TheattemptsoftheIrishtosavethemselvesfromtheirpresentruin，ontheonehand，taketheformofcrimes。Thesearetheorderofthedayintheagriculturaldistricts，andarenearlyalwaysdirectedagainstthemostimmediateenemies，thelandlords’agents，ortheirobedientservants，theProtestantintruders，whoselargefarmsaremadeupofthepotatopatchesofhundredsofejectedfamilies。SuchcrimesareespeciallyfrequentintheSouthandWest。Ontheotherhand，theIrishhopeforreliefbymeansoftheagitationfortherepealoftheLegislativeUnionwithEngland。
Fromalltheforegoing，itisclearthattheuneducatedIrishmustseeintheEnglishtheirworstenemies；andtheirfirsthopeofimprovementintheconquestofnationalindependence。Butquiteasclearisit，too，thatIrishdistresscannotberemovedbyanyActofRepeal。SuchanActwould，however，atoncelaybarethefactthatthecauseofIrishmisery，whichnowseemstocomefromabroad，isreallytobefoundathome。Meanwhile，itisanopenquestionwhethertheaccomplishmentofrepealwillbenecessarytomakethiscleartotheIrish。Hitherto，neitherChartismnorSocialismhashadmarkedsuccessinIreland。
IclosemyobservationsuponIrelandatthispointthemorereadily，astheRepealAgitationof1843andO’Connell’strialhavebeenthemeansofmakingtheIrishdistressmoreandmoreknowninGermany。
WehavenowfollowedtheproletariatoftheBritishIslandsthroughallbranchesofitsactivity，andfounditeverywherelivinginwantandmiseryundertotallyinhumanconditions。Wehaveseendiscontentarisewiththeriseoftheproletariat，grow，develop，andorganise；wehaveseenopenbloodlessandbloodybattlesoftheproletariatagainstthebourgeoisie。
Wehaveinvestigatedtheprinciplesaccordingtowhichthefate，thehopes，andfearsoftheproletariataredetermined，andwehavefoundthatthereisnoprospectofimprovementintheircondition。
Wehavehadanopportunity，hereandthere，ofobservingtheconductofthebourgeoisietowardstheproletariat，andwehavefoundthatitconsidersonlyitself，hasonlyitsownadvantageinview。However，inordernottobeunjust，letusinvestigateitsmodeofactionsomewhatmoreexactly。
NOTES
1。Forsuchisourpleasure——Ed。[1]
2。Mistake。Small-scaleagriculturehadbeentheprevailingformoffarmingeversincetheMiddleAges。ThusthesmallpeasantfarmsexistedevenbeforetheRevolution。
Theonlythingthelatterchangedwastheirownership；thatittookawayfromthefeudallordsandtransferred，directlyorindirectly，tothepeasants——NotebyEngelstotheGermaneditionof1892。[2]TheAttitudeoftheBourgeoisieTowardstheProletariatF。EngelsTHECONDITION
OFTHEWORKING-CLASS
INENGLANDTHETHEATTITUDEOFTHEBOURGEOISIETOWARDSTHEPROLETARIAT
InspeakingofthebourgeoisieIincludetheso-calledaristocracy，forthisisaprivilegedclass，anaristocracy，onlyincontrastwiththebourgeoisie，notincontrastwiththeproletariat。Theproletarianseesinbothonlytheproperty-holder——i。e。，thebourgeois。Beforetheprivilegeofpropertyallotherprivilegesvanish。Thesoledifferenceisthis，thatthebourgeoisproperstandsinactiverelationswiththemanufacturing，and，inameasure，withtheminingproletarians，and，asfarmer，withtheagriculturallabourers，whereastheso-calledaristocratcomesintocontactwiththeagriculturallaboureronly。
Ihaveneverseenaclasssodeeplydemoralised，soincurablydebasedbyselfishness，socorrodedwithin，soincapableofprogress，astheEnglishbourgeoisie；andImeanbythis，especiallythebourgeoisieproper，particularlytheLiberal，CornLawrepealingbourgeoisie。Foritnothingexistsinthisworld，exceptforthesakeofmoney，itselfnotexcluded。Itknowsnoblisssavethatofrapidgain，nopainsavethatoflosinggold。Inthepresenceofthisavariceandlustofgain，itisnotpossibleforasinglehumansentimentoropiniontoremainuntainted。True，theseEnglishbourgeoisaregoodhusbandsandfamilymen，andhaveallsortsofotherprivatevirtues，andappear，inordinaryintercourse，asdecentandrespectableasallotherbourgeois；eveninbusinesstheyarebettertodealwiththantheGermans；
theydonothiggleandhagglesomuchasourownpettifoggingmerchants；
buthowdoesthishelpmatters？Ultimatelyitisself-interest，andespeciallymoneygain，whichalonedeterminesthem。IoncewentintoManchesterwithsuchabourgeois，andspoketohimofthebad，unwholesomemethodofbuilding，thefrightfulconditionoftheworking-peoplesquarters，andassertedthatIhadneverseensoill-builtacity。Themanlistenedquietlytotheend，andsaidatthecornerwhereweparted:”Andyetthereisagreatdealofmoneymadehere，goodmorning，sir。”ItisutterlyindifferenttotheEnglishbourgeoiswhetherhisworking-menstarveornot，ifonlyhemakesmoney。Alltheconditionsoflifearemeasuredbymoney，andwhatbringsnomoneyisnonsense，unpractical，idealisticbosh。Hence，PoliticalEconomy，theScienceofWealth，isthefavouritestudyofthesebarteringJews。
EveryoneofthemisaPoliticalEconomist。Therelationofthemanufacturertohisoperativeshasnothinghumaninit；itispurelyeconomic。ThemanufacturerisCapital，theoperativeLabour。Andiftheoperativewillnotbeforcedintothisabstraction，ifheinsiststhatheisnotLabour，butaman，whopossesses，amongotherthings，theattributeoflabour-force，ifhetakesitintohisheadthatheneednotallowhimselftobesoldandboughtinthemarket，asthecommodity”Labour”，thebourgeoisreasoncomestoastandstill。Hecannotcomprehendthatheholdsanyotherrelationtotheoperativesthanthatofpurchaseandsale；heseesinthemnothumanbeings，buthands，asheconstantlycallsthemtotheirfaces；heinsists，asCarlylesays，that”CashPaymentistheonlynexusbetweenmanandman。”
Eventherelationbetweenhimselfandhiswifeis，inninety-ninecasesoutofahundred，mere”CashPayment”。Moneydeterminestheworthoftheman；heis”worthtenthousandpounds”。Hewhohasmoneyisof”thebettersortofpeople”，is”influential”，andwhathedoescountsforsomethinginhissocialcircle。Thehucksteringspiritpenetratesthewholelanguage，allrelationsareexpressedinbusinessterms，ineconomiccategories。
SupplyanddemandaretheformulasaccordingtowhichthelogicoftheEnglishbourgeoisjudgesallhumanlife。Hencefreecompetitionineveryrespect，hencetheregimeoflaissez-faire，laissez-alleringovernment，inmedicine，ineducation，andsoontobeinreligion，too，astheStateChurchcollapsesmoreandmore。Freecompetitionwillsuffernolimitation，noStatesupervision；thewholeStateisbutaburdentoit。Itwouldreachitshighestperfectioninawhollyungovernedanarchicsociety，whereeachmightexploittheothertohisheartscontent。Since，however，thebourgeoisiecannotdispensewithgovernment，butmusthaveittoholdtheequallyindispensableproletariatincheck，itturnsthepowerofgovernmentagainsttheproletariatandkeepsoutofitswayasfaraspossible。
Letnoonebelieve，however，thatthe”cultivated”Englishmanopenlybragswithhisegotism。Onthecontrary，heconcealsitunderthevilesthypocrisy。What？ThewealthyEnglishfailtorememberthepoor？Theywhohavefoundedphilanthropicinstitutions，suchasnoothercountrycanboastof！Philanthropicinstitutionsforsooth！Asthoughyourenderedtheproletariansaserviceinfirstsuckingouttheirverylife-bloodandthenpractisingyourself-complacent，Pharisaicphilanthropyuponthem，placingyourselvesbeforetheworldasmightybenefactorsofhumanitywhenyougivebacktotheplunderedvictimsthehundredthpartofwhatbelongstothem！Charitywhichdegradeshimwhogivesmorethanhimwhotakes；charitywhichtreadsthedowntroddenstilldeeperinthedust，whichdemandsthatthedegraded，thepariahcastoutbysociety，shallfirstsurrenderthelastthatremainstohim，hisveryclaimtomanhood，shallfirstbegformercybeforeyourmercydeignstopress，intheshapeofanalms，thebrandofdegradationuponhisbrow。ButletusheartheEnglishbourgeoisie’sownwords。ItisnotyetayearsinceIreadintheManchesterGuardianthefollowinglettertotheeditor，whichwaspublishedwithoutcommentasaperfectlynatural，reasonablething:”MR。EDITOR，——Forsometimepastourmainstreetsarehauntedbyswarmsofbeggars，whotrytoawakenthepityofthepassers-byinamostshamelessandannoyingmanner，byexposingtheirtatteredclothing，sicklyaspect，anddisgustingwoundsanddeformities。Ishouldthinkthatwhenonenotonlypaysthepoor-rate，butalsocontributeslargelytothecharitableinstitutions，onehaddoneenoughtoearnarighttobesparedsuchdisagreeableandimpertinentmolestations。Andwhyelsedowepaysuchhighratesforthemaintenanceofthemunicipalpolice，iftheydonotevenprotectussofarastomakeitpossibletogotooroutoftowninpeace？Ihopethepublicationoftheselinesinyourwidely-circulatedpapermayinducetheauthoritiestoremovethisnuisance；andIremain，——
Yourobedientservant，”ALady。”Thereyouhaveit！TheEnglishbourgeoisieischaritableoutofself-interest；
itgivesnothingoutright，butregardsitsgiftsasabusinessmatter，makesabargainwiththepoor，saying:”IfIspendthismuchuponbenevolentinstitutions，Itherebypurchasetherightnottobetroubledanyfurther，andyouareboundtherebytostayinyourduskyholesandnottoirritatemytendernervesbyexposingyourmisery。Youshalldespairasbefore，butyoushalldespairunseen，thisIrequire，thisIpurchasewithmysubscriptionoftwentypoundsfortheinfirmary！”Itisinfamous，thischarityofaChristianbourgeois！Andsowrites”ALady”；shedoeswelltosignherselfsuch，wellthatshehaslostthecouragetocallherselfawoman！Butifthe”Ladies”aresuchasthis，whatmustthe”Gentlemen”be？Itwillbesaidthatthisisasinglecase；butno，theforegoingletterexpressesthetemperofthegreatmajorityoftheEnglishbourgeoisie，ortheeditorwouldnothaveacceptedit，andsomereplywouldhavebeenmadetoit，whichIwatchedforinvaininthesucceedingnumbers。Andastotheefficiencyofthisphilanthropy，CanonParkinsonhimselfsaysthatthepoorarerelievedmuchmorebythepoorthanbythebourgeoisie；andsuchreliefgivenbyanhonestproletarianwhoknowshimselfwhatitistobehungry，forwhomsharinghisscantymealisreallyasacrifice，butasacrificebornewithpleasure，suchhelphasawhollydifferentringtoitfromthecarelessly-tossedalmsoftheluxuriousbourgeois。
