LimitationsofthissystemButbeforeweproceedfartherinthissubject，andexamineparticularlyallthecausesofprideandhumility，`twillbepropertomakesomelimitationstothegeneralsystem，thatallagreeableobjects，relatedtoourselves，byanassociationofideasandofimpressions，producepride，anddisagreeableones，humility:Andtheselimitationsarederiv’dfromtheverynatureofthesubject。
I。Supposeanagreeableobjecttoacquirearelationtoself，thefirstpassion，thatappearsonthisoccasion，isjoy；andthispassiondiscoversitselfuponaslighterrelationthanprideandvain-glory。Wemayfeeljoyuponbeingpresentatafeast，whereoursensesareregardwithdelicaciesofeverykind:But`tisonlythemasterofthefeast，who，besidethesamejoy，hastheadditionalpassionofself-applauseandvanity。Tistrue，mensometimesboastofagreatentertainment，atwhichtheyhaveonlybeenpresent；andbysosmallarelationconverttheirpleasureintopride:Buthowever，thismustingeneralbeown’d，thatjoyarisesfromamoreinconsiderablerelationthanvanity，andthatmanythings，whicharetooforeigntoproducepride，areyetabletogiveusadelightandpleasure，Thereasonofthedifferencemaybeexplain’dthus。Arelationisrequisitetojoy，inordertoapproachtheobjecttous，andmakeitgiveusanysatisfaction。Butbesidethis，whichiscommontobothpassions，`tisrequisitetopride，inordertoproduceatransitionfromonepassiontoanother，andconvertthefalsificationintovanity。Asithasadoubletasktoperform，itmustbeendow’dwithdoubleforceandenergy。Towhichwemayadd，thatwhereagreeableobjectsbearnotaverycloserelationtoourselves，theycommonlydotosomeotherperson；andthislatterrelationnotonlyexcels，butevendiminishes，andsometimesdestroystheformer，asweshallseeafterwards。(2)
Herethenisthefirstlimitation，wemustmaketoourgeneralposition，thateverythingrelatedtous，whichproducespleasureorpain，produceslikewiseprideorhumility。Thereisnotonlyarelationrequir’d，butacloseone，andacloserthanisrequir’dtojoy。
II。Thesecondlimitationis，thattheagreeableordisagreeableobjectbenotonlycloselyrelated，butalsopeculiartoourselves，oratleastcommontouswithafewpersons。`Tisaqualityobservableinhumannature，andwhichweshallendeavourtoexplainafterwards，thateverything，whichisoftenpresented。andtowhichwehavebeenlongaccustom’d，losesitsvalueinoureyes，andisinalittletimedespis’dandneglected。Welikewisejudgeofobjectsmorefromcomparisonthanfromtheirrealandintrinsicmerit；andwherewecannotbysomecontrastenhancetheirvalue，weareapttooverlookevenwhatisessentiallygoodinthem。Thesequalitiesofthemindhaveaneffectuponjoyaswellaspride；and`tisremarkable，thatgoods。whicharecommontoallmankind，andhavebecomefamiliartousbycustom，giveuslittlesatisfaction；tho’perhapsofamoreexcellentkind，thanthoseonwhich，fortheirsingularity，wesetamuchhighervalue。Buttho’thiscircumstanceoperatesonboththesepassions，ithasamuchgreaterinfluenceonvanity。Wearerejoic’dformanygoods，which，onaccountoftheirfrequency，giveusnopride。Health，whenitreturnsafteralongabsence，affordsusaverysensiblesatisfaction；butisseldomregardedasasubjectofvanity，because`tisshar’dwithsuchvastnumbers。
Thereason，whyprideissomuchmoredelicateinthisparticularthanjoy，Itaketobe，asfollows。Inordertoexcitepride，therearealwaystwoobjectswemustcontemplate。viz，thecauseorthatobjectwhichproducespleasure；andself，whichistherealobjectofthepassion。Butjoyhasonlyoneobjectnecessarytoitsproduction。viz，thatwhichgivespleasure；andtho’itberequisite，thatthisbearsomerelationtoself，yetthatisonlyrequisiteinordertorenderitagreeable；norisself，properlyspeaking，theobjectofthispassion。Since，therefore，pridehasinamannertwoobjects，towhichitdirectsourview；itfollows，thatwhereneitherofthemhaveanysingularity，thepassionmustbemoreweaken’duponthataccount，thanapassion，whichhasonlyoneobject。Uponcomparingourselveswithothers，asweareeverymomentapttodo，wefindwearenotintheleastdistinguish’d；anduponcomparingtheobjectwepossess，wediscoverstillthesameunluckycircumstance。Bytwocomparisonssodisadvantageousthepassionmustbeentirelydestroy’d。
IIIThe-thirdlimitationis，thatthepleasantorpainfulobjectbeverydiscernibleandobvious，andthatnotonlytoourselves，buttoothersalso。Thiscircumstance，likethetwoforegoing，hasaneffectuponjoy，aswellaspride。WefancyOurselvesmorehappy，aswellasmorevirtuousorbeautiful，whenweappearsotoothers；butarestillmoreostentatiousofourvirtuesthanofourpleasures。Thisproceedsfromcauses，whichIshallendeavourtoexplainafterwards。
IV。Thefourthlimitationisderiv’dfromtheinconstancyofthecauseofthesepassions，andfromtheshortdurationofitsconnexionwithourselves。Whatiscasualandinconstantgivesbutlittlejoy，andlesspride。Wearenotmuchsatisfy’dwiththethingitself；andarestilllessapttofeelanynewdegreesofself-satisfactionuponitsaccount。Weforeseeandanticipateitschangebytheimagination；whichmakesuslittlesatisfy’dwiththething:Wecompareittoourselves，whoseexistenceismoredurable；bywhichmeansitsinconstancyappearsstillgreater。Itseemsridiculoustoinferanexcellencyinourselvesfromanobject，whichisofsomuchshorterduration，andattendsusduringsosmallapartofourexistence。`Twillbeeasytocomprehendthereason，whythiscauseoperatesnotwiththesameforceinjoyasinpride；sincetheideaofselfisnotsoessentialtotheformerpassionastothelatter。
V。Imayaddasafifthlimitation，orratherenlargementofthissystem，thatgeneralruleshaveagreatinfluenceuponprideandhumility，aswellasonalltheotherpassions。Henceweformanotionofdifferentranksofmen，suitabletothepowerofrichestheyarepossestof；andthisnotionwechangenotuponaccountofanypeculiaritiesofthehealthortemperofthepersons，whichmaydeprivethemofallenjoymentintheirpossessions。Thismaybeaccountedforfromthesameprinciples，thatexplain’dtheinfluenceofgeneralrulesontheunderstanding。Customreadilycarriesusbeyondthejustboundsinourpassions，aswellasinourreasonings。
Itmaynotbeamisstoobserveonthisoccasion，thattheinfluenceofgeneralrulesandmaximsonthepassionsverymuchcontributestofacilitatetheeffectsofalltheprinciples，whichweshallexplainintheprogressofthistreatise。For`tisevident，thatifapersonfull-grown，andofthesamenaturewithourselves，wereonasudden-transportedintoourworld，hewou’dbeverymuchembarrasedwitheveryobject，andwou’d。notreadilyfindwhatdegreeofloveorhatred，prideorhumility，oranyotherpassionheoughttoattributetoit。Thepassionsareoftenvary’dbyveryinconsiderableprinciples；andthesedonotalwaysplaywithaperfectregularity，especiallyonthefirsttrial。Butascustomandpracticehavebroughttolightalltheseprinciples，andhavesettledthejustvalueofeverything；thismustcertainlycontributetotheeasyproductionofthepassions，andguideus，bymeansofgeneralestablish’dmaxims，intheproportionsweoughttoobserveinpreferringoneobjecttoanother。Thisremarkmay，perhaps，servetoobviatedifficulties，thatmayariseconcerningsomecauses，whichIshallhereafterascribe-toparticularpassions，andwhichmaybeesteem’dtoorefin’dtooperatesouniversallyandcertainly，astheyarefoundtodo。
Ishallclosethissubjectwithareflectionderiv’dfromthesefivelimitations。Thisreflectionis，thatthepersons，whoareproudest，andwhointheeyeoftheworldhavemostreasonfortheirpride，arenotalwaysthehappiest；northemosthumblealwaysthemostmiserable，asmayatfirstsightbeimagin’dfromthissystem。Anevilmaybereal。tho’itscausehasnorelationtous:Itmaybereal，withoutbeingpeculiar:Itmaybereal，withoutshewingitselftoothers:Itmaybereal，withoutbeingconstant:Anditmayhereal，withoutfallingunderthegeneralrules。Suchevilsasthesewillnotfailtorenderusmiserable，tho’theyhavelittletendencytodiminishpride:Andperhapsthemostrealandthemostsolidevilsoflifewillbefoundofthisnature。
