949
Tin……4，6021，34968826，101
Various……24，1626，59147249131，716——
TOTAL……139，23848，4543，1023，031193，825Asthecoalandironminesareusuallyworkedbythesamepeople，apartoftheminersattributedtothecoal-mines，andaveryconsiderablepartofthosementionedunderthelastheadingaretobeattributedtotheironmines——NotebyEngels。[1]
TheAgriculturalProletariatF。EngelsTHECONDITION
OFTHEWORKING-CLASS
INENGLANDTHEAGRICULTURALPROLETARIAT
Wehaveseenintheintroductionhow，simultaneouslywiththesmallbourgeoisieandthemodestindependenceoftheformerworkers，thesmallpeasantryalsowasruinedwhentheformerUnionofindustrialandagriculturalworkwasdissolved，theabandonedfieldsthrowntogetherintolargefarms，andthesmallpeasantssupersededbytheoverwhelmingcompetitionofthelargefarmers。Insteadofbeinglandownersorleaseholders，astheyhadbeenhitherto，theywerenowobligedtohirethemselvesaslabourerstothelargefarmersorthelandlords。Foratimethispositionwasendurable，thoughadeteriorationincomparisonwiththeirformerone。Theextensionofindustrykeptpacewiththeincreaseofpopulationuntiltheprogressofmanufacturebegantoassumeaslowerpace，andtheperpetualimprovementofmachinerymadeitimpossibleformanufacturetoabsorbthewholesurplusoftheagriculturalpopulation。Fromthistimeforward，thedistresswhichhadhithertoexistedonlyinthemanufacturingdistricts，andthenonlyattimes，appearedintheagriculturaldistrictstoo。Thetwenty-fiveyears’
strugglewithFrancecametoanendataboutthesametime；thediminishedproductionatthevariousseatsofthewars，theshuttingoffofimports，andthenecessityofprovidingfortheBritisharmyinSpain，hadgivenEnglishagricultureanartificialprosperity，andhadbesideswithdrawntothearmyvastnumbersofworkersfromtheirordinaryoccupations。Thischeckupontheimporttrade，theopportunityforexportation，andthemilitarydemandforworkers，nowsuddenlycametoanend；andthenecessaryconsequencewaswhattheEnglishcallagriculturaldistress。Thefarmershadtoselltheircornatlowprices，andcould，therefore，payonlylowwages。In1815，inordertokeepupprices，theCornLawswerepassed，prohibitingtheimportationofcornsolongasthepriceofwheatcontinuedlessthan80shillingsperquarter。Thesenaturallyineffectivelawswereseveraltimesmodified，butdidnotsucceedinamelioratingthedistressintheagriculturaldistricts。Allthattheydidwastochangethedisease，which，underfreecompetitionfromabroad，wouldhaveassumedanacuteform，culminatinginaseriesofcrises，intoachroniconewhichboreheavilybutuniformlyuponthefarmlabourers。
Foratimeaftertheriseoftheagriculturalproletariat，thepatriarchalrelationbetweenmasterandman，whichwasbeingdestroyedformanufacture，developedherethesamerelationofthefarmertohishandswhichstillexistsalmosteverywhereinGermany。Solongasthislasted，thepovertyofthefarm-handswaslessconspicuous；theysharedthefateofthefarmer，andweredischargedonlyincasesofthedirestnecessity。Butnowallthisischanged。Thefarm-handshavebecomeday-labourersalmosteverywhere，areemployedonlywhenneededbythefarmers，and，therefore，oftenhavenoworkforweekstogether，especiallyinwinter。Inthepatriarchaltime，thehandsandtheirfamilieslivedonthefarm，andtheirchildrengrewupthere，thefarmertryingtofindoccupationonthespotfortheoncominggeneration；day-labourers，then，weretheexception，nottherule。Thustherewas，oneveryfarm，alargernumberofhandsthanwerestrictlynecessary。