Inotherrespects，too，thebourgeoisieassumesahypocritical，boundlessphilanthropy，butonlywhenitsowninterestsrequireit；asinitsPoliticsandPoliticalEconomy。Ithasbeenatworknowwellontowardsfiveyearstoprovetotheworking-menthatitstrivestoabolishtheCornLawssolelyintheirinterest。Butthelongandshortofthematteristhis:theCornLawskeepthepriceofbreadhigherthaninothercountries，andthusraisewages；butthesehighwagesrenderdifficultcompetitionofthemanufacturersagainstothernationsinwhichbread，andconsequentlywages，arecheaper。
TheCornLawsbeingrepealed，thepriceofbreadfalls，andwagesgraduallyapproachthoseofotherEuropeancountries，asmustbecleartoeveryonefromourpreviousexpositionoftheprinciplesaccordingtowhichwagesaredetermined。Themanufacturercancompetemorereadily，thedemandforEnglishgoodsincreases，and，withit，thedemandforlabour。Inconsequenceofthisincreaseddemandwageswouldactuallyrisesomewhat，andtheunemployedworkersbere-employed；butforhowlong？The”surpluspopulation”ofEngland，andespeciallyofIreland，issufficienttosupplyEnglishmanufacturewiththenecessaryoperatives，evenifitweredoubled；and，inafewyears，thesmalladvantageoftherepealoftheCornLawswouldbebalanced，anewcrisiswouldfollow，andweshouldbebackatthepointfromwhichwestarted，whilethefirststimulustomanufacturewouldhaveincreasedpopulationmeanwhile。Allthistheproletariansunderstandverywell，andhavetoldthemanufacturerstotheirfaces；but，inspiteofthat，themanufacturershaveinviewsolelytheimmediateadvantagewhichtherepealoftheCornLawswouldbringthem。Theyaretoonarrow-mindedtoseethat，evenforthemselves，nopermanentadvantagecanarisefromthismeasure，becausetheircompetitionwitheachotherwouldsoonforcetheprofitoftheindividualbacktoitsoldlevel；andthustheycontinuetoshriektotheworking-menthatitispurelyforthesakeofthestarvingmillionsthattherichmembersoftheLiberalpartypourhundredsandthousandsofpoundsintothetreasuryoftheAnti-CornLawLeague，whileeveryoneknowsthattheyareonlysendingthebutterafterthecheese，thattheycalculateuponearningitallbackinthefirsttenyearsaftertherepealoftheCornLaws。Buttheworkersarenolongertobemisledbythebourgeoisie，especiallysincetheinsurrectionof1842。Theydemandofeveryonewhopresentshimselfasinterestedintheirwelfare，thatheshoulddeclarehimselfinfavourofthePeoplesCharterasproofofthesincerityofhisprofessions，andinsodoing，theyprotestagainstalloutsidehelp，fortheCharterisademandforthepowertohelpthemselves。Whoeverdeclinessotodeclarehimselftheypronouncetheirenemy，andareperfectlyrightinsodoing，whetherhebeadeclaredfoeorafalsefriend。Besides，theAnti-CornLawLeaguehasusedthemostdespicablefalsehoodsandtrickstowinthesupportoftheworkers。Ithastriedtoprovetothemthatthemoneypriceoflabourisininverseproportiontothepriceofcorn；thatwagesarehighwhengrainischeap，andviceversa，anassertionwhichitpretendstoprovewiththemostridiculousarguments，andonewhichis，initself，moreridiculousthananyotherthathasproceededfromthemouthofanEconomist。Whenthisfailedtohelpmatters，theworkerswerepromisedblisssupremeinconsequenceoftheincreaseddemandinthelabourmarket；indeed，menwentsofarastocarrythroughthestreetstwomodelsofloavesofbread，ononeofwhich，byfarthelarger，waswritten:”AmericanEightpennyLoaf，WagesFourShillingsperDay”，anduponthemuchsmallerone:”EnglishEightpennyLoaf，WagesTwoShillingsaDay”。Buttheworkershavenotallowedthemselvestobemisled。Theyknowtheirlordsandmasterstoowell。
Butrightlytomeasurethehypocrisyofthesepromises，thepracticeofthebourgeoisiemustbetakenintoaccount。Wehaveseeninthecourseofour。reporthowthebourgeoisieexploitstheproletariatineveryconceivablewayforitsownbenefit！Wehave，however，hithertoseenonlyhowthe。singlebourgeoismaltreatstheproletariatuponhisownaccount。Letusturnnowtothemannerinwhichthebourgeoisieasaparty，asthepoweroftheState，conductsitselftowardstheproletariat。Lawsarenecessaryonlybecausetherearepersonsinexistencewhoownnothing；andalthoughthisisdirectlyexpressedinbutfewlaws，as，forinstance，thoseagainstvagabondsandtramps，inwhichtheproletariatassuchisoutlawed，yetenmitytotheproletariatissoemphaticallythebasisofthelawthatthejudges，andespeciallytheJusticesofthePeace，whoarebourgeoisthemselves，andwithwhomtheproletariatcomesmostincontact，findthismeaninginthelawswithoutfurtherconsideration。Ifarichmanisbroughtup，orrathersummoned，toappearbeforethecourt，thejudgeregretsthatheisobligedtoimposesomuchtrouble，treatsthematterasfavourablyaspossible，and，ifheisforcedtocondemntheaccused，doessowithextremeregret，etc。，etc。，andtheendofitallisamiserablefine，whichthebourgeoisthrowsuponthetablewithcontemptandthendeparts。
ButifapoordevilgetsintosuchapositionasinvolvesappearingbeforetheJusticeofthePeace——hehasalmostalwaysspentthenightinthestation-housewithacrowdofhispeers——heisregardedfromthebeginningasguilty；hisdefenceissetasidewithacontemptuous”Oh！weknowtheexcuse”，andafineimposedwhichhecannotpayandmustworkoutwithseveralmonthsonthetreadmill。Andifnothingcanbeprovedagainsthim，heissenttothetreadmill，nonetheless，”asarogueandavagabond”。
ThepartisanshipoftheJusticesofthePeace，especiallyinthecountry，surpassesalldescription，anditissomuchtheorderofthedaythatallcaseswhicharenottooutterlyflagrantarequietlyreportedbythenewspapers，withoutcomment。Norisanythingelsetobeexpected。Forontheonehand，theseDogberriesdomerelyconstruethelawaccordingtotheintentofthefarmers，and，ontheother，theyarethemselvesbourgeois，whoseethefoundationofalltrueorderintheinterestsoftheirclass。
AndtheconductofthepolicecorrespondstothatoftheJusticesofthePeace。Thebourgeoismaydowhathewillandthepoliceremaineverpolite，adheringstrictlytothelaw，buttheproletarianisroughly，brutallytreated；hispovertybothcaststhesuspicionofeverysortofcrimeuponhimandcutshimofffromlegalredressagainstanycapriceoftheadministratorsofthelaw；forhim，therefore，theprotectingformsofthelawdonotexist，thepoliceforcetheirwayintohishousewithoutfurtherceremony，arrestandabusehim；andonlywhenaworking-men’sassociation，suchastheminers，engagesaRoberts，doesitbecomeevidenthowlittletheprotectivesideofthelawexistsfortheworking-man，howfrequentlyhehastobearalltheburdensofthelawwithoutenjoyingitsbenefits。
Downtothepresenthour，theproperty-holdingclassinParliamentstillstrugglesagainstthebetterfeelingsofthosenotyetfallenapreytoegotism，andseekstosubjugatetheproletariatstillfurther。Onepieceofcommonlandafteranotherisappropriatedandplacedundercultivation，aprocessbywhichthegeneralcultivationisfurthered，buttheproletariatgreatlyinjured。Wheretherewerestillcommons，thepoorcouldpastureanass，apig，orgeese，thechildrenandyoungpeoplehadaplacewheretheycouldplayandliveoutofdoors；butthisisgraduallycomingtoanend。Theearningsoftheworkerareless，andtheyoungpeople，deprivedoftheirplay-ground，gotothebeer-shops。AmassofactsforenclosingandcultivatingcommonsispassedateverysessionofParliament。WhentheGovernmentdeterminedduringthesessionof1844toforcetheallmonopolisingrailwaystomaketravellingpossiblefortheworkersbymeansofchargesproportionatetotheirmeans，apennyamile，andproposedthereforetointroducesuchathirdclasstrainuponeveryrailwaydaily，the”ReverendFatherinGod”，theBishopofLondon，proposedthatSunday，theonlydayuponwhichworking-meninworkcantravel，beexemptedfromthisrule，andtravellingthusbeleftopentotherichandshutofffromthepoor。
Thispropositionwas，however，toodirect，tooundisguisedtopassthroughParliament，andwasdropped。Ihavenoroomtoenumeratethemanyconcealedattacksofevenonesinglesessionupontheproletariat。Onefromthesessionof1844mustsuffice。AnobscurememberofParliament，aMr。Miles，proposedabillregulatingtherelationofmasterandservantwhichseemedcomparativelyunobjectionable。TheGovernmentbecameinterestedinthebill，anditwasreferredtoacommittee。MeanwhilethestrikeamongtheminersintheNorthbrokeout，andRobertsmadehistriumphalpassagethroughEnglandwithhisacquittedworking-men。Whenthebillwasreportedbythecommittee，itwasdiscoveredthatcertainmostdespoticprovisionshadbeeninterpolatedinit，especiallyoneconferringupontheemployerthepowertobringbeforeanyJusticeofthePeaceeveryworking-manwhohadcontractedverballyorinwritingtodoanyworkwhatsoever，incaseofrefusaltoworkorothermisbehaviour，andhavehimcondemnedtoprisonwithhardlabourfortwomonths，upontheoathoftheemployerorhisagentoroverlooker，i。e。，upontheoathoftheaccuser。Thisbillarousedtheworking-mentotheutmostfury，themoresoastheTenHoursBillwasbeforeParliamentatthesametime，andhadcalledforthaconsiderableagitation。Hundredsofmeetingswereheld，hundredsofworking-men’spetitionsforwardedtoLondontoThomasDuncombe，therepresentativeoftheinterestsoftheproletariat。
Thismanwas，exceptFerrand，therepresentativeof”YoungEngland”，theonlyvigorousopponentofthebill；butwhentheotherRadicalssawthatthepeopleweredeclaringagainstit，oneaftertheothercreptforwardandtookhisplacebyDuncombe’sside；andastheLiberalbourgeoisiehadnotthecouragetodefendthebillinthefaceoftheexcitementamongtheworking-men，itwasignominiouslylost。