OfviceandvirtueTakingtheselimitationsalongwithus，letusproceedtoexaminethecausesofprideandhumility；andsee，whetherineverycasewecandiscoverthedoublerelations，bywhichtheyoperateonthepassions。Ifwefindthatallthesecausesarerelatedtoself，andproduceapleasureoruneasinessseparatefromthepassion，therewillremainnofartherscruplewithregardtothepresentsystem。Weshallprincipallyendeavourtoprovethelatterpoint；theformerbeinginamannerself-evident。
Tobegin，withviceandvirtue；whicharethemostobviouscausesofthesepassions；`twou’dbeentirelyforeigntomypresentpurposetoenteruponthecontroversy，whichoflateyearshassomuchexcitedthecuriosityofthepublick。whetherthesemoraldistinctionsbefoundedonnaturalandoriginalprinciples，orarisefrominterestandeducation。TheexaminationofthisIreserveforthefollowingbook；andinthemeantimeIshallendeavourtoshow，thatmysystemmaintainsitsgrounduponeitherofthesehypotheses；whichwillbeastrongproofofitssolidity。
Forgrantingthatmoralityhadnofoundationinnature，itmuststillbeallow’d，thatviceandvirtue，eitherfromself-interestortheprejudicesofeducation，produceinusarealpainandpleasure；andthiswemayobservetobestrenuouslyassertedbythedefendersofthathypothesis。Everypassion，habit，orturnofcharacter(saythey)whichhasatendencytoouradvantageorprejudice，givesadelightoruneasiness；and`tisfromthencetheapprobationordisapprobationarises。Weeasilygainfromtheliberalityofothers，butarealwaysindangeroflosingbytheiravarice:Couragedefendsus，butcowardicelaysusopentoeveryattack:Justiceisthesupportofsociety，butinjustice，unlesscheck’dwou’dquicklyproveitsruin:Humilityexalts；butpridemortifiesus。Forthesereasonstheformerqualitiesareesteem’dvirtues，andthelatterregardedasvices。Nowsince`tisgrantedthereisadelightoruneasinessstillattendingmeritordemeritofeverykind，thisisallthatisrequisiteformypurpose。
ButIgofarther，andobserve，thatthismoralhypothesisandmypresentsystemnotonlyagreetogether，butalsothat，allowingtheformertobejust，`tisanabsoluteandinvincibleproofofthelatter。Forifallmoralitybefoundedonthepainorpleasure，whicharisesfromtheprospectofanylossoradvantage，thatmayresultfromourowncharacters，orfromthoseofothers，alltheeffectsofmoralitymust-bederiv’dfromthesamepainorpleasure，andamongtherest，thepassionsofprideandhumility。Theveryessenceofvirtue，accordingtothishypothesis，istoproducepleasureandthatofvicetogivepain。Thevirtueandvicemustbepartofourcharacterinordertoexciteprideorhumility。Whatfartherproofcanwedesireforthedoublerelationofimpressionsandideas？
Thesameunquestionableargumentmaybederiv’dfromtheopinionofthose，whomaintainthatmoralityissomethingreal，essential，andfoundedonnature。Themostprobablehypothesis，whichhasbeenadvanc’dtoexplainthedistinctionbetwixtviceandvirtue，andtheoriginofmoralrightsandobligations，is，thatfromaprimaryconstitutionofnaturecertaincharactersandpassions，bytheveryviewandcontemplation，produceapain，andothersinlikemannerexciteapleasure。Theuneasinessandsatisfactionarenotonlyinseparablefromviceandvirtue，butconstitutetheirverynatureandessence。Toapproveofacharacteristofeelanoriginaldelightuponitsappearance。Todisapproveofitistobesensibleofanuneasiness。Thepainandpleasure，therefore，beingtheprimarycausesofviceandvirtue，mustalsobethecausesofalltheireffects，andconsequentlyofprideandhumility，whicharetheunavoidableattendantsofthatdistinction。
Butsupposingthishypothesisofmoralphilosophyshou’dbeallow’dtobefalse，`tisstillevident，thatpainandpleasure，ifnotthecausesofviceandvirtue，areatleastinseparablefromthem。Agenerousandnoblecharacteraffordsasatisfactioneveninthesurvey；andwhenpresentedtous，tho’onlyinapoemorfable，neverfailstocharmanddelightus。Ontheotherhandcrueltyandtreacherydispleasefromtheirverynature；norisitpossibleevertoreconcileustothesequalities，eitherinourselvesorothers。Thusonehypothesisofmoralityisanundeniableproofoftheforegoingsystem，andtheotheratworstagreeswithit。Butprideandhumilityarisenotfromthesequalitiesaloneofthemind，which，accordingtothevulgarsystemsofethicks，havebeencomprehendedaspartsofmoralduty，butfromanyotherthathasaconnexionwithpleasureanduneasiness。Nothingflattersourvanitymorethanthetalentofpleasingbyourwit，goodhumour，oranyotheraccomplishment；andnothinggivesusamoresensiblemortificationthanadisappointmentinanyattemptofthatnature。Noonehaseverbeenabletotellwhatwitis，andto-shewwhysuchasystemofthoughtmustbereceiv’dunderthatdenomination，andsuchanotherrejected。`Tisonlybytastewecandecideconcerningit，norarewepossestofanyotherstandard，uponwhichwecanformajudgmentofthiskind。Nowwhatisthistaste，fromwhichtrueandfalsewitinamannerreceivetheirbeing，andwithoutwhichnothoughtcanhaveatitletoeitherofthesedenominations？`Tisplainlynothingbutasensationofpleasurefromtruewit，andofuneasinessfromfalse，withoutoarbeingabletotellthereasonsofthatpleasureoruneasiness。Thepowerofbestowingtheseoppositesensationsis。therefore，theveryessenceoftrueandfalsewit；andconsequentlythecauseofthatprideorhumility，whicharisesfromthem。
Theremay，perhaps，besome，whobeingaccustom’dtothestyleoftheschoolsandpulpit。andhavingneverconsider’dhumannatureinanyotherlight，thanthatinwhichtheyplaceit，mayherebesurpriz’dtohearmetalkofvirtueasexcitingpride，whichtheylookuponasavice；andofviceasproducinghumility，whichtheyhavebeentaughttoconsiderasavirtue。Butnottodisputeaboutwords，Iobserve，thatbyprideIunderstandthatagreeableimpression，whicharisesinthemind，whenthevieweitherofourvirtue，beauty，richesorpowermakesussatisfy’dwithourselves:andthatbyhumilityImeantheoppositeimpression。`Tisevidenttheformerimpressionisnotalwaysvicious，northelattervirtuous。Themostrigidmoralityallowsustoreceiveapleasurefromreflectingonagenerousaction；and`tisbynoneesteem’davirtuetofeelanyfruitlessremorsesuponthethoughtsofpastvillainyandbaseness。Letus，therefore，examinetheseimpressions，consider’dinthemselves；andenquireintotheircauses，whetherplac’donthemindorbody，withouttroublingourselvesatpresentwiththatmeritorblame，whichmayattendthem。
SECT。VIIIOfbeautyanddeformityWhetherweconsiderthebodyasapartofourselves，orassenttothosephilosophers，whoregarditassomethingexternal，itmuststillbeallow’dtobenearenoughconnectedwithustoformoneofthesedoublerelations，whichIhaveassertedtobenecessarytothecausesofprideandhumility。Wherever，therefore，wecanfindtheotherrelationofimpressionstojointothisofideas，wemayexpectwithassuranceeitherofthesepassions，accordingastheimpressionispleasantoruneasy。Butbeautyofallkindsgivesusapeculiardelightandsatisfaction；asdeformityproducespain，uponwhateversubjectitmaybeplac’d，andwhethersurvey’dinananimateorinanimateobject。Ifthebeautyordeformity，therefore，beplac’duponourownbodies，thispleasureoruneasinessmustbeconvertedintoprideorhumility，ashavinginthiscaseallthecircumstancesrequisitetoproduceaperfecttransitionofimpressionsandideas。Theseoppositesensationsarerelatedtotheoppositepassions。Thebeautyordeformityiscloselyrelatedtoself，theobjectofboththesepassions。Nowonder，thenourownbeautybecomesanobjectofpride，anddeformityofhumility。