Itbecame，therefore，theinterestofthefarmerstodissolvethisrelation，drivethefarm-handfromthefarm，andtransformhimintoaday-labourer。
Thistookplaceprettygenerallytowardstheyear1850，’andtheconsequencewasthatthehithertolatentover-populationwassetfree，therateofwagesforceddown，andthepoor-rateenormouslyincreased。Fromthistimetheagriculturaldistrictsbecametheheadquartersofpermanent，asthemanufacturingdistrictshadlongbeenofperiodic，pauperism，andthemodificationofthePoorLawwasthefirstmeasurewhichtheStatewasobligedtoapplytothedailyincreasingimpoverishmentofthecountryparishes。Moreover，theconstantextensionoffarmingonalargescale，theintroductionofthreshingandothermachines，andtheemploymentofwomenandchildren(whichisnowsogeneralthatitseffectshaverecentlybeeninvestigatedbyaspecialofficialcommission)，threwalargenumberofmenoutofemployment。
Itismanifest，therefore，thathere，too，thesystemofindustrialproductionhasmadeitsentrance，bymeansoffarmingonalargescale，bytheabolitionofthepatriarchalrelation，whichisofthegreatestimportancejusthere，bytheintroductionofmachinery，steam，andthelabourofwomenandchildren。
Insodoing，ithassweptthelastandmoststationaryportionofworkinghumanityintotherevolutionarymovement。Butthelongeragriculturehadremainedstationary，theheaviernowbecametheburdenupontheworker，themoreviolentlybrokeforththeresultsofthedisorganisationoftheoldsocialfabric。The”over-population”cametolightallatonce，andcouldnot，asinthemanufacturingdistricts，beabsorbedbytheneedsofanincreasingproduction。Newfactoriescouldalwaysbebuilt，iftherewereconsumersfortheirproducts，butnewlandcouldnotbecreated。Thecultivationofwastecommonlandwastoodaringaspeculationforthebadtimesfollowingtheconclusionofpeace。Thenecessaryconsequencewasthatthecompetitionoftheworkersamongeachotherreachedthehighestpointofintensity，andwagesfelltotheminimum。SolongastheOldPoorLawexisted，theworkersreceivedrelieffromtherates；wagesnaturallyfellstilllower，becausethefarmersforcedthelargestpossiblenumberoflabourerstoclaimrelief。Thehigherpoor-rate，necessitatedbythesurpluspopulation，wasonlyincreasedbythismeasure，andtheNewPoorLaw，ofwhichweshallhavemoretosaylater，wasnowenactedasaremedy。
Butthisdidnotimprovematters。Wagesdidnotrise，thesurpluspopulationcouldnotbegotridof，andthecrueltyofthenewlawdidbutservetoembitterthepeopletotheutmost。Eventhepoor-rate，whichdiminishedatfirstafterthepassageofthenewlaw，attaineditsoldheightafterafewyears。Itsonlyeffectwasthatwhereaspreviouslythreetofourmillionhalf-paupershadexisted，amillionoftotalpaupersnowappeared，andtherest，stillhalf-paupers，merelywentwithoutrelief。Thepovertyintheagriculturaldistrictshasincreasedeveryyear。Thepeopleliveinthegreatestwant，wholefamiliesmuststrugglealongwith6，7，or8shillingsaweek，andattimeshavenothing。LetushearadescriptionofthispopulationgivenbyaLiberalmemberofParliamentasearlyas1830:”ThatisanEnglishpeasantorpauper；forthewordsaresynonymous。