MeanwhilethemostopendeclarationofwarofthebourgeoisieupontheproletariatisMalthusLawofPopulationandtheNewPoorLawframedinaccordancewithit。WehavealreadyalludedseveraltimestothetheoryofMalthus。Wemaysumupitsfinalresultinthesefewwords，thattheearthisperenniallyover-populated，whencepoverty，misery，distress，andimmoralitymustprevail；thatitisthelot，theeternaldestinyofmankind，toexistintoogreatnumbers，andthereforeindiverseclasses，ofwhichsomearerich，educated，andmoral，andothersmoreorlesspoor，distressed，ignorant，andimmoral。Henceitfollowsinpractice，andMalthushimselfdrewthisconclusion，thatcharitiesandpoor-ratesare，properlyspeaking，nonsense，sincetheyserveonlytomaintain，andstimulatetheincreaseof，thesurpluspopulationwhosecompetitioncrushesdownwagesfortheemployed；thattheemploymentofthepoorbythePoorLawGuardiansisequallyunreasonable，sinceonlyafixedquantityoftheproductsoflabourcanbeconsumed，andforeveryunemployedlabourerthusfurnishedemployment，anotherhithertoemployedmustbedrivenintoenforcedidleness，whenceprivateundertakingssufferatcostofPoorLawindustry；that，inotherwords，thewholeproblemisnothowtosupportthesurpluspopulation，buthowtorestrainitasfaraspossible。MalthusdeclaresinplainEnglishthattherighttolive，arightpreviouslyassertedinfavourofeverymanintheworld，isnonsense。Hequotesthewordsofapoet，thatthepoormancomestothefeastofNatureandfindsnocoverlaidforhim，andaddsthat”shebidshimbegone”，forhedidnotbeforehisbirthaskofsocietywhetherornotheiswelcome。ThisisnowthepettheoryofallgenuineEnglishbourgeois，andverynaturally，sinceitisthemostspeciousexcuseforthem，andhas，moreover，agooddealoftruthinitunderexistingconditions。If，then，theproblemisnottomakethe”surpluspopulation”useful，totransformitintoavailablepopulation，butmerelytoletitstarvetodeathintheleastobjectionablewayandtopreventitshavingtoomanychildren，this，ofcourse，issimpleenough，providedthesurpluspopulationperceivesitsownsuperfluousnessandtakeskindlytostarvation。Thereis，however，inspiteoftheviolentexertionsofthehumanebourgeoisie，noimmediateprospectofitssucceedinginbringingaboutsuchadispositionamongtheworkers。Theworkershavetakenitintotheirheadsthatthey，withtheirbusyhands，arethenecessary，andtherichcapitalists，whodonothing，thesurpluspopulation。
Since，however，therichholdallthepower，theproletariansmustsubmit，iftheywillnotgood-temperedlyperceiveitforthemselves，tohavethelawactuallydeclarethemsuperfluous……ThishasbeendonebytheNewPoorLaw。TheOldPoorLawwhichrestedupontheActof1601(the43rdofElizabeth)，naivelystartedfromthenotionthatitisthedutyoftheparishtoprovideforthemaintenanceofthepoor。Whoeverhadnoworkreceivedrelief，andthepoormanregardedtheparishaspledgedtoprotecthimfromstarvation。
Hedemandedhisweeklyreliefashisright，notasafavour，andthisbecame，atlast，toomuchforthebourgeoisie。In1833，whenthebourgeoisiehadjustcomeintopowerthroughtheReformBill，andpauperisminthecountrydistrictshadjustreacheditsfulldevelopment，thebourgeoisiebeganthereformofthePoorLawaccordingtoitsownpointofview。Acommissionwasappointed，whichinvestigatedtheadministrationofthePoorLaws，andrevealedamultitudeofabuses。Itwasdiscoveredthatthewholeworking-classinthecountrywaspauperisedandmoreorlessdependentupontherates，fromwhichtheyreceivedreliefwhenwageswerelow；itwasfoundthatthissystembywhichtheunemployedweremaintained，theill-paidandtheparentsoflargefamiliesrelieved，fathersofillegitimatechildrenrequiredtopayalimony，andpoverty，ingeneral，recognisedasneedingprotection，itwasfoundthatthissystemwasruiningthenation，was——”achecktoindustry，arewardforimprovidentmarriages，astimulanttopopulation，andablindtoitseffectsonwages；anationalinstitutionfordiscountenancingtheindustriousandhonest，andforprotectingtheidle，theimprovidentandthevicious；thedestroyerofthebondsoffamilylife；”asystemforpreventingtheaccumulationofcapital，fordestroyingthatwhichexists，andforreducingtherate-payertopauperism；
andapremiumforillegitimatechildren”intheprovisionofaliment。(WordsoftheReportofthePoorLawCommissioners。)ThisdescriptionoftheactionoftheOldPoorLawiscertainlycorrect；
relieffosterslazinessandincreaseof”surpluspopulation”。Underpresentsocialconditionsitisperfectlyclearthatthepoormaniscompelledtobeanegotist，andwhenhecanchoose，livingequallywellineithercase，heprefersdoingnothingtoworking。Butwhatfollowstherefrom？
Thatourpresentsocialconditionsaregoodfornothing，andnotastheMalthusianCommissionersconclude，thatpovertyisacrime，and，assuch，tobevisitedwithheinouspenaltieswhichmayserveasawarningtoothers。
ButthesewiseMalthusiansweresothoroughlyconvincedoftheinfallibilityoftheirtheorythattheydidnotforonemomenthesitatetocastthepoorintotheProcrusteanbedoftheireconomicnotionsandtreatthemwiththemostrevoltingcruelty。ConvincedwithMalthusandtherestoftheadherentsoffreecompetitionthatitisbesttoleteachonetakecareofhimself，theywouldhavepreferredtoabolishthePoorLawsaltogether。
Since，however，theyhadneitherthecouragenortheauthoritytodothis，theyproposedaPoorLawconstructedasfaraspossibleinharmonywiththedoctrineofMalthus，whichisyetmorebarbarousthanthatoflaissez-faire，becauseitinterferesactivelyincasesinwhichthelatterispassive。
WehaveseenhowMalthuscharacterisespoverty，orratherthewantofemployment，asacrimeunderthetitle”superfluity”，andrecommendsforitpunishmentbystarvation。Thecommissionerswerenotquitesobarbarous；deathoutrightbystarvationwassomethingtooterribleevenforaPoorLawCommissioner。”Good，”saidthey，”wegrantyoupoorarighttoexist，butonlytoexist；
therighttomultiplyyouhavenot，northerighttoexistasbefitshumanbeings。Youareapest，andifwecannotgetridofyouaswedoofotherpests，youshallfeel，atleast，thatyouareapest，andyoushallatleastbeheldincheck，keptfrombringingintotheworldothersurplus，eitherdirectlyorthroughinducinginotherslazinessandwantofemployment。
Liveyoushall，butliveasanawfulwarningtoallthosewhomighthaveinducementstobecomesuperfluous。”
TheyaccordinglybroughtintheNewPoorLaw，whichwaspassedbyParliamentin1834，andcontinuesinforcedowntothepresentday。Allreliefinmoneyandprovisionswasabolished；theonlyreliefallowedwasadmissiontotheworkhousesimmediatelybuilt。Theregulationsfortheseworkhouses，or，asthepeoplecallthem，PoorLawBastilles，issuchastofrightenawayeveryonewhohastheslightestprospectoflifewithoutthisformofpubliccharity。Tomakesurethatreliefbeappliedforonlyinthemostextremecasesandaftereveryotherefforthadfailed，theworkhousehasbeenmadethemostrepulsiveresidencewhichtherefinedingenuityofaMalthusiancaninvent。Thefoodisworsethanthatofthemostill-paidworking-manwhileemployed，andtheworkharder，ortheymightprefertheworkhousetotheirwretchedexistenceoutside。Meat，especiallyfreshmeat，israrelyfurnished，chieflypotatoes，theworstpossiblebreadandoatmealporridge，littleornobeer。Thefoodofcriminalprisonersisbetter，asarule，sothatthepaupersfrequentlycommitsomeoffenceforthepurposeofgettingintojail。Fortheworkhouseisajailtoo；hewhodoesnotfinishhistaskgetsnothingtoeat；hewhowishestogooutmustaskpermission，whichisgrantedornot，accordingtohisbehaviourortheinspectorswhim；
tobaccoisforbidden，alsothereceiptofgiftsfromrelativesorfriendsoutsidethehouse；thepauperswearaworkhouseuniform，andarehandedover，helplessandwithoutredress，tothecapriceoftheinspectors。Topreventtheirlabourfromcompetingwiththatofoutsideconcerns，theyaresettoratheruselesstasks:themenbreakstones，”asmuchasastrongmancanaccomplishwitheffortinaday”；thewomen，children，andagedmenpickoakum，forIknownotwhatinsignificantuse。Topreventthe”superfluous”
frommultiplying，and”demoralised”parentsfrominfluencingtheirchildren，familiesarebrokenup；thehusbandisplacedinonewing，thewifeinanother，thechildreninathird，andtheyarepermittedtoseeoneanotheronlyatstatedtimesafterlongintervals，andthenonlywhentheyhave，intheopinionoftheofficials，behavedwell。Andinordertoshutofftheexternalworldfromcontaminationbypauperismwithinthesebastilles，theinmatesarepermittedtoreceivevisitsonlywiththeconsentoftheofficials，andinthereception-rooms；tocommunicateingeneralwiththeworldoutsideonlybyleaveandundersupervision。
Yetthefoodissupposedtobewholesomeandthetreatmenthumanewithallthis。Buttheintentofthelawistooloudlyoutspokenforthisrequirementtobeinanywisefulfilled。ThePoorLawCommissionersandthewholeEnglishbourgeoisiedeceivethemselvesiftheybelievetheadministrationofthelawpossiblewithouttheseresults。Thetreatment，whichtheletterofthelawprescribes，isindirectcontradictionofitsspirit。Ifthelawinitsessenceproclaimsthepoorcriminals，theworkhousesprisons，theirinmatesbeyondthepaleofthelaw，beyondthepaleofhumanity，objectsofdisgustandrepulsion，thenallcommandstothecontraryareunavailing。
Inpractice，thespiritandnottheletterofthelawisfollowedinthetreatmentofthepoor，asinthefollowingfewexamples:
IntheworkhouseatGreenwich，inthesummerof1843，aboyfive。yearsoldwaspunishedbybeingshutintothedead-room，wherehehadtosleepuponthelidsofthecoffins。IntheworkhouseatHerne，thesamepunishmentwasinflicteduponalittlegirlforwettingthebedatnight，andthismethodofpunishmentseemstobeafavouriteone。Thisworkhouse，whichstandsinoneofthemostbeautifulregionsofKent，ispeculiar，insofarasitswindowsopenonlyuponthecourt，andbuttwo，newlyintroduced，affordtheinmatesaglimpseoftheouterworld。TheauthorwhorelatesthisintheIlluminatedMagazine，closeshisdescriptionwiththewords:”IfGodpunishedmenforcrimesasmanpunishesmanforpoverty，thenwoetothesonsofAdam！”InNovember，1843，amandiedatLeicester，whohadbeendismissedtwodaysbeforefromtheworkhouseatCoventry。Thedetailsofthetreatmentofthepoorinthisinstitutionarerevolting。Theman，GeorgeRobson，hadawoundupontheshoulder，thetreatmentofwhichwaswhollyneglected；