Butthiseffectofpersonalandbodilyqualitiesisnotonlyaproofof。thepresentsystem，byshewingthatthepassionsarisenotinthiscasewithoutallthecircumstancesIhaverequir’d，butmaybeemploy’dasastrongerandmoreconvincingargument。Ifweconsiderallthehypotheses，whichhavebeenform’deitherbyphilosophyorcommonreason，toexplainthedifferencebetwixtbeautyanddeformity，weshallfindthat’allofthemresolveintothis，thatbeautyissuchanorderandconstructionofparts，aseitherbytheprimaryconstitutionofournature，bycustom，orbycaprice，isfittedtogiveapleasureandsatisfactiontothesoul。Thisisthedistinguishingcharacterofbeauty，andformsallthedifferencebetwixtitanddeformity，whosenaturaltendencyistoproduceuneasiness。Pleasureandpain，therefore，arenotonlynecessaryattendantsofbeautyanddeformity，butconstitutetheirveryessence。Andindeed，ifweconsider，thatagreatpartofthebeauty，whichweadmireeitherinanimalsorinotherobjects，isderiv’dfromtheideaofconvenienceandutility，weshallmakenoscrupletoassenttothisopinion。Thatshape，whichproducesstrength，isbeautifulinoneanimal；andthatwhichisasignofagilityinanother。Theorderandconvenienceofapalacearenolessessentialtoitsbeauty，thanitsmerefigureandappearance。Inlikemannertherulesofarchitecturerequire，thatthetopofapillarshou’dbemoreslenderthanitsbase，andthatbecausesuchafigureconveystoustheideaofsecurity，whichispleasant；whereasthecontraryformgivesustheapprehensionofdanger，whichisuneasy。Frominnumerableinstancesofthiskind，aswellasfromconsideringthatbeautylikewit，cannotbedefin’d，butisdiscern’donlybyatasteorsensation，wemayconclude，thatbeautyisnothingbutaform，whichproducespleasure，asdeformityisastructureofparts，whichconveyspain；andsincethepowerofproducingpainandpleasuremakeinthismannertheessenceofbeautyanddeformity，alltheeffectsofthesequalitiesmustbederiv’dfromthesensation；andamongtherestprideandhumility，whichofalltheireffectsarethemostcommonandremarkable。
ThisargumentIesteemjustanddecisive；butinordertogivegreaterauthoritytothepresentreasoning，letussupposeitfalseforamoment，andseewhatwillfollow。`Tiscertain，then，thatifthepowerofproducingpleasureandpainformsnottheessenceofbeautyanddeformity，thesensationsareatleastinseparablefromthequalities，and`tisevendifficulttoconsiderthemapart。Nowthereisnothingcommontonaturalandmoralbeauty，(bothofwhicharethecausesofpride)butthispowerofproducingpleasure；andasacommoneffectsupposesalwaysacommoncause，`tisplainthepleasuremustinbothcasesbetherealandinfluencingcauseofthepassion。Again；thereisnothingoriginallydifferentbetwixtthebeautyofourbodiesandthebeautyofexternalandforeignobjects，butthattheonehasanearrelationtoourselves，whichiswantingintheother。Thisoriginaldifference，therefore，mustbethecauseofalltheirotherdifferences，andamongtherest，oftheirdifferentinfluenceuponthepassionofpride，whichisexcitedbythebeautyofourperson，butisnotaffectedinthelcastbythatofforeignandexternalobjects。Placing，then，thesetwoconclusionstogether，wefindtheycomposetheprecedingsystembetwixtthem，viz，thatpleasure，asarelatedorresemblingimpression，whenplac’donarelatedobject。byanaturaltransition，producespride；anditscontrary，humility。Thissystem，then，seemsalreadysufficientlyconfirm’dbyexperience；the’wehavenotyetexhaustedallourarguments。
Tisnotthebeautyofthebodyalonethatproducespride，butalsoitsstrengthandforce。Strengthisakindofpower；andthereforethedesiretoexcelinstrengthistobeconsider’dasaninferiorspeciesofambition。Forthisreasonthepresentphaenomenonwillbesufficientlyaccountedfor，inexplainingthatpassion。
Concerningallotherbodilyaccomplishmentswemayobserveingeneral，thatwhateverinourselvesiseitheruseful，beautiful，orsurprising，isanobjectofpride；andit’scontrary，ofhumility。Now`tisobvious，thateverythinguseful，beautifulorsurprising，agreesinproducingaseparatepleasureandagreesinnothingelse。Thepleasure，therefore，withtherelationtoselfmustbethecauseofthepassion。
Tho’itshou’dbequestion’d，whetherbeautybenotsomethingreal，anddifferentfromthepowerofproducingpleasure，itcanneverbedisputed，thatassurprizeisnothingbutapleasurearisingfromnovelty，itisnot，properlyspeaking，aqualityinanyobject，butmerelyapassionorimpressioninthesoul。Itmust，therefore，befromthatimpression，thatpridebyanaturaltransitionarises。Anditarisessonaturally，thatthereisnothinginusorbelongingtous，whichproducessurprize，thatdoesnotatthesametimeexcitethatotherpassion。Thuswearevainofthesurprisingadventureswehavemetwith，theescapeswehavemade，anddangerswehavebeenexpos’dto。Hencetheoriginofvulgarlying；wheremenwithoutanyinterest，andmerelyoutofvanity，heapupanumberofextraordinaryevents，whichareeitherthefictionsoftheirbrain，oriftrue，haveatleastnoconnexionwiththemselves。Theirfruitfulinventionsuppliesthemwithavarietyofadventures；andwherethattalentiswanting，theyappropriatesuchasbelongtoothers，inordertosatisfytheirvanity。
Inthisphaenomenonarecontain’dtwocuriousexperiments，whichifwecomparethemtogether，accordingtotheknownrules，bywhichwejudgeofcauseandeffectinanatomy，naturalphilosophy，andothersciences，willbeanundeniableargumentforthatinfluenceofthedoublerelationsabove-mention’d。Byoneoftheseexperimentswefind，thatanobjectproducespridemerelybytheinterpositionofpleasure；andthatbecausethequality，bywhichitproducespride，isinrealitynothingbutthepowerofproducingpleasure。Bytheotherexperimentwefind，thatthepleasureproducesthepridebyatransitionalongrelatedideas；becausewhenwecutoffthatrelationthepassionisimmediatelydestroy’d……Asurprisingadventure，inwhichwehavebeenourselvesengag’d，isrelatedtous，andbythatmeansproducespride:Buttheadventuresofothers，tho’theymaycausepleasure，yetforwantofthisrelationofideas，neverexcitethatpassion。Whatfartherproofcanbedesiredforthepresentsystem？
Thereisonlyoneobjectiontothissystemwithregardtoourbody:whichis，thattho’nothingbemoreagreeablethanhealth，andmorepainfulthansickness，yetcommonlymenareneitherproudoftheone，normortify’dwiththeother。Thiswilleasilybeaccountedfor，ifweconsiderthesecondandfourthlimitations，propos’dtoourgeneralsystem。Itwasobserv’d，thatnoobjecteverproducesprideorhumility，ifithasnotsomethingpeculiartoourself；asalso，thateverycauseofthatpassionmustbeinsomemeasureconstant，andholdsomeproportiontothedurationofourself，which，isitsobject。Nowashealthandsicknessvaryincessantlytoallmen，andthereisnone，whoissolelyorcertainlyfix’dineither，theseaccidentalblessingsandcalamitiesareinamannerseparatedfromus，andareneverconsider’dasconnectedwithourbeingandexistence。Andthatthisaccountisjustappearshence，thatwhereveramaladyofanykindissorootedinourconstitution，thatwenolongerentertainanyhopesofrecovery，fromthatmomentitbecomesanobjectofhumility；asisevidentinoldmen，whomnothingmortifiesmorethantheconsiderationoftheirageandinfirmities。Theyendeavour，aslongaspossible，toconcealtheirblindnessanddeafness，theirrheumsandgouts；nordotheyeverconfessthemwithoutreluctanceanduneasiness。Andtho’youngmenarenotasham’dofeveryhead-achorcoldtheyfallinto，yetnotopicissopropertomortifyhumanpride，andmakeusentertainameanopinionofournature，thanthis，thatweareeverymomentofourlivessubjecttosuchinfirmities。Thissufficientlyprovesthatbodilypainandsicknessareinthemselvespropercausesofhumility；tho’thecustomofestimatingeverythingbycomparisonmorethanbyitsintrinsicworthandvalue，makesusoverlookthesecalamities，whichwefindtobeincidenttoeveryone，andcausesustoformanideaofourmeritandcharacterindependentofthem。
Weareasham’dofsuchmaladiesasaffectothers，andareeitherdangerousordisagreeabletothem。Oftheepilepsy；becauseitgivesahorrortoeveryonepresent:Oftheitch；becauseitisinfectious:Oftheking’s-evil；becauseitcommonlygoestoposterity。Menalwaysconsiderthesentimentsofothersintheirjudgmentofthemselves。Thishasevidentlyappear’dinsomeoftheforegoingreasonings；andwillappearstillmoreevidently，andbemorefullyexplain’dafterwards，SECT。IX