Hissirewasapauper，andhismother’smilkwantednourishment。Frominfancyhisfoodhasbeenbadaswellasinsufficient；andhenowfeelsthepainsofunsatisfiedhungernearlywheneverheisawake。Buthalf-clothed，andneversuppliedwithmorewarmththansufficestocookhisscantymeals，coldandwetcometohim，andstaybyhimwiththeweather。Heismarried，buthehasnottastedthehighestjoysofhusbandandfather。Hispartner，andlittleonesbeing，likehimself，oftenhungry，seldomwarm，sometimessickwithoutaid，andalwayssorrowfulwithouthope，aregreedy，selfish，andvexing；so，tousehisownexpression，he’hatesthesightofthem’，andresortstohishovel，onlybecauseahedgeaffordslessshelterfromthewindandrain。”Hemustsupporthisfamily，thoughhecannotdoso。”Thisbringsbegging，trickery，andquarrelling；andendsinsettledcraft。
Thoughhehavetheinclination，hewantsthecouragetobecome，likemoreenergeticmenofhisclass，apoacherorsmuggleronalargescale；buthepilfersoccasionally，andteacheshischildrentolieandsteal。Hissubduedandslavishmannertowardhisgreatneighboursshowsthattheytreathimwithsuspicionandharshness。Consequently，heatoncedreadsandhatesthem；buthewillneverharmthenbyviolentmeans。Toodegradedtobedesperate，heisthoroughlydepraved。Hismiserablecareerwillbeshort；rheumatismandasthmaareconductinghimtotheworkhouse，wherehewillbreathehislastwithoutonepleasantrecollection，andsomakeroomforanotherwretchwhomayliveanddieinthesameway。”Ourauthoraddsthatbesidesthisclassofagriculturallabourers，thereisstillanother，somewhatmoreenergeticandbetterendowedphysically，mentally，andmorally；those，namely，wholiveaswretchedly，butwerenotborntothiscondition。Theseherepresentsasbetterintheirfamilylife，butsmugglersandpoacherswhogetintofrequentbloodyconflictswiththegamekeepersandrevenueofficersofthecoast，becomemoreembitteredagainstsocietyduringtheprisonlifewhichtheyoftenundergo，andsostandabreastofthefirstclassintheirhatredoftheproperty-holders。”Bycourtesy，”hesays，inclosing，”theentirebodyiscalled’theboldpeasantryofEngland’。”Downtothepresenttime，thisdescriptionappliestothegreaterportionoftheagriculturallabourersofEngland。InJune，1844，theTimessentacorrespondentintotheagriculturaldistrictstoreportupontheconditionofthisclass，andthereportwhichhefurnishedagreedwhollywiththeforegoing。Incertaindistrictswageswerenotmorethansixshillingsaweek；notmore，thatis，thaninmanydistrictsinGermany，whilethepricesofallthenecessariesoflifeareatleasttwiceashigh。Whatsortoflifethesepeopleleadmaybeimagined；theirfoodscantyandbad，theirclothingragged，theirdwellingscrampedanddesolate，small，wretchedhuts，withnocomfortswhatsoever；and，foryoungpeople，lodging-houses，wheremenandwomenarescarcelyseparated，andillegitimateintercoursethusprovoked。Oneortwodayswithoutworkinthecourseofamonthmustinevitablyplungesuchpeopleintothedirestwant。Moreover，theycannotcombinetoraisewages，becausetheyarescattered，andifonealonerefusestoworkforlowwages，therearedozensoutofwork，orsupportedbytherates，whoarethankfulforthemosttriflingoffer，whiletohimwhodeclineswork，everyotherformofreliefthanthehatedworkhouseisrefusedbythePoorLawguardiansastoalazyvagabond；fortheguardiansaretheveryfarmersfromwhomorfromwhoseneighboursandacquaintancesalonehecangetwork。AndnotfromoneortwospecialdistrictsofEnglanddosuchreportscome。Onthecontrary，thedistressisgeneral，equallygreatintheNorthandSouth，theEastandWest。TheconditionofthelabourersinSuffolkandNorfolkcorrespondswiththatofDevonshire，Hampshire，andSussex。WagesareaslowinDorsetshireandOxfordshireasinKentandSurrey，BuckinghamshireandCambridgeshire。