hewassettoworkatthepump，usingthesoundarm；wasgivenonlytheusualworkhousefare，whichhewasutterlyunabletodigestbyreasonoftheunhealedwoundandhisgeneraldebility；henaturallygrewweaker，andthemorehecomplained，themorebrutallyhewastreated。Whenhiswifetriedtobringhimherdropofbeer，shewasreprimanded，andforcedtodrinkitherselfinthepresenceofthefemalewarder。Hebecameill，butreceivednobettertreatment。Finally，athisownrequest，andunderthemostinsultingepithets，hewasdischarged，accompaniedbyhiswife。
TwodayslaterhediedatLeicester，inconsequenceoftheneglectedwoundandofthefoodgivenhim，whichwasutterlyindigestibleforoneinhiscondition，asthesurgeonpresentattheinquesttestified。Whenhewasdischarged，therewerehandedtohimletterscontainingmoney，whichhadbeenkeptbacksixweeks，andopened，accordingtoaruleoftheestablishment，bytheinspector！InBirminghamsuchscandalousoccurrencestookplace，thatfinally，in1843，anofficialwassenttoinvestigatethecase。Hefoundthatfourtrampshadbeenshutupnakedunderastair-caseinablackhole，eighttotendays，oftendeprivedoffooduntilnoon，andthatattheseverestseasonoftheyear。Alittleboyhadbeenpassedthroughallgradesofpunishmentknowntotheinstitution；firstlockedupinadamp，vaulted，narrow，lumber-room；theninthedog-holetwice，thesecondtimethreedaysandthreenights；thenthesamelengthoftimeintheolddog-hole，whichwasstillworse；thenthetramp-room，astinking，disgustinglyfilthyhole，withwoodensleepingstalls，wheretheofficial，inthecourseofhisinspection，foundtwoothertatteredboys，shrivelledwithcold，whohadbeenspendingthreedaysthere。Inthedog-holetherewereoftenseven，andinthetramp-room，twentymenhuddledtogether。Women，also，wereplacedinthedog-hole，becausetheyrefusedtogotochurchandonewasshutfourdaysintothetramp-room，withGodknowswhatsortofcompany，andthatwhileshewasillandreceivingmedicinesAnotherwomanwasplacedintheinsanedepartmentforpunishment，thoughshewasperfectlysane。
IntheworkhouseatBacton，inSuffolk，inJanuary，1844，asimilarinvestigationrevealedthefactthatafeeble-mindedwomanwasemployedasnurse，andtookcareofthepatientsaccordingly，whilesufferers，whowereoftenrestlessatnight，ortriedtogetup，weretiedfastwithcordspassedoverthecoveringandunderthebedstead，tosavethenursesthetroubleofsittingupatnight。Onepatientwasfounddead，boundinthisway。
IntheSt。PancrasworkhouseinLondon(wherethecheapshirtsalreadymentionedaremade)，anepilepticdiedofsuffocationduringanattackinbed，noonecomingtohisrelief；inthesamehouse，fourtosix，sometimeseightchildren，sleptinonebed。InShoreditchworkhouseamanwasplaced，togetherwithafeverpatientviolentlyill，inabedteemingwithvermin。
InBethnalGreenworkhouse，London，awomaninthesixthmonthofpregnancywasshutupinthereception-roomwithhertwo-year-oldchild，fromFebruary28thtoMarch19th，withoutbeingadmittedintotheworkhouseitself，andwithoutatraceofabedorthemeansofsatisfyingthemostnaturalwants。
Herhusband，whowasbroughtintotheworkhouse，beggedtohavehiswifereleasedfromthisimprisonment，whereuponhereceivedtwenty-fourhoursimprisonment，withbreadandwater，asthepenaltyofhisinsolence。IntheworkhouseatSlough，nearWindsor，amanlaydyinginSeptember，1844。
Hiswifejourneyedtohim，arrivingatmidnight；andhasteningtotheworkhouse，wasrefusedadmission。Shewasnotpermittedtoseeherhusbanduntilthenextmorning，andthenonlyinthepresenceofafemalewarder，whoforcedherselfuponthewifeateverysucceedingvisit，sendingherawayattheendofhalf-an-hour。IntheworkhouseatMiddleton，inLancashire，twelve，andattimeseighteen，paupers，ofbothsexes，sleptinoneroom。ThisinstitutionisnotembracedbytheNewPoorLaw，butisadministeredunderanoldspecialact(GilbertsAct)。Theinspectorhadinstitutedabreweryinthehouseforhisownbenefit。InStockport，July31st，1844，aman，seventy-twoyearsold，wasbroughtbeforetheJusticeofthePeaceforrefusingtobreakstones，andinsistingthat，byreasonofhisageandastiffknee，hewasunfitforthiswork。Invaindidheoffertoundertakeanyworkadaptedtohisphysicalstrength；hewassentencedtotwoweeksuponthetreadmill。IntheworkhouseatBasford，aninspectingofficialfoundthatthesheetshadnotbeenchangedinthirteenweeks，shirtsinfourweeks，stockingsintwototenmonths，sothatofforty-fiveboysbutthreehadstockings，andalltheirshirtswereintatters。Thebedsswarmedwithvermin，andthetablewarewaswashedintheslop-pails。InthewestofLondonworkhouse，aporterwhohadinfectedfourgirlswithsyphiliswasnotdischarged，andanotherwhohadconcealedadeafanddumbgirlfourdaysandnightsinhisbedwasalsoretained。
Asinlife，soindeath。Thepooraredumpedintotheearthlikeinfectedcattle。Thepauperburial-groundofSt。Brides，London，isabaremorass，inuseasacemeterysincethetimeofCharlesII。，andfilledwithheapsofbones；everyWednesdaythepaupersarethrownintoaditchfourteenfeetdeep；acuraterattlesthroughtheLitanyatthetopofhisspeed；
theditchislooselycoveredin，tobereopenedthenextWednesday，andfilledwithcorpsesaslongasonemorecanbeforcedin。Theputrefactionthusengenderedcontaminatesthewholeneighbourhood。InManchester，thepauperburial-groundliesoppositetotheOldTown，alongtheIrk；this，too，isarough，desolateplace。Abouttwoyearsagoarailroadwascarriedthroughit。Ifithadbeenarespectablecemetery，howthebourgeoisieandtheclergywouldhaveshriekedoverthedesecration！Butitwasapauperburial-ground，theresting-placeoftheoutcastandsuperfluous，sonooneconcernedhimselfaboutthematter。Itwasnoteventhoughtworthwhiletoconveythepartiallydecayedbodiestotheothersideofthecemetery；
theywereheapedupjustasithappened，andpilesweredrivenintonewlymadegraves，sothatthewateroozedoutoftheswampyground，pregnantwithputrefyingmatter，andfilledtheneighbourhoodwiththemostrevoltingandinjuriousgases。ThedisgustingbrutalitywhichaccompaniedthisworkIcannotdescribeinfurtherdetail。
Cananyonewonderthatthepoordeclinetoacceptpublicreliefundertheseconditions？Thattheystarveratherthanenterthesebastilles？I
havethereportsoffivecasesinwhichpersonsactuallystarving，whentheguardiansrefusedthemoutdoorrelief，wentbacktotheirmiserablehomesanddiedofstarvationratherthanenterthesehells。ThusfarhavethePoorLawCommissionersattainedtheirobject。Atthesametime，however，theworkhouseshaveintensified，morethananyothermeasureofthepartyinpower，thehatredoftheworking-classagainsttheproperty-holders，whoverygenerallyadmiretheNewPoorLaw。
FromNewcastletoDover，thereisbutonevoiceamongtheworkers——
thevoiceofhatredagainstthenewlaw。Thebourgeoisiehasformulatedsoclearlyinthislawitsconceptionofitsdutiestowardstheproletariat，thatithasbeenappreciatedevenbythedullest。Sofrankly，soboldlyhastheconceptionneveryetbeenformulated，thatthenon-possessingclassexistssolelyforthepurposeofbeingexploited，andofstarvingwhentheproperty-holderscannolongermakeuseofit。HenceitisthatthisNewPoorLawhascontributedsogreatlytoacceleratethelabourmovement，andespeciallytospreadChartism；and，asitiscarriedoutmostextensivelyinthecountry，itfacilitatesthedevelopmentoftheproletarianmovementwhichisarisingintheagriculturaldistricts。
LetmeaddthatasimilarlawinforceinIrelandsince1838，affordsasimilarrefugeforeightythousandpaupers。Here，too，ithasmadeitselfdisliked，andwouldhavebeenintenselyhatedifithadattainedanythinglikethesameimportanceasinEngland。Butwhatdifferencedoestheill-treatmentofeightythousandproletariansmake。inacountryinwhichtherearetwoandahalfmillionsofthem？InScotlandthereare，withlocalexceptions，noPoorLaws。
IhopethatafterthispictureoftheNewPoorLawanditsresults，nowordwhichIhavesaidoftheEnglishbourgeoisiewillbethoughttoostern。Inthispublicmeasure，inwhichitactsincorporeastherulingpower，itformulatesitsrealintentions，revealstheanimusofthosesmallertransactionswiththeproletariat，ofwhichtheblameapparentlyattachestoindividuals。Andthatthismeasuredidnotoriginatewithanyonesectionofthebourgeoisie，butenjoystheapprovalofthewholeclass，isprovedbytheParliamentarydebatesof1844。TheLiberalpartyhadenactedtheNewPoorLaw；theConservativeparty，withitsPrimeMinisterPeelatthehead，defendsit，andonlyalterssomepettifoggingtriflesinthePoorLawAmendmentBillof1844。ALiberalmajoritycarriedthebill，aConservativemajorityapprovedit，andthe”NobleLords”gavetheirconsenteachtime。ThusistheexpulsionoftheproletariatfromStateandsocietyoutspoken，thusisitpubliclyproclaimedthatproletariansarenothumanbeings，anddonotdeservetobetreatedassuch。LetusleaveittotheproletariansoftheBritishEmpiretoreconquertheirhumanrights。[1]
SuchisthestateoftheBritishworking-classasIhavecometoknowitinthecourseoftwenty-onemonths，throughthemediumofmyowneyes，andthroughofficialandothertrustworthyreports。AndwhenIcallthiscondition，asIhavefrequentlyenoughdoneintheforegoingpages，anutterlyunbearableone，Iamnotaloneinsodoing。Asearlyas1833，Gaskelldeclaredthathedespairedofapeacefulissue，andthatarevolutioncanhardlyfailtofollow。1n1838，CarlyleexplainedChartismandtherevolutionaryactivityoftheworking-menasarisingoutofthemiseryinwhichtheylive，andonlywonderedthattheyhavesatsoquietlyeightlongyearsattheBarmecidefeast，atwhichtheyhavebeenregaledbytheLiberalbourgeoisiewithemptypromises。Andin1844hedeclaredthattheworkoforganisinglabourmustbebegunatonce”ifEurope，atanyrateifEngland，istocontinueinhabitablemuchlonger。”AndtheTimes，the”firstjournalofEurope”，saidinJune，1844:Wartothemansion，peacetothecottage——isawatchwordofterrorwhichmayyetringthroughtheland。Letthewealthybeware！”Meanwhile，letusreviewoncemorethechancesoftheEnglishbourgeoisie。