OfexternaladvantagesanddisadvantagesButtho’prideandhumilityhavethequalitiesofourmindandbody。thatisself，fortheirnaturalandmoreimmediatecauses，wefindbyexperience，thattherearemanyotherobjects，whichproducetheseaffections，andthattheprimaryoneis，insomemeasure，obscur’dandlostbythernultiplicityofforeignandextrinsic。Wefoundavanityuponhouses，gardens，equipages，aswellasuponpersonalmeritandaccomplishments；andtho’theseexternaladvantagesbeinthemselveswidelydistantfromthoughtoraperson，yettheyconsiderablyinfluenceevenapassion，whichisdirectedtothatasitsultimateobject，This，happenswhenexternalobjectsacquireanyparticularrelationtoourselves，andareassociatedorconnectedwithus。Abeautifulfishintheocean，ananimalinadesart，andindeedanythingthatneitherbelongs，norisrelatedtous，hasnomannerofinfluenceonourvanity，whateverextraordinaryqualitiesitmaybeendow’dwith，andwhateverdegreeofsurprizeandadmirationitmaynaturallyoccasion。Itmustbesomewayassociatedwithusinordertotouchourpride。Itsideamusthanginamanner，uponthatofourselvesandthetransitionfromtheonetotheothermustbeeasyandnatural。
Buthere`tisremarkable，thattho’therelationofresemblanceoperatesuponthemindinthesamemannerascontiguityandcausation，inconveyingusfromoneideatoanother，yet`tisseldomafoundationeitherofprideorofhumility。Ifweresembleapersoninanyofthevaluablepartsofhischaracter，wemust，insomedegree，possessthequality，inwhichweresemblehim；andthisqualitywealwayschusetosurveydirectlyinourselvesratherthanbyreflexioninanotherperson，whenwewou’dfounduponitanydegreeofvanity。Sothattho’alikenessmayoccasionallyproducethatpassionbysuggestingamoreadvantageousideaofourselves，`tistheretheviewfixesatlast，andthepassionfindsitsultimateandfinalcause。
Thereareinstances，indeed，whereinmenshewavanityinresemblingagreatmaninhiscountenance，shape，air，orotherminutecircumstances，thatcontributenotinanydegreetohisreputation；butitmustbeconfess’dthatthisextendsnotveryfar，norisofanyconsiderablemomentintheseaffections。ForthisIassignthefollowingreason。Wecanneverhaveavanityofresemblingintriflesanyperson，unlesshebepossess’dofveryshiningqualities，whichgiveusarespectandvenerationforhim。Thesequalities，then，are，properlyspeaking，thecausesofourvanity，bymeansoftheirrelationtoourselves。Nowafterwhatmanneraretheyrelatedtoourselves？Theyarepartsofthepersonwevalue，andconsequentlyconnectedwiththesetrifles；whicharealsosuppos’dtobepartsofhim。Thesetriflesareconnectedwiththeresemblingqualitiesinus；andthesequalitiesinus，beingparts，areconnectedwiththewhole；andbythatmeansformachainofseverallinksofthepersonweresemble。Butbesidesthatthismultitudeofrelationsmustweakentheconnexion；`tisevidentthemind，inpassingfromtheshiningqualitiestothetrivialones，mustbythatcontrastthebetterperceivetheminutenessofthelatter，andbeinsomemeasureasham’dofthecomparisonandresemblance。
Therelation，therefore，ofcontiguity，orthatofcausation，betwixtthecauseandobjectofprideandhumility，isalonerequisitetogiverisetothesepassions；andtheserelationsarenothingelsebutqualities，bywhichtheimaginationisconvey’dfromoneideatoanother。Nowletusconsiderwhateffectthesecanpossiblyhaveuponthemind，andbywhatmeanstheybecomesorequisitetotheproductionofthepassions。`Tisevident，thattheassociationofideasoperatesinsosilentandimperceptibleamanner，thatwearescarcesensibleofit，anddiscoveritmorebyitseffectsthanbyanyimmediatefeelingorperception。Itproducesnoemotion，andgivesrisetononewimpressionofanykind，butonlymodifiesthoseideas，ofwhichthemindwasformerlypossess’d，andwhichitcou’drecaluponoccasion。Fromthisreasoning，aswellasfromundoubtedexperience，wemayconclude，thatanassociationofideas，howevernecessary，isnotalonesufficienttogiverisetoanypassion。
`Tisevident，then，thatwhenthemindfeelsthepassioneitherofprideorhumilityupontheappearanceofrelatedobject，thereis，besidetherelationortransitionofthought，anemotionororiginalimpressionproduc’dbysomeotherprinciple。Thequestionis，whethertheemotionfirstproduc’dbethepassionitself，orsomeotherimpressionrelatedtoit。Thisquestionwecannotbelongindeciding，Forbesidesalltheotherarguments，withwhichthissubjectabounds，itmustevidentlyappear，thattherelationofideas，whichexperienceshewstobesorequisiteacircumstancetotheproductionofthepassion，wou’dbeentirelysuperfluous，wereitnottosecondarelationofaffections，andfacilitatethetransitionfromoneimpressiontoanother。Ifnatureproduc’dimmediatelythepassionofprideorhumility，itwou’dbecompleatedinitself，andwou’drequirenofartheradditionorencreasefromanyotheraffection。Butsupposingthefirstemotiontobeonlyrelatedtoprideorhumility，`tiseasilyconceiv’dtowhatpurposetherelationofobjectsmayserve，andhowthetwodifferentassociations，ofimpressionsandideas，byunitingtheirforces，mayassisteachother’soperation。Thisisnotonlyeasilyconceiv’d，butIwillventuretoaffirm`tistheonlymanner，inwhichwecanconceivethissubject。Aneasytransitionofideas，which，ofitself，causesnoemotion，canneverbenecessary，orevenusefultothepassions，butbyforwardingthetransitionbetwixtsomerelatedimpressions。Nottomention，thatthesameobjectcausesagreaterorsmallerdegreeofpride，notonlyinproportiontotheencreaseordecreaseofitsqualities，butalsotothedistanceornearnessoftherelation；whichisaclearargumentforthetransitionofaffectionsalongtherelationofideas；sinceeverychangeintherelationproducesaproportionablechangeinthepassion。Thusonepartoftheprecedingsystem，concerningtherelationsofideasisasufficientproofoftheother，concerning-thatofimpressions；andisitselfsoevidentlyfoundedonexperience，that`twou’dbelosttimetoendeavourfarthertoproveit。
Thiswillappearstillmoreevidentlyinparticularinstances。Menarevainofthebeautyoftheircountry，oftheircounty，oftheirparish。Heretheideaofbeautyplainlyproducesapleasure。Thispleasureisrelatedtopride。Theobjectorcauseofthispleasureis，bythesupposition，relatedtoself，ortheobjectofpride。Bythisdoublerelationofimpressionsandideas，atransitionismadefromtheoneimpressiontotheother。
Menarealsovainofthetemperatureoftheclimate，inwhichtheywereborn；ofthefertilityoftheirnativesoil；ofthegoodnessofthewines，fruitsorvictuals，produc’dbyit；ofthesoftnessorforceoftheirlanguage；withotherparticularsofthatkind。Theseobjectshaveplainlyareferencetothepleasuresofthesenses，andareoriginallyconsider’dasagreeabletothefeeling，tasteorhearing。Howisitpossibletheycou’deverbecomeobjectsofpride，exceptbymeansofthattransitionabove-explain’d？
Therearesome，thatdiscoveravanityofanoppositekind，andaffecttodepreciatetheirowncountry，incomparisonofthose，towhichtheyhavetravell’d。Thesepersonsfind，whentheyareathome，andsurroundedwiththeircountrymen，thatthestrongrelationbetwixtthemandtheirownnationisshar’dwithsomany，that`tisinamannerlosttothem；whereastheirdistantrelationtoaforeigncountry，whichisform’dbytheirhavingseenitandliv’dinit，isaugmentedbytheirconsideringhowfewtherearewhohavedonethesame。Forthisreasontheyalwaysadmirethebeauty，utilityandrarityofwhatisabroad，abovewhatisathome。
Sincewecanbevainofacountry，climateoranyinanimateobject，whichbearsarelationtous，`tisnowonderwearevainofthequalitiesofthose，whoareconnectedwithusbybloodorfriendship。Accordinglywefind，thattheverysamequalities，whichinourselvesproducepride，producealsoinalesserdegreethesameaffection，whendiscover’dinpersonsrelatedtous。Thebeauty，address，merit，creditandhonoursoftheirkindredarecarefullydisplay’dbytheproud，assomeoftheirmostconsiderablesourcesoftheirvanity。