Oneespeciallybarbariccrueltyagainsttheworking-classisembodiedintheGameLaws，whicharemorestringentthaninanyothercountry，whilethegameisplentifulbeyondallconception。TheEnglishpeasantwho，accordingtotheoldEnglishcustomandtradition，seesinpoachingonlyanaturalandnobleexpressionofcourageanddaring，isstimulatedstillfurtherbythecontrastbetweenhisownpovertyandthecartelestnotreplaisir[1]ofthelord，whopreservesthousandsofharesandgamebirdsforhisprivateenjoyment。
Thelabourerlayssnares，orshootshereandthereapieceofgame。Itdoesnotinjurethelandlordasamatteroffact，forhehasavastsuperfluity，anditbringsthepoacheramealforhimselfandhisstarvingfamily。Butifheiscaughthegoestojail，andforasecondoffencereceivesattheleastsevenyearstransportation。Fromtheseverityoftheselawsarisethefrequentbloodyconflictswiththegamekeepers，whichleadtoanumberofmurderseveryyear。Hencethepostofgamekeeperisnotonlydangerous，butofill-reputeanddespised。Lastyear，intwocases，gamekeepersshotthemselvesratherthancontinuetheirwork。Suchisthemoderatepriceatwhichthelandedaristocracypurchasesthenoblesportofshooting；
butwhatdoesitmattertothelordsofthesoil？Whetheroneortwomoreorlessofthe”surplus”liveordiemattersnothing，andevenifinconsequenceoftheGameLawshalfthesurpluspopulationcouldbeputoutoftheway，itwouldbeallthebetterfortheotherhalf——accordingtothephilanthropyoftheEnglishlandlords。
Althoughtheconditionsoflifeinthecountry，theisolateddwellings，thestabilityofthesurroundingsandoccupations，andconsequentlyofthethoughts，aredecidedlyunfavourabletoalldevelopment，yetpovertyandwantbeartheirfruitsevenhere。Themanufacturingandminingproletariatemergedearlyfromthefirststageofresistancetooursocialorder，thedirectrebellionoftheindividualbytheperpetrationofcrime；butthepeasantsarestillinthisstageatthepresenttime。Theirfavouritemethodofsocialwarfareisincendiarism，InthewinterwhichfollowedtheRevolutionofJuly，in1830-31，theseincendiarismsfirstbecamegeneral。Disturbanceshadtakenplace，andthewholeregionofSussexandtheadjacentcountieshadbeenbroughtintoastateofexcitementinOctober，inconsequenceofanincreaseofthecoastguard(whichmadesmugglingmuchmoredifficultand”ruinedthecoast”——inthewordsofafarmer)，changesinthePoorLaw，lowwages，andtheintroductionofmachinery。Inthewinterthefarmers’
hayandcorn-stackswereburntinthefields，andtheverybarnsandstablesundertheirwindows。Nearlyeverynightacoupleofsuchfiresblazedup，andspreadterroramongthefarmersandlandlords。Theoffenderswererarelydiscovered，andtheworkersattributedtheincendiarismtoamythicalpersonwhomtheynamed”Swing”。MenpuzzledtheirbrainstodiscoverwhothisSwingcouldbeandwhencethisrageamongthepoorofthecountrydistricts。
Ofthegreatmotivepower，Want，Oppression，onlyasinglepersonhereandtherethought，andcertainlynooneintheagriculturaldistricts。
Sincethatyeartheincendiarismshavebeenrepeatedeverywinter，witheachrecurringunemployedseasonoftheagriculturallabourers。Inthewinterof1843-44，theywereoncemoreextraordinarilyfrequent。ThereliesbeforemeaseriesofnumbersoftheNorthernStarofthattime，eachoneofwhichcontainsareportofseveralincendiarisms，statingineachcaseitsauthority。ThenumberswantinginthefollowinglistI