Intheworstcase，foreignmanufacture，especiallythatofAmerica，maysucceedinwithstandingEnglishcompetition，evenaftertherepealoftheCornLaws，inevitableinthecourseofafewyears。Germanmanufactureisnowmakinggreatefforts，andthatofAmericahasdevelopedwithgiantstrides。America，withitsinexhaustibleresources，withitsunmeasuredcoalandironfields，withitsunexampledwealthofwater-poweranditsnavigablerivers，butespeciallywithitsenergetic，activepopulation，incomparisonwithwhichtheEnglisharephlegmaticdawdlers，——AmericahasinlessthantenyearscreatedamanufacturewhichalreadycompeteswithEnglandinthecoarsercottongoods，hasexcludedtheEnglishfromthemarketsofNorthandSouthAmerica，andholdsitsowninChina，sidebysidewithEngland。Ifanycountryisadaptedtoholdingamonopolyofmanufacture，itisAmerica。ShouldEnglishmanufacturebethusvanquished——andinthecourseofthenexttwentyyears，ifthepresentconditionsremainunchanged，thisisinevitable——themajorityoftheproletariatmustbecomeforeversuperfluous，andhasnootherchoicethantostarveortorebel。DoestheEnglishbourgeoisiereflectuponthiscontingency？
Onthecontrary；itsfavouriteeconomist，McCulloch，teachesfromhisstudentsdesk，thatacountrysoyoungasAmerica，whichisnotevenproperlypopulated，cannotcarryonmanufacturesuccessfullyordreamofcompetingwithanoldmanufacturingcountrylikeEngland。ItweremadnessintheAmericanstomaketheattempt，fortheycouldonlylosebyit；betterfarforthemtosticktotheiragriculture，andwhentheyhavebroughttheirwholeterritoryundertheplough，atimemayperhapscomeforcarryingonmanufacturewithaprofit。Sosaysthewiseeconomist，andthewholebourgeoisieworshipshim，whiletheAmericanstakepossessionofonemarketafteranother，whileadaringAmericanspeculatorrecentlyevensentashipmentofAmericancottongoodstoEngland，wheretheyweresoldforre-exportation！
ButassumingthatEnglandretainedthemonopolyofmanufactures，thatitsfactoriesperpetuallymultiply，whatmustbetheresult？Thecommercialcriseswouldcontinue，andgrowmoreviolent，moreterrible，withtheextensionofindustryandthemultiplicationoftheproletariat。Theproletariatwouldincreaseingeometricalproportion，inconsequenceoftheprogressiveruinofthelowermiddle-classandthegiantstrideswithwhichcapitalisconcentratingitselfinthehandsofthefew；andtheproletariatwouldsoonembracethewholenation，withtheexceptionofafewmillionaires。
Butinthisdevelopmenttherecomesastageatwhichtheproletariatperceiveshoweasilytheexistingpowermaybeoverthrown，andthenfollowsarevolution。
Neitherofthesesupposedconditionsmay，however，beexpectedtoarise。
Thecommercialcrises，themightiestleversforallindependentdevelopmentoftheproletariat，willprobablyshortentheprocess，actinginconcertwithforeigncompetitionandthedeepeningruinofthelowermiddle-class。
Ithinkthepeoplewillnotenduremorethanonemorecrisis。Thenextone，in1846or1847，willprobablybringwithittherepealoftheCornLawsandtheenactmentoftheCharter。WhatrevolutionarymovementstheChartermaygiverisetoremainstobeseen。But，bythetimeofthenextfollowingcrisis，which，accordingtotheanalogyofitspredecessors，mustbreakoutin1852or1853，unlessdelayedperhapsbytherepealoftheCornLawsorhastenedbyotherinfluences，suchasforeigncompetition——bythetimethiscrisisarrives，theEnglishpeoplewillhavehadenoughofbeingplunderedbythecapitalistsandlefttostarvewhenthecapitalistsnolongerrequiretheirservices。If，uptothattime，theEnglishbourgeoisiedoesnotpausetoreflect——andtoallappearanceitcertainlywillnotdoso——arevolutionwillfollowwithwhichnonehithertoknowncanbecompared。Theproletarians，driventodespair，willseizethetorchwhichStephenshaspreachedtothem；thevengeanceofthepeoplewillcomedownwithawrathofwhichtherageof1795givesnotrueidea。Thewarofthepooragainsttherichwillbethebloodiesteverwaged。Eventheunionofapartofthebourgeoisiewiththeproletariat，evenageneralreformofthebourgeoisie，wouldnothelpmatters。Besides，thechangeofheartofthebourgeoisiecouldonlygoasfarasalukewarmjuste-milieu；
themoredetermined，unitingwiththeworkers，wouldonlyformanewGironde，andsuccumbinthecourseofthemightydevelopment。Theprejudicesofawholeclasscannotbelaidasidelikeanoldcoat:leastofall，thoseofthestable，narrow，selfishEnglishbourgeoisie。Theseareallinferenceswhichmaybedrawnwiththegreatestcertainty:conclusions，thepremisesforwhichareundeniablefacts，partlyofhistoricaldevelopment，partlyfactsinherentinhumannature。ProphecyisnowheresoeasyasinEngland，whereallthecomponentelementsofsocietyareclearlydefinedandsharplyseparated。Therevolutionmustcome；itisalreadytoolatetobringaboutapeacefulsolution；butitcanbemademoregentlythanthatprophesiedintheforegoingpages。Thisdepends，however，moreuponthedevelopmentoftheproletariatthanuponthatofthebourgeoisie。Inproportion，astheproletariatabsorbssocialisticandcommunisticelements，willtherevolutiondiminishinbloodshed，revenge，andsavagery。Communismstands，inprinciple，abovethebreachbetweenbourgeoisieandproletariat，recognisesonlyitshistoricsignificanceforthepresent，butnotitsjustificationforthefuture:wishes，indeed，tobridgeoverthischasm，todoawaywithallclassantagonismsHenceitrecognisesasjustified，solongasthestruggleexists，theexasperationoftheproletariattowardsitsoppressorsasanecessity，asthemostimportantleverforalabourmovementjustbeginning；butitgoesbeyondthisexasperation，becauseCommunismisaquestionofhumanityandnotoftheworkersalone。Besides，itdoesnotoccurtoanyCommunisttowishtorevengehimselfuponindividuals，ortobelievethat，ingeneral，thesinglebourgeoiscanactotherwise，underexistingcircumstances，thanhedoesact。EnglishSocialism，i。e。，Communism，restsdirectlyupontheirresponsibilityoftheindividual。ThusthemoretheEnglishworkersabsorbcommunisticideas，themoresuperfluousbecomestheirpresentbitterness，which，shoulditcontinuesoviolentasatpresent，couldaccomplishnothing；andthemoretheiractionagainstthebourgeoisiewillloseitssavagecruelty。If，indeed，itwerepossibletomakethewholeproletariatcommunisticbeforethewarbreaksout，theendwouldbeverypeaceful；butthatisnolongerpossible，thetimehasgoneby。
Meanwhile，Ithinkthatbeforetheoutbreakofopen，declaredwarofthepooragainsttherich，therewillbeenoughintelligentcomprehensionofthesocialquestionamongtheproletariat，toenablethecommunisticparty，withthehelpofevents，toconquerthebrutalelementoftherevolutionandpreventa”NinthThermidor”。Inanycase，theexperienceoftheFrenchwillnothavebeenundergoneinvain，andmostoftheChartistleadersare，moreover，alreadyCommunists。AndasCommunismstandsabovethestrifebetweenbourgeoisieandproletariat，itwillbeeasierforthebetterelementsofthebourgeoisie(whichare，however，deplorablyfew，andcanlookforrecruitsonlyamongtherisinggeneration)tounitewithitthanwithpurelyproletarianChartism。
Iftheseconclusionshavenotbeensufficientlyestablishedinthecourseofthepresentwork，theremaybeotheropportunitiesfordemonstratingthattheyarenecessaryconsequencesofthehistoricaldevelopmentofEngland。
ButthisImaintain，thewarofthepooragainsttherichnowcarriedonindetailandindirectlywillbecomedirectanduniversal。Itistoolateforapeacefulsolution。Theclassesaredividedmoreandmoresharply，thespiritofresistancepenetratestheworkers，thebitternessintensifies，theguerrillaskirmishesbecomeconcentratedinmoreimportantbattles，andsoonaslightimpulsewillsufficetosettheavalancheinmotion。
Then，indeed，willthewar-cryresoundthroughtheland:”Wartothemansion，peacetothecottage！”——butthenitwillbetoolatefortherichtobeware。
NOTES
1。Topreventmisconstructionsandconsequentobjections，IwouldobservethatIhavespokenofthebourgeoisieasaclass，andthatallsuchfactsasrefertoindividualsservemerelyasevidenceofthewayofthinkingandactingofaclass。HenceIhavenotentereduponthedistinctionsbetweenthediversesections，subdivisionsandpartiesofthebourgeoisie，whichhaveamerehistoricalandtheoreticalsignificance。AndIcan，forthesamereason，mentionbutcasuallythefewmembersofthebourgeoisiewhohaveshownthemselveshonourableexceptions。Theseare，ontheonehand，thepronouncedRadicals，whoarealmostChartists，suchasafewmembersoftheHouseofCommons，themanufacturersHindleyofAshton，andFieldenofTodmorden(Lancashire)，and，ontheotherhand，thephilanthropicTories，whohaverecentlyconstitutedthemselves”YoungEngland”，amongwhomaretheMembersofParliament，Disraeli，Borthwick，Ferrand，LordJohnManners，etc。，LordAshley，too，isinsympathywiththem。Thehopeof”YoungEngland”isarestorationoftheold”merryEngland”
withitsbrilliantfeaturesanditsromanticfeudalism。Thisobjectisofcourseunattainableandridiculous，asatireuponallhistoricdevelopment；
butthegoodintention，thecouragetoresisttheexistingstateofthingsandprevalentprejudices，andtorecognisethevilenessofourpresentcondition，isworthsomethinganyhow。Whollyisolatedisthehalf-GermanEnglishman，ThomasCarlyle，who，originallyaTory，goesbeyondallthosehithertomentioned。HehassoundedthesocialdisordermoredeeplythananyotherEnglishbourgeois，anddemandstheorganisationoflabour。[1]PostscriptFrederickEngelsPostscripttoTHECONDITIONOFTHEWORKING-CLASSINENGLAND
ANENGLISHTURNOUT