Asweareproudofrichesinourselves，sotosatisfyourvanitywedesirethateveryone，whohasanyconnexionwithus，shou’dlikewisebepossestofthem，andareasham’dofanyone，thatismeanorpoor，amongourfriendsandrelations。Forthisreasonweremovethepoorasfarfromusaspossible；andaswecannotpreventpovertyinsomedistantcollaterals，andourforefathersaretakentobeournearestrelations；uponthisaccounteveryoneaffectstobeofagoodfamily，andtobedescendedfromalongsuccessionofrichandhonourableancestors。
Ihavefrequentlyobserv’d，thatthose，whoboastoftheantiquityoftheirfamilies，aregladwhentheycanjointhiscircumstance，thattheirancestorsformanygenerationshavebeenuninterruptedproprietorsofthesameportionofland，andthattheirfamilyhasneverchang’ditspossessions，orbeentransplantedintoanyothercountyorprovince。Ihavealsoobserv’d，that`tisanadditionalsubjectofvanity，whentheycanboast，thatthesepossessionshavebeentransmittedthro’adescentcompos’dentirelyofmales，andthatthehonour，andfortunehaveneverpastthro’anyfemale。Letusendeavourtoexplainthesephaenomenabytheforegoingsystem。
`Tisevident，thatwhenanyoneboastsoftheantiquityofhisfamily，thesubjectsofhisvanityarenotmerelytheextentoftimeandnumberofancestors，butalsotheirrichesandcredit，whicharesuppos’dtoreflectalustreonhimselfonaccountofhisrelationtothem。Hefirstconsiderstheseobjects；isaffectedbytheminanagreeablemanner；andthenreturningbacktohimself，thro’therelationofparentandchild，iselevatedwiththepassionofpride，bymeansofthedoublerelation，ofimpressionsandideas。Sincethereforethepassiondependsontheserelations，whateverstrengthensanyoftherelationsmustalsoencreasethepassion，andwhateverweakenstherelationsmustdiminishthepassion。Now`tiscertaintheidentityofthepossesionstrengthenstherelationofideasarisingfrombloodandkindred，andconveysthefancywithgreaterfacilityfromonegenerationtoanother，fromtheremoteancestorstotheirposterity，whoareboththeirheirsandtheirdescendants。Bythisfacilitytheimpressionistransmittedmoreentire，andexcitesagreaterdegreeofprideandvanity。
Thecaseisthesamewiththetransmissionofthehonoursandfortunethro’asuccessionofmaleswithouttheirpassingthro’anyfemale。Tisaqualityofhumannature，whichweshallconsider(3)afterwards，thattheimaginationnaturallyturnstowhateverisimportantandconsiderable；andwheretwo`objectsarepresentedtoit，asmallandagreatone，usuallyleavestheformer，anddwellsentirelyuponthelatter。Asinthesocietyofmarriage，themalesexhastheadvantageabovethefemale，thehusbandfirstengagesourattention；andwhetherweconsiderhimdirectly。orreachhimbypassingthro’relatedobjects，thethoughtbothrestsuponhimwithgreatersatisfaction，andarrivesathimwithgreaterfacilitythanhisconsort。`Tiseasytosee，thatthispropertymuststrengthenthechild’srelationtothefather，andweakenthattothemother。Forasallrelationsarenothinghutapropensitytopassfromoneideamaanother，whateverstrengthensthepropensitystrengthenstherelation；andaswehaveastrongerpropensitytopassfromtheideaofthechildrentothatofthefather，thanfromthesameideatothatofthemother，weoughttoregardtheformerrelationasthecloserandmoreconsiderable。Thisisthereasonwhychildrencommonlybeartheirfather’sname，andareesteem’dtobeofnoblerorbaserbirth，accordingtohisfamily。Andtho’themothershou’dbepossestofasuperiorspiritandgeniustothefather，asoftenhappens，thegeneralruleprevails，notwithstandingtheexceprion，accordingtothedoctrineabove-explain’d。Nayevenwhenasuperiorityofanykindissogreat，orwhenanyotherreasonshavesuchaneffect，astomakethechildrenratherrepresent:themother’sfamilythanthefather’s，thegeneralrulestillretainssuchanefficacythatitweakenstherelation，andmakesakindofbreakinthelineofancestors。Theimaginationrunsnotalongthemwithfacility，norisabletotransferthehonourandcreditoftheancestorstotheirposterityofthesamenameandfamilysoreadily，aswhenthetransitionisconformabletothegeneralrules，andpassesfromfathertoson，orfrombrothertobrother。
SECT。XOfpropertyandrichesButtherelation，whichisesteem’dtheclosest，andwhichofallothersproducesmostcommonlythepassionofpride，isthatofproperty。Thisrelation`twillbeimpossibleformefullytoexplainbeforeIcometotreatofjusticeandtheothermoralvirtues。`Tissufficienttoobserveonthisoccasion，thatpropertymaybedefin’d，sucharelationbetwixtapersonandan。objectaspermitshim，butforbidsanyother，thefreeuseandpossessionofit，withoutviolatingthelawsofjusticeandmoralequity。Ifjustice，therefore，beavirtue，whichhasanaturalandoriginalinfluenceonthehumanmind，propertymaybelook’duponasaparticularspeciesofcausation；whetherweconsiderthelibertyitgivestheproprietortooperateashepleaseupontheobjectortheadvantages，whichhereapsfromit。Tisthesamecase，ifjustice，accordingtothesystemofcertainphilosophers，shou’dbeesteemedanartificialandnotanaturalvirtue。Forthenhonour，andcustom，andcivillawssupplytheplaceofnaturalconscience，andproduce，insomedegree，thesameeffects。Thisinthemeantimeiscertain，thatthementionofthepropertynaturallycarriesourthoughttotheproprietor，andoftheproprietortotheproperty；whichbeingaproofofaperfectrelationofideasisallthatisrequisitetoourpresentpurpose。Arelationofideas，join’dtothatofimpressions，alwaysproducesatransitionofaffections；andtherefore，wheneveranypleasureorpainarisesfromanobject，connectedwithusbyproperty。wemaybecertain，thateitherprideorhumilitymustarisefromthisconjunctionofrelations；iftheforegoingsystembesolidandsatisfactory。Andwhetheritbesoornot，wemaysoonsatisfyourselvesbythemostcursoryviewofhumanlife。
Everythingbelongingtoavainmanisthebestthatisanywheretobefound。Hishouses，equipage，furniture，doaths，horses，hounds，excelallothersinhisconceit；and`tiseasytoobserve，thatfromtheleastadvantageinanyofthese，hedrawsanewsubjectofprideandvanity。Hiswine，ifyou’llbelievehim，hasafinerflavourthananyother；hiscookeryismoreexquisite；histablemoreorderly；hisservantsmoreexpert；theair，inwhichhelives，morehealthful；thesoilhecultivatesmorefertile；hisfruitsripenearlierandtogreaterperfection:Suchathingisremarkableforitsnovelty；suchanotherforitsantiquity:Thisistheworkmanshipofafamousartist；thatbelong’doncetosuchaprinceorgreatman:Allobjects，inaword，thatareuseful，beautifulorsurprising，orarerelatedtosuch，may，bymeansofproperty，giverisetothispassion。Theseagreeingivingpleasure，andagreeinnothingelse。Thisaloneiscommontothem；andthereforemustbethequalitythatproducesthepassion，whichistheircommoneffect。Aseverynewinstanceisanewargument，andastheinstancesareherewithoutnumber，Imayventuretoaffirm，thatscarceanysystemwaseversofullyprov’dbyexperience，asthatwhichIhavehereadvanc’d。
Ifthepropertyofanything，thatgivespleasureeitherbyitsutility，beautyornovelty，producesalsopridebyadoublerelationofimpressionsandideas；weneednotbesurpriz’d，thatthepowerofacquiringthisproperty，shou’dhavethesameeffect。Nowrichesaretobeconsider’dasthepowerofacquiringthepropertyofwhatpleases；and`tisonlyinthisviewtheyhaveanyinfluenceonthepassions。Paperwill，onmanyoccasions，beconsider’dasriches，andthatbecauseitmayconveythepowerofacquiringmoney:Andmoneyisnotriches，asitisametalendow’dwithcertainqualitiesofsolidity，weightandfusibility；butonlyasithasarelationtothepleasuresandconveniencesoflife。Takingthenthisforgranted，whichisinitselfsoevident，wemaydrawfromitoneofthestrongestargumentsIhaveyetemploy’dtoprovetheinfluenceofthedoublerelationsonprideandhumility。