havenotathand；butthey，too，doubtlesscontainanumberofcases。Moreover，suchasheetcannotpossiblyascertainallthecaseswhichoccur。November25th，1843，twocases；severalearlieronesarediscussed。December16th，inBedfordshire，generalexcitementforafortnightpastinconsequenceoffrequentincendiarisms，ofwhichseveraltakeplaceeverynight。Twogreatfarm-housesburntdownwithinthelastfewdays；inCambridgeshirefourgreatfarm-houses，Hertfordshireone，andbesidesthese，fifteenotherincendiarismsindifferentdistricts。December30th，inNorfolkone，Suffolktwo，Essextwo，Cheshireone，Lancashireone，Derby，Lincoln，andtheSouthtwelve。January6th，1844，inallten。January13th，seven。January20th，fourincendiarisms。Fromthistimeforward，threeoffourincendiarismsperweekarereported，andnotasformerlyuntilthespringonly，butfarintoJulyandAugust。Andthatcrimesofthissortareexpectedtoincreaseintheapproachinghardseasonof1844-45，theEnglishpapersalreadyindicate。
Whatdomyreadersthinkofsuchastateofthingsinthequiet，idylliccountrydistrictsofEngland？Isthissocialwar，orisitnot？Isitanaturalstateofthingswhichcanlast？Yetherethelandlordsandfarmersareasdullandstupefied，asblindtoeverythingwhichdoesnotdirectlyputmoneyintotheirpockets，asthemanufacturersandthebourgeoisieingeneralinthemanufacturingdistricts。IfthelatterpromisetheiremployeessalvationthroughtherepealoftheCornLaws，thelandlordsandagreatpartofthefarmerspromisetheirsHeavenuponearthfromthemaintenanceofthesamelaws。Butinneithercasedotheproperty-holderssucceedinwinningtheworkerstothesupportoftheirpethobby。Liketheoperatives，theagriculturallabourersarethoroughlyindifferenttotherepealornon-repealoftheCornLaws。Yetthequestionisanimportantoneforboth。Thatistosay——bytherepealoftheCornLaws，freecompetition，thepresentsocialeconomyiscarriedtoitsextremepoint；allfurtherdevelopmentwithinthepresentordercomestoanend，andtheonlypossiblestepfartherisaradicaltransformationofthesocialorder。Fortheagriculturallabourersthequestionhas，further，thefollowingimportantbearing:Freeimportationofcorninvolves(how，Icannotexplainhere)theemancipationofthefarmersfromthelandlords，theirtransformationintoLiberals。
TowardsthisconsummationtheAnti-CornLawLeaguehasalreadylargelycontributed，andthisisitsonlyrealservice。WhenthefarmersbecomeLiberals，i。e。，consciousbourgeois，theagriculturallabourerswillinevitablybecomeChartistsandSocialists；thefirstchangeinvolvesthesecond。
AndthatanewmovementisalreadybeginningamongtheagriculturallabourersisprovedbyameetingwhichEarlRadnor，aLiberallandlord，causedtobeheldinOctober，1844，nearHighworth，wherehisestateslie，topassresolutionsagainsttheCornLaws。Atthismeeting，thelabourers，perfectlyindifferentastotheselaws，demandedsomethingwhollydifferent，namelysmallholdings，atlowrent，forthemselves，tellingEarlRadnorallsortsofbittertruthstohisface。Thusthemovementoftheworking-classisfindingitswayintotheremote，stationary，mentallydeadagriculturaldistricts；and，thankstothegeneraldistress，willsoonbeasfirmlyrootedandenergeticasinthemanufacturingdistricts。
Astothereligiousstateoftheagriculturallabourers，theyare，itistrue，morepiousthanthemanufacturingoperatives；butthey，too，aregreatlyatoddswiththeChurch——forinthesedistrictsmembersoftheEstablishedChurchalmostexclusivelyaretobefound。AcorrespondentoftheMorningChronicle，who，overthesignature，”Onewhohaswhistledattheplough，reportshistourthroughtheagriculturaldistricts，relates，amongotherthings，thefollowingconversationwithsomelabourersafterservice:”Iinquirediftheclergymanwhohadpreachedwastheonewhousuallyministeredthere？’Yes，blasthim！hebeourownparsonsureenough——hebealwaysa-begging；hebealways，sin’everIknowedhim。’”(Thesermonhadbeenuponamissiontotheheathen。)”’Andsin’Iknowedhim，’