InmybookontheabovesubjectIwasunabletogivefactualproofofindividualpoints。Inordernottomakethebooktoothickandindigestible，IhadtoconsidermystatementssufficientlyprovenwhenIhadconfirmedthembyquotationsfromofficialdocuments，impartialwritersorthewritingsofthepartieswhoseinterestsIwasattacking。ThissufficedtoguardmeagainstcontradictioninthosecaseswhereIwasunabletospeakfrompersonalobservationwhendescribingparticularlivingconditions。Butitwasnotsufficienttoproduceinthereadertheincontestablecertaintywhichcanonlybegivenbystriking，irrefutablefacts，andwhich，especiallyinanageinwhichweareobligedbytheinfinite”wisdomofthefathers”
tobesceptical，canneverbegeneratedbymerereasoning，nomatterhowgoodtheauthorities。Aboveallwhenitisaquestionofimportantconsequences，offactscoalescingintoprinciples，whenitisnottheconditionofseparate，smallsectionsofthepeoplethathastobedescribed，butthepositionofwholeclassesinrelationtoeachother，thenfactsareabsolutelyessential。
Forthereasonsjustmentioned，Iwasunabletoprovidetheseinallcasesinmybook。Iwillnowmakegoodthisunavoidabledeficiencyand，fromtimetotime，willpresentfactsasIfindtheminthesourcesavailabletome。Inorder，atthesametime，todemonstratethatmyaccountisstillcorrecttoday，IwillonlyusefactswhichhavetakenplacesinceIleftEnglandlastyear，andhavebecomeknowntomeonlysincemybookwaspublished。
ReadersofmybookwillrememberthatIwaschieflyconcernedtodescribethepositionofthebourgeoisieandtheproletariatinrelationtoeachotherandthenecessityofstrugglebetweenthesetwoclasses；andthatIattachedespecialimportancetoprovinghowcompletelyjustifiedtheproletariatwasinwagingthisstruggle，andtorebuttingtheEnglishbourgeoisie’sfinephrasesbymeansoftheiruglydeeds。Fromthefirstpagetothelast，IwaswritingabillofindictmentagainsttheEnglishbourgeoisie。Iwillnowprovideafewmorechoicepiecesofevidence。However，sinceIhavealreadydisplayedenoughpassionovertheseEnglishbourgeoisitisnotmyintentiontoworkmyselfupoverthemonceagainand，sofarasIcan，Iwillkeepmytemper。
Thefirstgoodcitizenandworthypaterfamiliaswearegoingtomeetisanoldfriend，orrathertherearetwoofthem。By1843Messrs。
Pauling&；HenfreyhadalreadyhadLordknowshowmanyconflictswiththeirworkers，who，refusingtobedissuadedevenbythebestofargumentsfromtheirdemandthattheyshouldreceiveincreasedwagesforincreasedwork，stoppedwork。Pauling&；Henfrey，whoareimportantbuildingcontractorsandemploymanybrickmakers，carpenters，andsoon，tookonotherworkers；
thisledtoaconflictandintheendtoabloodybattlewithgunsandcudgelsinPauling&；Henfrey’sbrickyard，whichresultedinthetransportationofhalfadozenworkerstoVanDiemen’sLand，allofwhichisdealtwithatlengthinmybook。ButMessrs。Pauling&；Henfreyhavetotrysomethingonwiththeirworkerseveryyear，otherwisetheyarenothappy；sotheybeganbaitingthemagaininOctober1844。Thistimeitwasthecarpenterswhosewell-beingthephilanthropicbuildingcontractorswereanxioustopromote。FromtimeimmemorialthecustomhadprevailedamongthecarpentersofManchesterandthesurroundingareaofnot”strikingalight”fromCandlemastoNovember17，i。e。，ofworkingfromsixinthemorningtillsixintheeveningduringthelongdays，andofstartingassoonasitwaslightandfinishingassoonasitbegantogetdarkduringtheshortdays。ThenfromNovember17onwardsthelightswerelitandworkcarriedonforthefulltime。Pauling&；Henfrey，whohadlonghadenoughofthis”barbaric”
custom，decidedtoputanendtothisrelicofthe”DarkAges”withthehelpofgaslighting，andwhenoneeveningbeforesixo’clockthecarpenterscouldnotseeanylongerandputawaytheirtoolsandwentfortheircoats，theforemanlitthegasandsaidthattheyhadtoworktillsixo’clock。
Thecarpenters，whomthisdidnotsuit，calledageneralmeetingoftheworkersintheirtrade。Mr。Pauling，muchastonished，askedhisworkersiftheyweredissatisfiedaboutsomethingsincetheyhadcalledameeting。
Someoftheworkerssaidthatitwasnottheywhoweredirectlyresponsibleforcallingthemeeting，butthecommitteeofthecraftunion，towhichMr。Paulingrepliedthathedidn’tcareafigforthecraftunion，buthewouldliketoputapropositiontothem:iftheywouldagreetothelightsbeinglithewouldbepreparedinreturntogivethemthreehoursoffonSaturdays，and——generousfellow——alsotoallowthemtoworkanextraquarterofanhoureverydayforwhichtheywouldgetextrapay！
Theyontheirpartshouldworkhalfanhourlongerwhenallotherworkshopsbegantoputontheirlights。TheworkersconsideredthisproposalandcalculatedthatasaresultMessrs。Pauling&；Henfreywouldgainawholeworkinghoureverydayduringtheshortdays，thateachworkerwouldhavetoworkaltogether92hours，i。e。，91/4daysextrawithoutgettingafarthinginreturn，andthattakingintoaccountalltheworkersemployedbythefirm，theabove-namedgentlemenwouldsave£；400(2，100taler)
inwagesduringthewintermonths。Sotheworkersheldtheirmeetingandexplainedtotheirfellow-workersthatifonefirmsucceededinputtingthisthrough，alltheotherfirmswouldfollowsuitand，asaresult，therewouldbeageneralindirectreductioninwageswhichwouldrobthecarpentersinthedistrictofabout£；4，000ayear。ItwasdecidedthatonthefollowingMondayallthecarpentersemployedbyPauling&；Henfreyshouldhandintheir3-months’noticeandiftheiremployersdidnotchangetheirminds，shouldstopworkwhenthisnoticeexpired。Theuniononitspartpromisedtosupportthembyagenerallevyintheeventofastoppageofwork。
OnMonday，October14，theworkerswentandgaveintheirnotice，whereupontheyweretoldthattheycouldleaverightaway，whichofcoursetheydid。
Thesameeveninganothermeetingofallthebuildingworkerstookplace，atwhichallcategoriesofbuildingworkerspledgedtheirsupporttothestrikers。OntheWednesdayandThursdayfollowing，allthecarpentersinthevicinityemployedbyPauling&；Henfreyalsostoppedworkandthestrikewasthusinfullswing。
Thebuildingemployers，leftsosuddenlyhighanddry，immediatelysentpeopleoutinalldirections，evenasfarasScotland，torecruitworkerssinceinthewholevicinitytherewasnotasoulwillingtoworkforthem。
InafewdaysthirteenmendidarrivefromStaffordshire。Butassoonasthestrikersfoundanopportunityoftalkingtothemandexplainingthedisputeandthereasonswhytheyhadstoppedwork，severalofthenewarrivalsrefusedtocontinueworking。Butthemastershadaneffectivewayofdealingwiththis:theyhadtherecalcitrants，alongwiththosewholedthemastray，broughtbeforeDanielMaude，Esquire，JusticeofthePeace。Butbeforewefollowthemthere，wemustfirstputthevirtuesofDanielMaude，Esq。，intheirproperlight。
DanielMaude，Esq。，isthe”stipendiarymagistrate”’orpaidJusticeofthePeaceinManchester。TheEnglishmagistratesareusuallyrichbourgeoisorlandowners，occasionallyalsoclergymen，whoareappointedbytheMinistry。
ButsincetheseDogberriesunderstandnothingaboutthelaw，theymakethemostflagrantblunders，bringthebourgeoisieintoridiculeanddoitharm，since，evenwhenfacedwithaworker，theyarefrequentlyreducedtoastateofconfusionifheisdefendedbyaskilfullawyer，andeitherneglectsomelegalformwhensentencinghim，whichresultsinasuccessfulappeal，orletthemselvesbemisledintoacquittinghim。Besides，therichmanufacturersinthebigtownsandindustrialareashavenotimetospareforpassingdaysofboredominacourtoflawandprefertoinstallareplacement。
Asaresultinthesetowns，ontheinitiativeofthetownsthemselves，paidmagistratesareusuallyappointed，menversedinlaw，whoareabletotakeadvantageofallthetwistsandsubtledistinctionsofEnglishlaw，andwhennecessarytosupplementandimproveitforthebenefitofthebourgeoisie。Theireffortsinthisrespectareillustratedbythefollowingexample。
DanielMaude，Esq。，isoneofthoseliberaljusticesofthepeacewhowereappointedinlargenumbersundertheWhigGovernment。Amonghisheroicexploits，insideandoutsidethearenaoftheManchesterBoroughCourt，wewillmentiontwo。Whenin1842themanufacturerssucceededinforcingtheworkersofSouthLancashireintoaninsurrection，whichbrokeoutinStalybridgeandAshtonatthebeginningofAugust，some10，000workers，withRichardPilling，theChartist，attheirhead，marchedonAugust9
fromtheretoManchester”tomeettheirmastersontheExchangeandtoseehowtheManchestermarketwas。”Whentheyreachedtheoutskirtsofthetown，theyweremetbyDanielMaude，Esq。，withthewholeestimablepoliceforce，adetachmentofcavalryandacompanyofriflemen。ButthiswasallonlyforthesakeofappearancessinceitwasintheinterestofthemanufacturersandliberalsthattheinsurrectionshouldspreadandforcetherepealoftheCornLaws。InthisDanielMaude，Esq。，wasincompleteagreementwithhisworthycolleagues，andhebegantocometotermswiththeworkersandallowedthemtoenterthetownontheirpromiseto”keepthepeace”andfollowaprescribedroute。
Heknewverywellthattheinsurgentswouldnotdothisnordidheintheleastwishthemto——hecouldhavenippedthewholecontrivedinsurrectioninthebudwithalittleenergybut，hadhedoneso，hewouldnothavebeenactingintheinterestofhisAnti-CornLawfriendsbutintheinterestofSirRobertPeel。Sohewithdrewthesoldiersandallowedtheworkerstoenterthetown，wheretheyimmediatelybroughtallthefactoriestoastandstill。Butassoonastheinsurrectionprovedtobedefinitelydirectedagainsttheliberalbourgeoisieandcompletelyignoredthe”hellishCornLaws”，DanielMaude，Esq。，oncemoreassumedhisjudicialofficeandhadworkersarrestedbythedozenandmarchedofftoprisonwithoutmercyfor”breachofthepeace”——sothathefirstcausedthebreachesandthenpunishedthem。AnothercharacteristicfeatureinthecareerofthisManchesterSolomonisrevealedbythefollowing。SincetheAnti-CornLawLeaguewasseveraltimesbeatenupinpublicinManchester，itholdsprivatemeetings，admissiontowhichisbyticketonly——butthedecisionsandpetitionsofwhicharepresentedtothepublicasthoseofpublicmeetings，andasmanifestationsofManchester”publicopinion”。Inordertoputastoptothisfraudulentboastingbytheliberalmanufacturers，threeorfourChartists，amongthemmygoodfriendJamesLeach，securedticketsforthemselvesandwenttooneofthesemeetings。WhenMr。Cobdenrosetospeak，JamesLeachaskedtheChairmanwhetherthiswasapublicmeeting。Insteadofanswering，theChairmancalledthepoliceandhadLeacharrestedwithoutmoreado。