Ithasbeenobserv’dintreatingoftheunderstanding，thatthedistinction，whichwesometimesmakebetwixtapowerandtheexerciseofit，isentirelyfrivolous，andthatneithermannoranyotherbeingoughtevertobethoughtpossestofanyability，unlessitbeexertedandputinaction。Buttho’thisbestrictlytrueinajustandphilosophicalwayofthinking，`tiscertainitisnotthephilosophyofourpassions；butthatmanythingsoperateuponthembymeansoftheideaandsuppositionofpower，independentofitsactualexercise。Wearepleas’dwhenweacquireanabilityofprocuringpleasure，andaredispleas’dwhenanotheracquiresapowerofgivingpain。Thisisevidentfromexperience；butinordertogiveajustexplicationofthematter，andaccountforthissatisfactionanduneasiness，wemustweighthefollowingreflections。
Tisevidenttheerrorofdistinguishingpowerfromitsexerciseproceedsnotentirelyfromthescholasticdoctrineoffree-will，which，indeed，entersverylittleintocommonlife，andhasbutsmallinfluenceonourvulgarandpopularwaysofthinking。Accordingtothatdoctrine，motivesdepriveusnotoffree-will，nortakeawayourpowerofperformingorforbearinganyaction。Butaccordingtocommonnotionsamanhasnopower，whereveryconsiderablemotivesliebetwixthimandthesatisfactionofhisdesires，anddeterminehimtoforbearwhathewishestoperform。IdonotthinkIhavefallenintomyenemy’spower，whenIseehimpassmeinthestreetswithaswordbyhisside，whileIamunprovidedofanyweapon。Iknowthatthefearofthecivilmagistrateisasstrongarestraintasanyofiron，andthatIaminasperfectsafetyasifhewerechain’dorimprison’d。Butwhenapersonacquiressuchanauthorityoverme，thatnotonlythereisnoexternalobstacletohisactions；butalsothathemaypunishorrewardmeashepleases，withoutanydreadofpunishmentinhisturn，Ithenattributeafullpowertohim，andconsidermyselfashissubjectorvassal。
Nowifwecomparethesetwocases，thatofaperson，whohasverystrongmotivesofinterestorsafetytoforbearanyaction，andthatofanother，wholiesundernosuchobligation，weshallfind，accordingtothephilosophyexplain’dintheforegoingbook，thattheonlyknowndifferencebetwixtthemliesinthis，thatintheformercaseweconcludefrompastexperience，thatthepersonneverwillperformthataction，andinthelatter，thathepossiblyorprobablywillperformit。Nothingismorefluctuatingandinconstantonmanyoccasions，thanthewillofman；noristhereanythingbutstrongmotives，whichcangiveusanabsolutecertaintyinpronouncingconcerninganyofhisfutureactions。Whenweseeapersonfreefromthesemotives，wesupposeapossibilityeitherofhisactingorforbearing；andtho’ingeneralwemayconcludehimtobedetermin’dbymotivesandcauses，yetthisremovesnottheuncertaintyofourjudgmentconcerningthesecauses，northeinfluenceofthatuncertaintyonthepassions。Sincethereforeweascribeapowerofperforminganactiontoeveryone，whohasnoverypowerfulmotivetoforbearit，andrefuseittosuchashave；itmayjustlybeconcluded，thatpowerhasalwaysareferencetoitsexercise，eitheractualorprobable，andthatweconsiderapersonasendow’dwithanyabilitywhenwefindfrompastexperience，that`tisprobable，oratleastpossiblehemayexertit。Andindeed，asourpassionsalwaysregardtherealexistenceofobjects，andwealwaysjudgeofthisrealityfrompastinstances；nothingcanbemorelikelyofitself，withoutanyfartherreasoning，thanthatpowerconsistsinthepossibilityorprobabilityofanyaction，asdiscover’dbyexperienceandthepracticeoftheworld。
Now`tisevident，thatwhereverapersonisinsuchasituadonwithregardtome，thatthereisnoverypowerfulmotivetodeterhimfrominjuringme，andconsequently`tisuncertainwhetherhewillinjuremeornot，Imustbeuneasyinsuchasituation，andcannotconsiderthepossibilityorprobabilityofthatinjurywithoutasensibleconcern。Thepassionsarenotonlyaffectedbysucheventsasarecertainandinfallible，butalsoinaninferiordegreebysuchasarepossibleandcontingent。Andtho’perhapsIneverreallyfeelanyharm，anddiscoverbytheevent，that，philosophicallyspeaking，thepersonneverhadanypowerofharmingme；sincehedidnotexertany；thispreventsnotmyuneasinessfromtheprecedinguncertainty。Theagreeablepassionsmayhereoperateaswellastheuneasy，andconveyapleasurewhenIperceiveagoodtobecomeeitherpossibleorprobablebythepossibilityorprobabilityofanother’sbestowingitonme，upontheremovalofanystrongmotives，whichmightformerlyhavehinder’dhim。
Butwemayfartherobserve，thatthissatisfactionencreases，whenanygoodapproachesinsuchamannerthatititinone’sownpowertotakeorleaveit，andthereneitherisanyphysicalimpediment，noranyverystrongmotivetohinderourenjoyment。Asallmendesirepleasure，nothingcanbemoreprobable，thanitsexistencewhenthereisnoexternalobstacletotheproducingit，andmenperceivenodangerinfollowingtheirinclinations。Inthatcasetheirimaginationeasilyanticipatesthesatisfaction，andconveysthesamejoy，asiftheywerepersuadedofitsrealandactualexistence。
Butthisaccountsnotsufficientlyforthesatisfaction，whichattendsriches。Amiserreceivesdelightfromhismoney；thatis，fromthepoweritaffordshimofprocuringallthepleasuresandconveniencesoflife，tho’heknowshehasenjoy’dhisrichesforfortyyearswithouteveremployingthem；andconsequentlycannotconcludebyanyspeciesofreasoning，thattherealexistenceofthesepleasuresisnearer，thanifhewereentirelydepriv’dofallhispossessions。Buttho’hecannotformanysuchconclusioninawayofreasoningconcerningshenearerapproachofthepleasure，`tiscertainheimaginesittoapproachnearer，wheneverallexternalobstaclesareremov’d，alongwiththemorepowerfulmotivesofinterestanddanger，whichopposeit。ForfarthersatisfactiononthisheadImustrefertomyaccountofthewill，whereIshall(4)explainthatfalsesensationofliberty，whichmake，usimaginewecanperformanything，thatisnotverydangerousordestructive。Wheneveranyotherpersonisundernostrongobligationsofinteresttoforbearanypleasure，wejudgefromexperience，thatthepleasurewillexist，andthathewillprobablyobtainit。Butwhenourselvesareinthatsituation，wejudgefromanillusionofthefancy，thawthepleasureisstillcloserandmoreimmediate。Thewillseemstomoveeasilyeveryway，andcastsashadoworimageofitself，eventothatside，onwhichitdidnotsettle。Bymeansofthisimagetheenjoymentseemstoapproachnearertous，andgivesusthesamelivelysatisfaction，asifitwereperfectlycertainandunavoidable。
`Twillnowbeeasytodrawthiswholereasoningtoapaint，andtoprove，thatwhenrichesproduceanyprideorvanityintheirpossessors，astheyneverfailsodo，`tisonlybymeansofadoublerelationofimpressionsandideas。Theveryessenceofrichesconsistsinthepowerofprocuringthepleasuresandconveniencesoflife。Theveryessenceofthisconsistsintheprobabilityofitsexercise，andinitscausingustoanticipate，byatrueorfalsereasoning，therealexistenceofthepleasure。Thisanticipationofpleasureis，initself，averyconsiderablepleasure；andasitscauseissomepossessionorproperty，whichweenjoy，andwhichistherebyrelatedtous，weheredearlyseeallthepartsoftheforegoingsystemmostexactlyanddistinctlydrawnoutbeforeus。Forthesamereason，thatrichescausepleasureandpride，andpovertyexcitesuneasinessandhumility，powermustproducetheformeremotions，andslaverythelatter。Poweroranauthorityoverothersmakesuscapableofsatisfyingallourdesires；asslavery，bysubjectingustothewillofothers，exposesustoathousandwants，andmortifications。
Tishereworthobserving，thatthevanityofpower，orshameofslavery，aremuchaugmentedbytheconsiderationofthepersons，overwhomweexerciseourauthority，orwhoexerciseitoverus。Forsupposingitpossibletoframestatuesofsuchanadmirablemechanism，thattheycou’dmoveandactinobediencetothewill；`tisevidentthepossessionofthemwou’dgivepleasureandpride，butnottosuchadegree，asthesameauthority，whenexertedoversensibleandrationalcreatures，whosecondition，beingcompar’dtoourown，makesitseemmoreagreeableandhonourable。Comparisonisineverycaseasuremethodofaugmentingouresteemofanything。Arichmanfeelsthefelicityofhisconditionbetterbyopposingittothatofabeggar。Butthereisapeculiaradvantageinpower，bythecontrast，whichis，inamanner，presentedtous，betwixtourselvesandthepersonwecommand。Thecomparisonisobviousandnatural:Theimaginationfindsitintheverysubject:Thepassageofthethoughttoitsconceptionissmoothandeasy。Andthatthiscircumstancehasaconsiderableeffectinaugmentingitsinfluence，willappearafterwardsinexaminingthenatureofmaliceandenvy。