saidanother，’Ineverknowedaparsonaswasn’ta-beggingforsummatortother。’’Ah！’saysawomanwhocamejustoutofthechurch:’Andlookatwagesacomin’down，lookatthemrichwagerbondsastheparsonshuntanddineanddrinkwith！SohelpmeGod，webesmorefittertobetakenintotheunionandstarved，thanpayforparsonstogoabroad。’’Whydon’tthey，’saidanother，’sendthemparsonsasbechanteringeverydayinSalisburyCathedraltonobodybutthebarestones，whydon’ttheygo？’’Theydon’tgo，’saidtheoldmanwhospokefirst，’becausetheybesorichastohavesomuchlandallover，theywantsthemoneytosendawaythepooruns；
Iknowswhattheywant；Ibeenknowingthemtoolongnottoknowthat。’
’Butmygoodfriends，’saidI，’yousurelydon’tgotochurchalwaysandcomeoutofitwithsuchbitterdisliketotheparsons。Ifyoudo，whygoatall？’’Whygoatall？’saidthewoman，’webeliketogo，andwewouldn’tloseeverything，workandall；webeliketogo。’Ilearnedlaterthatthey’couldgetafewprivilegesinregardtofuelandgroundforpotatoes’(tobepaidfor！)iftheywenttochurch。”Afterdescribingtheirpovertyandignorance，thecorrespondentclosesbysaying:”NowIassertfearlesslythattheconditionofthesepeople，theirpoverty，theirhatredofthechurches，theiroutwardcompliancewith，butinwardbitternesstowards，itsdignitaries，istherulethroughoutruralEngland；andthatanythingtothecontraryistheexception。”IfthepeasantryofEnglandshowstheconsequenceswhichanumerousagriculturalproletariatinconnectionwithlargefarminginvolvesforthecountrydistricts，Walesillustratestheruinofthesmallholders。IftheEnglishcountryparishesreproducetheantagonismbetweencapitalistandproletarian，thestateoftheWelshpeasantrycorrespondstotheprogressiveruinofthesmallbourgeoisieinthetowns。InWalesaretobefound，almostexclusively，smallholders，whocannotwithlikeprofitselltheirproductsascheaplyasthelarger，morefavourablysituatedEnglishfarmers，withwhom，however，theyareobligedtocompete。Moreover，insomeplacesthequalityofthelandadmitsoftheraisingoflivestockonly，whichisbutslightlyprofitable。
Then，too，theseWelshfarmers，byreasonoftheirseparatenationality，whichtheyretainpertinaciously，aremuchmorestationarythantheEnglishfarmers。ButthecompetitionamongthemselvesandwiththeirEnglishneighbours(andtheincreasedmortgagesupontheirlandconsequentuponthis)hasreducedthemtosuchastatethattheycanscarcelyliveatall；andbecausetheyhavenotrecognisedthetruecauseoftheirwretchedcondition，theyattributeittoallsortsofsmallcauses，suchashightolls，etc。，whichdocheckthedevelopmentofagricultureandcommerce，butaretakenintoaccountasstandingchargesbyeveryonewhotakesaholding，andarethereforereallyultimatelypaidbythelandlord。Here，too，theNewPoorLawiscordiallyhatedbythetenants，whohoverinperpetualdangerofcomingunderitssway。In1843，thefamous”Rebecca”disturbancesbrokeoutamongtheWelshpeasantry；themendressedinwomen’sclothing，blackenedtheirfaces，andfellinarmedcrowdsuponthetoll-gates，destroyedthemamidstgreatrejoicingandfiringofguns，demolishedthetoll-keepers’houses，wrotethreateninglettersinthenameoftheimaginary”Rebecca”，andoncewentsofarastostormtheworkhouseofCarmarthen。