AsecondChartistaskedthequestionagain，thenathird，andafourth，allweresetupononeaftertheotherbythe”bluebottles”(police)whostoodmassedatthedoor，andpackedofftotheTownHall。TheyappearedthenextmorningbeforeDanielMaude，Esq。，whowasalreadyfullyinformedabouteverything。Theywerechargedwithhavingcausedadisturbanceatameeting，werehardlyallowedtosayaword，andthenhadtolistentoasolemnspeechbyDanielMaude，Esq。，whotoldthemthatheknewthem，thattheywerepoliticalvagabondswhodidnothing，butcauseuproaratmeetingsanddisturbdecent，law-abiding，citizensandastopmustbeputtothiskindofthing。Therefore——andDanielMaude，Esq。，knewverywellthathecouldnotimposeanyrealpunishmentonthem——therefore，hewouldsentencethemtopaythecoststhistime。
ItwasbeforethissameDanielMaude，Esq。，whosebourgeoisvirtueswehavejustdescribed，thattherecalcitrantworkersfromPauling&；
Henfrey’swerehauled。Buttheyhadbroughtalawyerwiththemasaprecaution。
FirsttobeheardwastheworkernewlyarrivedfromStaffordshirewhohadrefusedtocontinueworkingataplacewhereothershadstoppedworkinself-defence。Messrs。Pauling&；HenfreyhadawrittencontractsignedbytheworkersfromStaffordshire，andthiswassubmittedtothemagistrate。[1]ThedefendinglawyerinterjectedthatthisagreementhadbeensignedonaSundayandwasthereforeinvalid。WithmuchdignityDanielMaude，Esq。，admittedthat”businesstransactions”concludedonaSundaywerenotvalid，butsaidthathecouldnotbelievethatMessrs。Pauling&；Henfreyregardedthisasa”businesstransaction”！Sowithoutspendingverymuchtimeaskingtheworkerwhetherhe”regarded”thedocumentasa”businesstransaction”，hetoldthepoordevilthathemusteithercontinueworkingoramusehimselfonthetreadmillforthreemonths——0SolomonofManchester！——Afterthiscasehadbeendealtwith，Messrs。Pauling&；Henfreybroughtforwardthesecondaccused。HisnamewasSalmon，andhewasoneofthefirm’soldworkerswhohadstoppedwork。Hewasaccusedofhavingintimidatedthenewworkersintotakingpartinthestrike。Thewitness——oneoftheselatter——statedthatSalmonhadtakenhimbythearmandspokentohim。
DanielMaude，Esq。，askedwhethertheaccusedhadperhapsusedthreatsorbeatenhim？——No，saidthewitness。DanielMaude，Esq。，delightedathavingfoundanopportunitytodemonstratehisimpartiality——afterhavingjustfulfilledhisdutytothebourgeoisie——declaredthattherewasnothinginthecaseincriminatingtheaccused。Hehadeveryrighttotakeawalkonthepublichighwayandtotalktootherpeopleaslongashedidnotindulgeinintimidatingwordsoractions——hewasthereforeacquittinghim。ButMessrs。Pauling&；Henfreyhadatleasthadthesatisfaction，bypayingthecostsofthecase，ofhavingthesaidSalmonsenttothelock-upforanight——andthatwassomethingafterall。NordidSalmon’shappinesslastlong。ForafterhavingbeendischargedonThursday，October31，hewasupagainbeforeDanielMaude，Esq。，onTuesday，November5th，chargedwithhavingassaultedMessrs。Pauling&；Henfreyinthestreet。
OnthatsameThursdayonwhichSalmonhadbeenacquitted，anumberofScotsmenarrivedinManchester，decoyedbyfalsestatementsthatthedisputeswereoverandthatPauling&；Henfreycouldnotfindenoughworkersintheirdistricttocopewiththeirextensivecontracts。OntheFridayanumberofScottishjoinerswhohadbeenworkingforsometimeinManchester，cametoexplainthecauseofthestoppagetotheircountrymen。Alargenumberoftheirfellow-workers——some400——gatheredaroundtheinnwheretheScotswerequartered。ButtheseScotsmenwerekepttherelikeprisonerswithaforemanonguardatthedoor。Aftersometime，Messrs。Pauling&；
Henfreyarrivedinordertoescortinpersontheirnewworkerstotheirplaceofwork。Whenthegroupcameout，thosegatheredoutsidecalledtotheScotsnottotakeworkagainsttheManchesterrulesofthetradeandnottodisgracetheirfellow-countrymen。TwooftheScotsdidinfactlagbehindalittleandMr。Paulinghimselfranbacktodragthemforward。
Thecrowdremainedquiet，onlypreventedthegroupfrommovingtooquicklyandcalledtotheScotsnottointerfereinotherpeople’sbusiness，togobackhome，etc。Mr。Henfreyfinallylosthistemper；hesawseveralofhisoldworkersinthecrowd，。amongthemSalmon，andinordertoputanendtotheaffair，hegrippedthelatterbythearm。Mr。Paulingseizedhimbytheotherarmandbothshoutedforthepolicewithalltheirmight。
Thepoliceinspectorcameupandaskedwhatchargewasbeingmadeagainsttheman，atwhichbothpartnersweregreatlyembarrassed！Buttheysaid，”Weknowtheman。””Oh，”saidtheinspector，”that’senoughthen，wecanlethimgoforthetimebeing。”Messrs。Pauling&；Henfrey，needingtobringsomekindofchargeagainstSalmon，consideredthematterforseveraldaysuntilfinally，ontheadviceoftheirlawyer，theylodgedtheabovecharge。AfterallthewitnessesagainstSalmonhadbeenheard，W。P。Roberts，the”Miners’AttorneyGeneral”，theterrorofallmagistrates，suddenlyroseuponbehalfoftheaccusedandaskedwhetherheshouldstillcallhiswitnesses，sincenothinghadbeenbroughtagainstSalmon。DanielMaude，Esq。，lethimquestionhiswitnesses，whotestifiedthatSalmonhadbehavedcalmlyuntilMr。Henfreytookholdofhim。Whentheproceedingsforandagainsthadbeenconcluded，DanielMaude，Esq。，saidthathewouldpasssentenceonSaturday。Clearly，thepresenceof”AttorneyGeneral”
Robertsledhimtothinktwicebeforehespokeonce。
OnSaturday，Messrs。Pauling&；Henfreybroughtanadditionalcriminalchargeofconspiracyandintimidationagainstthreeoftheiroldworkers——Salmon，ScottandMellor。Bythistheyhopedtodeliveramortalblowtothecraftunionand，inordertobesecureagainstthedreadedRoberts，theycalledinadistinguishedbarristerfromLondon，Mr。Monk。Ashisfirstwitness，Mr。MonkproducedGibson，oneofthenewlyengagedScotsmen，whohadalsoactedaswitnessagainstSalmonthepreviousTuesday。HedeclaredthatonFriday，November1，asheandhiscompanionscameoutoftheinn，theyweresurroundedbyacrowdofpeoplewhopushedandpulledthemandthatthethreeaccusedwereamongthecrowd。Robertsnowbegantocross-questionthiswitness，confrontedhimwithanotherworker，andaskedwhetherhe，Gibson，hadnottoldthisworkerthepreviousnightthathehadnotknownhewasunderoathwhenhewasgivinghisevidencethepreviousTuesdayandthathehadnotreallyunderstoodwhathewassupposedtodoandsayincourt。Gibsonrepliedthathedidnotknowtheman，hehadbeenwithtwomenthepreviouseveningbutcouldnotsaywhetherthismanwasoneofthemasithadbeendark。ItwaspossiblethathesaidsomethingofthesortsincetheformofoathinScotlandwasdifferentfromthatinEngland；hecouldn’tquiteremember。Mr。MonkthenroseanddeclaredthatMr。Robertshadnorighttoputquestionslikethat，towhichMr。
Robertsrepliedthatobjectionsofthatkindwerequiteinplacewhenonewasrepresentingabadcause，butthathehadtherighttoaskwhathewanted，notonlywherethewitnesswasbornbutalsowherehehadstayedeverydaysincethattime，andwhathehadhadtoeateveryday。DanielMaude，Esq。，confirmedthatMr。Robertshadthisrightbutgavehimthefatherlyadvicetokeeptothepointasmuchaspossible。Then，afterMr。
RobertshadobtainedfromthewitnessastatementthatheonlyreallybeganworkingforPauling&；Henfreyonthedayaftertheincidentonwhichthechargewasbased，thatis，onNovember2，hedismissedhim。ThenMr。
HenfreyhimselfappearedasawitnessandrepeatedwhatGibsonhadsaidabouttheincident。Atthis，Mr。Robertsaskedhim:Areyounotlookingforanunfairadvantageoveryourcompetitors？Mr。Monkagainobjectedtothisquestion。
Verywell，saidMr。Roberts，Iwillputitmoreclearly。Mr。Henfrey，doyouknowthattheworkinghoursofthecarpentersinManchesterarefixedbycertainrules？
Mr。Henfrey:Ihavenothingtodowiththoserules，Ihavetherighttomakemyownrules。
Mr。Roberts:Quiteso。Onoath，Mr。Henfrey，doyounotdemandlongerworkinghoursfromyourworkersthanotherbuildingcontractorsandmastercarpenters？
Mr。Henfrey:Yes。
Mr。Roberts:Howmanyhours，approximately？
Mr。Henfreydidnotknowexactlyandtookouthisnotebookinordertocalculate。
DanielMaude，Esq。:Youneednotspendalongtimeworkingitout，justtellusroughlyhowmany。
Mr。Henfrey:Well，aboutanhourinthemorningsandanhourintheeveningsforsixweeksbeforethetimewhenthelightsareusuallyturnedon，andthesameforsixweeksafterthedaywhenitisusualtostopputtingonthelights。
DanielMaude，Esq。:Soeveryoneofyourworkershastoworkanextra72hoursbeforethelightsareturnedonand72hoursafter，thatis，144hoursin12weeks？
Mr。Henfrey:Yes。
Thisstatementwasreceivedwithsignsofgreatindignationbythepublic。
Mr。MonklookedangrilyatMr。HenfreyandMr。HenfreylookedathisbarristerinconfusionandMr。PaulingtuggedatMr。Henfrey’scoat-tails——butitwastoolate；DanielMaude，Esq。，whoobviouslysawthathewouldhavetoplayatbeingimpartialagainthatday，hadheardtheadmissionandmadeitpublic。
Aftertwounimportantwitnesseshadbeenheard，Mr。Monksaidthathisevidenceagainsttheaccusedwasnowconcluded。
DanielMaude，Esq。，thensaidthattheplaintiffhadnotmadeoutanycaseforacriminalinvestigationagainsttheaccused，nothavingshownthatthethreatenedScotshadbeentakenonbyPauling&；HenfreybeforeNovember1，sincetherewasnoproofofahirecontractoremploymentofthemenconcernedbeforeNovember2，whilechargehadbeenlodgedonNovember1st。ThusonthisdatethemenwerenotyetemployedbyPauling&；HenfreyandtheaccusedhadeveryrighttotryanddeterthembyeverylegalmeansfromgoingtoworkforPauling&；Henfrey。Inreplytothis，Mr。MonksaidthatthedefendantshadbeenengagedfromthemomenttheyleftScotlandandboardedthesteamer。DanielMaude，Esq。，remarkedthatithadindeedbeenstatedthatsuchhirecontracthadbeenmadeoutbutthisdocumenthadnotbeenproduced。Mr。MonkrepliedthatthedocumentwasinScotlandandheaskedMr。Maudetoadjournthecaseuntilitcouldbelaidbeforethecourt。Mr。Robertsintervenedheretosay:thiswassomethingnewtohim。Evidencefortheplaintiffhadbeendeclaredconcludedandnowtheplaintiffwasdemandingthatthecasebeadjournedinordertointroducenewevidence。Heinsistedthatthecaseproceed。DanielMaude，Esq。，decidedthatbothpleasweresuperfluoussincenosubstantiatedchargewasbeforethecourt——uponwhichtheaccusedweredismissed。