OftheloveoffameButbesidetheseoriginalcausesofprideandhumility，thereisasecondaryoneintheopinionsofothers，whichhasanequalinfluenceontheaffections。Ourreputation，ourcharacter，ournameareconsiderationsofvastweightandimportance；andeventheothercausesofpride；virtue，beautyandriches；havelittleinfluence，whennotsecondedbytheopinionsandsentimentsofothers。Inordertoaccountforthisphaenomenon`twillbenecessarytotakesomecompass，andfirstexplainthenatureofsympathy。
Noqualityofhumannatureismoreremarkable，bothinitselfandinitsconsequences，thanthatpropensitywehavetosympathizewithothers，andtoreceivebycommunicationtheirinclinationsandsentiments，howeverdifferentfrom，orevencontrarytoourown。Thisisnotonlyconspicuousinchildren，whoimplicitlyembraceeveryopinionpropos’dtothem；butalsoinmenofthegreatestjudgmentandunderstanding，whofinditverydifficulttofollowtheirownreasonorinclination，inoppositiontothatoftheirfriendsanddailycompanions。Tothisprincipleweoughttoascribethegreatuniformitywemayobserveinthehumoursandturnofthinkingofthoseofthesamenation；and`tismuchmoreprobable，thatthisresemblancearisesfromsympathy，thanfromanyinfluenceofthesoilandclimate，which，tho’theycontinueinvariablythesame，arenotabletopreservethecharacterofanationthesameforacenturytogether。Agood-natur’dmanfindshimselfinaninstantofthesamehumourwithhiscompany；andeventheproudestandmostsurlytakeatincturefromtheircountrymenandacquaintance。Achearfulcountenanceinfusesasensiblecomplacencyandserenityintomymind；asanangryorsorrowfulonethrowsasuddendumpuponme。Hatred，resentment，esteem，love，courage，mirthandmelancholy；allthesepassionsIfeelmorefromcommunicationthanfrommyownnaturaltemperanddisposition。Soremarkableaphaenomenonmeritsourattention，andmustbetrac’duptoitsfirstprinciples。
Whenanyaffectionisinfus’dbysympathy，itisatfirstknownonlybyitseffects，andbythoseexternalsignsinthecountenanceandconversation，whichconveyanideaofit。Thisideaispresentlyconvertedintoanimpression，andacquiressuchadegreeofforceandvivacity，astobecometheverypassionitself，andproduceanequalemotion，asanyoriginalaffection。Howeverinstantaneousthischangeoftheideaintoanimpressionmaybe，itproceedsfromcertainviewsandreflections，whichwillnotescapethestrictscrutinyofa。philosopher，tho’theymaythepersonhimself，whomakesthem。
`Tisevident，thattheidea，orratherimpressionofourselvesisalwaysintimatelypresentwithus，andthatourconsciousnessgivesussolivelyaconceptionofourownperson，that’tisnotpossibletoimagine，thatanythingcaninthisparticulargobeyondit。Whateverobject，therefore，isrelatedtoourselvesmustbeconceivedwithalittlevivacityofconception，accordingtotheforegoingprinciples；andtho’thisrelationshou’dnotbesostrongasthatofcausation，itmuststillhaveaconsiderableinfluence。Resemblanceandcontiguityarerelationsnottobeneglected；especiallywhenbyaninferencefromcauseandeffect，andbytheobservationofexternalsigns，weareinform’doftherealexistenceoftheobject，whichisresemblingorcontiguous。
Now`tisobvious，thatnaturehaspreserv’dagreatresemblanceamongallhumancreatures，andthatweneverremarkanypassionorprincipleinothers，ofwhich，insomedegreeorother，wemaynotfindaparallelinourselves。Thecaseisthesamewiththefabricofthemind，aswiththatofthebody。Howeverthepartsmaydifferinshapeorsize，theirstructureandcompositionareingeneralthesame。Thereisaveryremarkableresemblance，whichpreservesitselfamidstalltheirvariety；andthisresemblancemustverymuchcontributetomakeusenterintothesentimentsofothers；andembracethemwithfacilityandpleasure。Accordinglywefind，thatwhere，besidethegeneralresemblanceofournatures，thereisanypeculiarsimilarityinourmanners，orcharacter，orcountry，orlanguage；，itfacilitatesthesympathy。Thestrongertherelationisbetwixtourselvesandanyobject，themoreeasilydoestheimaginationmakethetransition，andconveytotherelatedideathevivacityofconception，withwhichwealwaysformtheideaofourownperson。
Norisresemblancetheonlyrelation，whichhasthiseffect，butreceivesnewforcefromotherrelations，thatmayaccompanyit。Thesentimentsofothershavelittleinfluence，whenfarremov’dfromus，andrequiretherelationofcontiguity，tomakethemcommunicatethemselvesentirely。Therelationsofblood，beingaspeciesofcausation，maysometimescontributetothesameeffect；asalsoacquaintance，whichoperatesinthesamemannerwitheducationandcustom；asweshallseemorefully(5)afterwards。Alltheserelations，whenunitedtogether，conveytheimpressionorconsciousnessofourownpersontotheideaofthesentimentsorpassionsofothers，andmakesusconceivetheminthestrongestandmostlivelymanner。
Ithasbeenremark’dinthebeginningofthistreatise，thatallideasareborrow’dfromimpressions，andthatthesetwokindsofperceptionsdifferonlyinthedegreesofforceandvivacity，withwhichtheystrikeuponthesoul。Thecomponentpart。ofideasandimpressionsarepreciselyalike。Themannerandorderoftheirappearancemaybethesame。Thedifferentdegreesoftheirforceandvivacityare，therefore，theonlyparticulars，thatdistinguishthem:Andasthisdifferencemayberemov’d，insomemeasure，byarelationbetwixttheimpressionsandideas，`tisnowonderanideaofasentimentorpassion，maybythismeansbeinliven’dastobecometheverysentimentorpassion。Thelivelyideaofanyobjectalwaysapproachesisimpression；and`tiscertainwemayfeelsicknessandpainfromthemereforceofimagination，andmakeamaladyrealbyoftenthinkingofit。Butthisismostremarkableintheopinionsandaffections；and`tisthereprincipallythatalivelyideaisconvertedintoanimpression。Ouraffectionsdependmoreuponourselves，andtheinternaloperationsofthemind，thananyotherimpressions；forwhichreasontheyarisemorenaturallyfromtheimagination，andfromeverylivelyideaweformofthem。Thisisthenatureandcauseofsympathy；and`tisafterthismannerweentersodeepintotheopinionsandaffectionsofothers，wheneverwediscoverthem。
Whatisprincipallyremarkableinthiswholeaffairisthestrongconfirmationthesephaenomenagivetotheforegoingsystemconcerningtheunderstanding，andconsequentlytothepresentoneconcerningthepassions；sincetheseareanalogoustoeachother。`Tisindeedevident，thatwhenwesympathizewiththepassionsandsentimentsofothers，thesemovementsappearatfirstinourmindasmereideas，andareconceiv’dtobelongtoanotherperson，asweconceiveanyothermatteroffact。Tisalsoevident，thattheideasoftheaffectionsofothersareconvertedintotheveryimpressionstheyrepresent，andthatthepassionsariseinconformitytotheimagesweformofthem。AUthisisanobjectoftheplainestexperience，anddependsnotonanyhypothesisofphilosophy。Thatsciencecanonlybeadmittedtoexplainthephaenomena；tho’atthesametimeitmustbeconfest，theyaresoclearofthemselves，thatthereisbutlittleoccasiontoemployit。Forbesidestherelationofcauseandeffect，bywhichweareconvinc’doftherealityofthepassion，withwhichwesympathize；besidesthis，Isay，wemustbeassistedbytherelationsofresemblanceandcontiguity，inordertofeelthesympathyinitsfullperfection。Andsincetheserelationscanentirelyconvertanideaintoanimpression，andconveythevivacityofthelatterintotheformer，soperfectlyastolosenothingofitinthetransition，wemayeasilyconceivehowtherelationofcauseandeffectalone，mayservetostrengthenandinlivenanidea。Insympathythereisanevidentconversionofanideaintoanimpression。Thisconversionarisesfromtherelationofobjectstoourself。Ourselfisalwaysintimatelypresenttous。Letuscompareallthesecircumstances，andweshallfind，thatsympathyisexactlycorrespondenttotheoperationsofourunderstanding；andevencontainssomethingmoresurprizingandextraordinary。