Later，whenthemilitiawascalledoutandthepolicestrengthened，thepeasantsdrewthemoffwithwonderfulskilluponfalsescents，demolishedtoll-gatesatonepointwhilethemilitia，luredbyfalsesignalbugles，wasmarchinginsomeoppositedirection；andbetookthemselvesfinally，whenthepolicewastoothoroughlyreinforced，tosingleincendiarismsandattemptsatmurder。Asusual，thesegreatercrimesweretheendofthemovement。Manywithdrewfromdisapproval，othersfromfear，andpeacewasrestoredofitself。TheGovernmentappointedacommissiontoinvestigatetheaffairanditscauses，andtherewasanendofthematter。Thepovertyofthepeasantrycontinues，however，andwilloneday，sinceitcannotunderexistingcircumstancesgrowless，butmustgoonintensifying，producemoreseriousmanifestationsthanthesehumorousRebeccamasquerades。
IfEnglandillustratestheresultsofthesystemoffarmingonalargescaleandWalesonasmallone，Irelandexhibitstheconsequencesofoverdividingthesoil。ThegreatmassofthepopulationofIrelandconsistsofsmalltenantswhooccupyasorryhutwithoutpartitions，andapotatopatchjustlargeenoughtosupplythemmostscantilywithpotatoesthroughthewinter。
Inconsequenceofthegreatcompetitionwhichprevailsamongthesesmalltenants，therenthasreachedanunheard-ofheight，double，treble，andquadruplethatpaidinEngland。Foreveryagriculturallabourerseekstobecomeatenant-farmer，andthoughthedivisionoflandhasgonesofar，therestillremainnumbersoflabourersincompetitionforplots。AlthoughinGreatBritain34，000，000acresoflandarecultivated，andinIrelandbut14，000，000；althoughGreatBritainproducesagriculturalproductstothevalueof£；150，000，000，andIrelandofbut£；36，000，000，thereareinIreland75，000agriculturalproletariansmorethanintheneighbouringisland。HowgreatthecompetitionforlandinIrelandmustbeisevidentfromthisextraordinarydisproportion，especiallywhenonereflectsthatthelabourersinGreatBritainarelivingintheutmostdistress。Theconsequenceofthiscompetitionisthatitisimpossibleforthetenantstolivemuchbetterthanthelabourers，byreasonofthehighrentspaid。TheIrishpeopleisthusheldincrushingpoverty，fromwhichitcannotfreeitselfunderourpresentsocialconditions。Thesepeopleliveinthemostwretchedclayhuts，scarcelygoodenoughforcattle-pens，havescantfoodallwinterlong，or，asthereportabovequotedexpressesit，theyhavepotatoeshalfenoughthirtyweeksintheyear，andtherestoftheyearnothing。Whenthetimecomesinthespringatwhichthisprovisionreachesitsend，orcannolongerbeusedbecauseofitssprouting，wifeandchildrengoforthtobegandtrampthecountrywiththeirkettleintheirhands。Meanwhilethehusband，afterplantingpotatoesforthenextyear，goesinsearchofworkeitherinIrelandorEngland，andreturnsatthepotatoharvesttohisfamily。Thisistheconditioninwhichnine-tenthsoftheIrishcountryfolkslive。Theyarepooraschurchmice，wearthemostwretchedrags，andstanduponthelowestplaneofintelligencepossibleinahalf-civilisedcountry。Accordingtothereportquoted，thereare，inapopulationof81/2millions，585，000headsoffamiliesinastateoftotaldestitution；andaccordingtootherauthorities，citedbySheriffAlison，thereareinIreland2，300，000personswhocouldnotlivewithoutpublicorprivateassistance——or27percentofthewholepopulationpaupers！