Meanwhiletheworkershadlikewisenotbeeninactive。WeekafterweektheyheldmeetingsintheCarpenters’HallortheSocialistHall，calledforaidfromthedifferentcraftunions，whichwasgiveninplenty，neverceasedtomakeknowneverywherethebehaviourofPauling&；HenfreyandfinallysentdelegatesinalldirectionsinordertoinformtheirfellowcraftsmeninalltheareaswherePauling&；Henfreywererecruitingworkers，ofthereasonsforthisrecruitmentandtopreventthemtakingworkwiththisfirm。OnlyafewweeksafterthestrikebeganthereweresevendelegatesontheirwayandpostersonthestreetcornersinallthebigtownsinthecountrywarnedunemployedcarpentersaboutPauling&；
Henfrey。OnNovember9someofthedelegateswhohadreturnedreportedontheirmission。Oneofthese，namedJohnson，whohadbeeninScotland，describedhowPauling&；Henfrey’srepresentativehadrecruitedthirtyworkersinEdinburghbutassoonastheyheardfromhimtherealfactsofthecasetheydecidedtheywouldsoonerstarvethangotoManchesterinsuchcircumstances。AseconddelegatehadbeeninLiverpoolkeepingwatchonthearrivingsteamers，butnotasinglemanhadarrivedandsohefoundthathehadnothingtodo。AthirdmanhadbeeninCheshirebutwhereverhewenthefoundhehadnothingmoretodo，fortheNorthernStar，theworkers’paper，hadbroadcasttherealstateofaffairsfarandwideandhadputanendtoanydesirepeoplehadofgoingtoManchester。Indeedinonetown，Macclesfield，thecarpentershadalreadytakenacollectioninsupportofthestrikersandpromisedtocontributeafurthershillingpermanshouldthenecessityarise。Inotherplaceshewasabletostimulatethelocalcraftsmentoinitiatesuchcontributions。
InordertoprovideMessrs。Pauling&；Henfreywithanotheropportunityofcomingtoanagreementwiththeworkers，allthecraftsmenemployedinthebuildingtradegatheredattheCarpenters’HallonMonday，November18th，electedadeputationtopresentanaddresstothesegentlemenandmarchedinprocessionwithflagsandemblemstothepremisesofPauling&；Henfrey。Firstcamethedeputationfollowedbythestrikecommittee，thenthecarpenters，thebrick-mouldersandkiln-workers，thedaylabourers，bricklayers，sawyers，glaziers，plasterers，painters，aband，stonemasons，cabinetmakers。Theypassedthehotelwheretheir”AttorneyGeneral”，Roberts，wasstayingandgreetedhimwithloudhurrahsastheymarchedby。Arrivedatthepremises，thedeputationfelloutwhilethecrowdmarchedontoStevensonSquarewheretheyweretoholdapublicmeeting。Thedeputationwasreceivedbythepolicewhodemandedtheirnamesandaddressesbeforeallowingthemtoproceedanyfurther。Whentheyhadenteredtheoffice，thepartnersSharps&；Paulingtoldthemthattheywouldacceptnowrittenaddressfromacrowdofworkersbroughttogethermerelyforthepurposeofintimidation。Thedeputationdeniedthatthiswastheiraim，sincetheprocessionhadnotevenstopped，buthadatoncegoneonitsway。Whilethisprocessionof5，000workerscontinueditsmarch，thedeputationwasfinallyreceivedandtakenintoaroominwhichwerepresenttheChiefConstable，anofficerandthreenewspaperreporters。Mr。Sharps，apartnerinPauling&；Henfrey，usurpedtheChairman’sseat，remarkingthatthedeputationshouldbecarefulwhatitsaidaseverythingwouldbedulyrecordedand，incertaincircumstances，wouldbeusedagainstthemincourt——Theynowbegantoaskthedeputationwhattheywerecomplainingabout，etc。，andsaidthattheywantedtogivethemenworkaccordingtotherulescustomaryinManchester。ThedeputationaskedifthemenpickedupinStaffordshireandScotlandwereworkingaccordingtotheregulationsforcraftsmenprevailinginManchester。No，wastheanswer，wehaveaspecialarrangementwiththesemen。Thenyourpeoplearetobegivenworkagain，andontheusualconditions？
Oh，wearenotgoingtonegotiatewithanydeputationbutjustletthemencomeandtheywillfindoutonwhatconditionswearewillingtogivethemwork。Mr。Sharpsaddedthatallfirmswithwhichhewasconnectedhadalwaystreatedtheirworkerswellandpaidthemthehighestwages。Thedeputationrepliedthatif，astheyhadheard，hewasassociatedwiththefirmofPauling&；Henfrey，thisfirmhadfiercelyopposedthebestinterestsoftheworkers——Abrickmaker，amemberofthedeputation，wasaskedwhatthemembersofhiscrafthadtocomplainabout——Oh，nothingjustnow，butwe’vehadenough。Oh，you’vehadenough，haveyou？answeredMr。Paulingwithasneer，andthentooktheopportunityofdeliveringthemalonglectureaboutcraftunions，strikes，etc。，andthemiserytowhichtheybroughttheworkers——whereupononeofthedeputationremarkedtheywerenotbyanymeansdisposedtoallowtheirrightstobetakenawayfromthembitbybit，and，forexample，towork144hoursayearfornothing，aswasnowbeingdemanded——
Mr。Sharpsremarkedthattheyoughtalsototakeintoaccountthelossincurredbythosetakingpartintheprocessionbecausetheywerenotworkingthatday，aswellasthecostofthestrike，thelossofwagessufferedbythestrikers，etc。Oneofthedeputationsaid:That’snobody’sbusinessbutoursandwewon’taskyoutocontributeafarthingfromyourpocket。WiththatthedeputationleftandreportedtotheassembledworkersintheCarpenters’Hall，whereitwasrevealedthatnotonlyhadallthoseintheareaworkingforPauling&；Henfrey(thosewhowerenotcarpentersandwerethereforenotonstrike)cometotakepartintheprocession，butthatmanyofthenewlyimportedScotsmenhadalsostruckthatverymorning。ApainteralsodeclaredthatPauling&；Henfreyhadmadethesameunjustdemandsonthepaintersastheyhadonthejoinersbutthattheytoointendedtoresist。InordertosimplifythewholebusinessandshortenthestruggleitwasdecidedthatallbuildingworkersemployedbyPauling&；Henfreyshouldstopwork。Thistheydid。ThepaintersstoppedworkonthefollowingSaturdayandtheglaziersontheMonday，andonthenewtheatreforwhichPauling&；Henfreyhadreceivedthecontractonlytwobricklayersandfourdaylabourerswereworkingafterafewdaysinsteadof200men。Someofthenewarrivalsalsostoppedwork。
Pauling&；Henfreyfoamedwithrage。WhenthreemoreofthenewarrivalsstoppedworktheywerehauledbeforeDanielMaude，Esq。，onFriday，November22。Thepreviousreverseshadhadnoeffect。AworkercalledReedwasthefirsttobedealtwith，chargedwithbreachofcontract；acontractwhichtheaccusedhadsignedinDerbywaslaidbeforethecourt。Roberts，whowasagaindefending，statedatoncethattherewasnottheslightestconnectionbetweenthecontractandthecharge，theyweretwoquitedifferentthings。
DanielMaude，Esq。，sawthepointrightawayoncetheformidableRobertshadmadeit，butittookhimalong，harassingtimetomakeitcleartotheCounselfortheotherside。Finally，thelatteraskedpermissiontoalterthechargeandafterawhilehecamebackwithonethatwasmuchworsethanthefirst。Whenhesawthatthiswouldnotdoeither，heaskedforafurtheradjournmentofthecaseandDanielMaude，Esq。，gavehimuntilFriday，November29，thatis，awholeweek，toconsiderthematter。
Ihavenotbeenabletofindoutwhetherornothesucceededbecausetheoneissueofthepaperwhichmusthavecontainedareportoftheverdictismissingfrommyfiles。Meanwhile，RobertswentovertotheoffensiveandhadseveraloftherecruitedworkersandoneofPauling&；Henfrey’sforemenbroughtbeforethecourtforforcingtheirwayintothehouseofoneofthestrikersandassaultinghiswife；intwoothercasessomeoftheworkersonstrikehadbeenattacked。Tohisgreatregret，DanielMaude，Esq。，hadtofindalltheaccusedguiltybuthedealtwiththemaslenientlyashepossiblycouldandonlyboundthemovertokeepthepeacethemselvesinfuture。
Finally，attheendofDecember，Messrs。Pauling&；Henfreysucceededingettingsentenceagainsttwooftheiropponents，likewiseonchargesofassaultagainstoneoftheirworkers。Butthistimethecourtwasnotsolenient。Withoutmoreado，itsentencedthemtoamonth’simprisonmentandboundthemovertokeepthepeaceaftertheirrelease。
Fromhereonnewsaboutthestrikebecomesmeagre。ItwasstillinfullswingonJanuary18。Ihavefoundnolaterreports。Ithasprobablycometoanendlikemostothers；inthecourseoftimePauling&；Henfreywillhavesecuredasufficientnumberofworkersfromdistantpartsandfromafewturncoatsfromtheworkers’side；afteralongerorshorterstrikeanditsaccompanyingmisery，forwhichthestrikerswillhavebeenconsoledbytheconsciousnessthattheyhavenothingtoreproachthemselveswithandthattheyhavehelpedtomaintainthelevelofwagesoftheirfellowworkers，themajorityofthemwillhavefoundjobselsewhere。Andasforthepointsindispute，Messrs。Pauling&；Henfreywillhavelearntthattheycannotimposetheirwillsorigorously，sinceforthemalsothestrikeinvolvedconsiderableloss，andtheotheremployers，aftersuchafiercestruggle，willnotthinkofchangingtheoldrulesofthecraftsmencarpenterssosoon。
BrusselsWritteninthesummerandautumn1845
FirstpublishedinDasWestphä；lischeDampfbootBielefeld，1846。IandII
Signed:F。EngelsNOTES
1。Thiscontractcontainedthefollowing:theworkerpledgedhimselftoworkforPauling&；Henfreyforsixmonthsandtobesatisfiedwiththewageswhichtheywouldgivehim；butPauling&；Henfreywerenotboundtokeephimforsixmonthsandcoulddismisshimatanymomentwithaweek’snotice，andalthoughPauling&；HenfreywouldpayhistravellingexpensesfromStaffordshiretoMancbester，theyweretorecoverthembyaweeklydeductionof2shillings(20silvergroschen)fromhiswages。Howdoyoulikethatreallymarvellouscontract？——NotebyEngels。[1]