Thecauseofthispovertyliesintheexistingsocialconditions，especiallyincompetitionherefoundintheformofthesubdivisionofthesoil。Muchefforthasbeenspentinfindingothercauses。Ithasbeenassertedthattherelationofthetenanttothelandlordwholetshisestateinlargelotstotenants，whoagainhavetheirsub-tenants，andsub-sub-tenants，inturn，sothatoftentenmiddlemencomebetweenthe。landlordandtheactualcultivator——ithasbeenassertedthattheshamefullawwhichgivesthelandlordtherightofexpropriatingthecultivatorwhomayhavepaidhisrentduly，ifthefirsttenantfailstopaythelandlord，thatthislawistoblameforallthispoverty。Butallthisdeterminesonlytheforminwhichthepovertymanifestsitself。Makethesmalltenantalandownerhimselfandwhatfollows？Themajoritycouldnotliveupontheirholdingseveniftheyhadnorenttopay，andanyslightimprovementwhichmighttakeplacewouldbelostagaininafewyearsinconsequenceoftherapidincreaseofpopulation。Thechildrenwouldthenlivetogrowupundertheimprovedconditionswhonowdieinconsequenceofpovertyinearlychildhood。
FromanothersidecomestheassertionthattheshamelessoppressioninflictedbytheEnglishisthecauseofthetrouble。Itisthecauseofthesomewhatearlierappearanceofthispoverty，butnotofthepovertyitself。OrtheblameislaidontheProtestantChurchforceduponaCatholicnation；butdivideamongtheIrishwhattheChurchtakesfromthem，anditdoesnotreachsixshillingsahead。Besides，tithesareataxuponlandedproperty，notuponthetenant，thoughhemaynominallypaythem；now，sincetheCommutationBillof1838，thelandlordpaysthetithesdirectlyandreckonssomuchhigherrent，sothatthetenantisnonethebetteroff。Andinthesamewayahundredothercausesofthispovertyarebroughtforward，allprovingaslittleasthese。Thispoverty。istheresultofoursocialconditions；
apartfromthese，causesmaybefoundforthemannerinwhichitmanifestsitself，butnotforthefactofitsexistence。ThatpovertymanifestsitselfinIrelandthusandnototherwise，isowingtothecharacterofthepeople，andtotheirhistoricaldevelopment。TheIrishareapeoplerelatedintheirwholecharactertotheLatinnations，totheFrench，andespeciallytotheItalians。ThebadfeaturesoftheircharacterwehavealreadyhaddepictedbyCarlyle。LetusnowhearanIrishman，whoatleastcomesnearertothetruththanCarlyle，withhisprejudiceinfavouroftheTeutoniccharacter:”Theyarerestlessyetindolent，shrewdandindiscreet，impetuous，impatientandimprovident，instinctivelybrave，thoughtlesslygenerous；
quicktoresentandforgiveoffences，toformandrenouncefriendships。
Withgeniustheyareprofuselygifted；withjudgmentsparingly。”WiththeIrish，feelingandpassionpredominate；reasonmustbowbeforethem。Theirsensuous，excitablenaturepreventsreflectionandquiet，perseveringactivityfromreachingdevelopment——suchanationisutterlyunfitformanufactureasnowconducted。Hencetheyheldfasttoagriculture，andremaineduponthelowestplaneevenofthat。Withthesmallsubdivisionsofland，whichwerenothereartificiallycreated，asinFranceandontheRhine，bythedivisionofgreatestates，[2]buthaveexistedfromtimeimmemorial，animprovementofthesoilbytheinvestmentofcapitalwasnottobethoughtof；anditwould，accordingtoAlison，require120millionpoundssterlingtobringthesoiluptothenotveryhighstateoffertilityalreadyattainedinEngland。TheEnglishimmigration，whichmighthaveraisedthestandardofIrishcivilisation，hascontenteditselfwiththemostbrutalplunderingoftheIrishpeople；
andwhiletheIrish，bytheirimmigrationintoEngland，havefurnishedEnglandaleavenwhichwillproduceitsownresultsinthefuture，theyhavelittleforwhichtobethankfultotheEnglishimmigration。