`Tisnowtimetoturnourviewfromthegeneralconsiderationofsympathy，toitsinfluenceonprideandhumility，whenthesepassionsarisefrompraiseandblame，fromreputationandinfamy。Wemayobserve，thatnopersoniseverprais’dbyanotherforanyquality，whichwou’dnot，ifreal，produce，ofitself，aprideinthepersonpossestofit。Theelogiumseitherturnuponhispower，orriches，orfamily，orvirtue；allofwhicharesubjectsofvanity，thatwehavealreadyexplain’dandaccountedfor。`Tiscertain，then，thatifapersonconsider’dhimselfinthesamelight，inwhichheappearstohisadmirer，hewou’dfirstreceiveaseparatepleasure，andafterwardsaprideorself-satisfaction，accordingtothehypothesisaboveexplain’d。Nownothingismorenaturalthanforustoembracetheopinionsofothersinthisparticular；bothfromsympathy，whichrendersalltheirsentimentsintimatelypresenttous；andfromreasoning，whichmakesusregardtheirjudgment，asakindofargumentforwhattheyaffirm。Thesetwoprinciplesofauthorityandsympathyinfluencealmostallouropinions；butmusthaveapeculiarinfluence，whenwejudgeofourownworthandcharacter。Suchjudgmentsarealwaysattendedwithpassion；(6)andnothingtendsmoretodisturbourunderstanding，andprecipitateusintoanyopinions，howeverunreasonable，thantheirconnexionwithpassion；whichdiffusesitselfovertheimagination，andgivesanadditionalforcetoeveryrelatedidea。Towhichwemayadd，thatbeingconsciousofgreatpartialityinourownfavour，wearepeculiarlypleas’dwithanything，thatconfirmsthegoodopinionwehaveofourselves，andareeasilyshock’dwithwhateveropposesit。
Allthisappearsveryprobableintheory；butinordertobestowafullcertaintyonthisreasoning，wemustexaminethephaenonenaofthepassions，andseeiftheyagreewithit，Amongthesephaenomenawemayesteemitaveryfavourableonetoourpresentpurposesthattho’fameingeneralbeagreeable，yetwereceiveamuchgreatersatisfactionfromtheapprobationofthose，whomweourselvesesteemandapproveof，thanofthose，whomwehateanddespise。Inlikemeasureweareprincipallymortify’dwiththecontemptofpersons，uponwhosejudgmentwesetsomevalue，andare，inapeatmeasure，indifferentabouttheopinionsoftherestofmankind。Butifthemindreceiv’dfromanyoriginalinstinctadesireoffameandaversiontoinfamy，fameandinfamywou’dinfluenceuswithoutdistinction；andeveryopinion，accordingasitwerefavourabkorunfavourable，wou’dequallyexcitethatdesireoraversion。Thejudgmentofafoolisthejudgmentofanotherperson，aswellasthatofawiseman，andisonlyinferiorinitsinfluenceonourownjudgment。
Wearenotonlybetterpleas’dwiththeapprobationofawisemanthanwiththatofafool，butreceiveanadditionalsatisfactionfromtheformer，when`tisobtain’dafteralongandintimateacquaintance。Thisisaccountedforafterthesamemanner。
Thepraisesofothersnevergiveusmuchpleasure，unlesstheyconcurwithourownopinion，andextolusforthosequalities，inwhichwechieflyexcel。Ameresoldierlittlevaluesthecharacterofeloquence:Agownmanofcourage:Abishopofhumour:Oramerchantoflearning。Whateveresteemamanmayhaveforanyquality，abstractedlyconsider’d；whenheisconsciousheisnotpossestofit；theopinionsofthewholeworldwillgivehimlittlepleasureinthatparticular，andthatbecausetheyneverwillbeabletodrawhisownopinionafterthem。
Nothingismoreusualthanformenofgoodfamilies，butnarrowcircumstances，toleavetheirfriendsandcountry，andratherseektheirlivelihoodbymeanandmechanicalemploymentsamongstrangers，thanamongthose，whoareacquaintedwiththeirbirthandeducation。Weshallbeunknown，saythey，wherewego。Nobodywillsuspectfromwhatfamilywearesprung。Weshallberemov’dfromallourfriendsandacquaintance，andourpovertyandmeannesswillbythatmeanssitmoreeasyuponus。Inexaminingthesesentiments，Ifindtheyaffordmanyveryconvincingargumentsformypresentpurpose。
First，Wemayinferfromthem，thattheuneasinessofbeingcontemn’ddependsonsympathy，andthatsympathydependsontherelationofobjectstoourselves；sincewearemostuneasyunderthecontemptofpersons，whoarebothrelatedtousbyblood，andcontiguousinplace。Hencewe-seektodiminishthissympathyanduneasinessbyseparatingtheserelations，andplacingourselvesinacontiguitytostrangers，andatadistancefromrelations。
Secondly，Wemayconclude，thatrelationsarerequisitetosympathy，notabsolutelyconsider’dasrelations，butbytheirinfluenceinconvertingourideasofthesentimentsofothersintotheverysentiments，bymeansoftheassociationbetwixttheideaoftheirpersons，andthatofourown。Forheretherelationsofkindredandcontiguitybothsubsist；butnotbeingunitedinthesamepersons，theycontributeinalessdegreetothesympathy。
Thirdly，Thisverycircumstanceofthediminutionofsympathybytheseparationofrelationsisworthyofourattention。SupposeIamplac’dinapoorconditionamongstrangers，andconsequentlyambutlightlytreated；Iyetfindmyselfeasierinthatsituation，thanwhenIwaseverydayexpos’dtothecontemptofmykindredandcountrymen。HereIfeeladoublecontempt；frommyrelations，buttheyareabsent；fromthoseaboutme，buttheyarestrangers。Thisdoublecontemptislikewisestrengthen’dbythetworelationsofkindredandcontiguity。Butasthepersonsarenotthesame，whoareconnectedwithmebythosetworelations，thisdifferenceofideasseparatestheimpressionsarisingfromthecontempt，andkeepsthemfromrunningintoeachother。Thecontemptofmyneighbourshasacertaininfluence；ashasalsothatofmykindred:Buttheseinfluencesaredistinct，andneverunite；aswhenthecontemptproceedsfrompersonswhoareatoncebothmyneighboursandkindred。Thisphaenomenonisanalogoustothesystemofprideandhumilityabove-explain’d，whichmayseemsoextraordinarytovulgarapprehensions。
Fourthly，Apersoninthesecircumstancesnaturallyconcealshisbirthfromthoseamongwhomhelives，andisveryuneasy，ifanyonesuspectshimtobeofafamily，muchsuperiortohispresentfortuneandwayofliving。Everythinginthisworldisjudg’dofbycomparison。Whatisanimmensefortuneforaprivategentlemanisbeggaryforaprince。Apeasantwou’dthinkhimselfhappyinwhatcannotaffordnecessariesforagentleman。Whenamanhaseitherbeenacustom’dtoamoresplendidwayofliving，orthinkshimselfintitledtoitbyhisbirthandquality，everythingbelowisdisagreeableandevenshameful；and`tiswithshegreatestindustryheconcealshispretensionstoabetterfortune。Herehehimselfknowshismisfortunes；butasthose，withwhomhelives。areignorantofthem，hehasthedisagreeablereflectionandcomparisonsuggestedonlybyhisownthoughts，andneverreceivesitbyasympathywithothers；whichmustcontributeverymuchsohiseaseandsatisfaction。
Iftherebeanyobjectionstothishypothesis，thatthepleasure，whichwereceivefrompraise，arisesfromacommunicationofsentiments，weshallfind，uponexamination，thattheseobjections，whentakeninaproperlight，willservetoconfirmit。Popularfamemaybeagreeableeventoaman，whodespisesthevulgar；but`tisbecausetheirmultitudegivesthemadditionalweightandauthority。Plagiariesaredelightedwithpraises，whichtheyareconscioustheydonotdeserve；butthisisakindofcastle-building，wheretheimaginationamusesitselfwithitsownfictions，andstrivestorenderthemfirmandstablebyasympathywiththesentimentsofothers。Proudmenaremostshock’dwithcontempt，sho’theydonotmostreadilyassenttoit；but`tisbecauseoftheoppositionbetwixtthepassion，whichisnaturalsothem，andthatreceiv’dbysympathy。Aviolentloverinlikemannerisverymuchdisppleas’dwhenyoublameandcondemnhislove；tho’`tisevidentyouroppositioncanhavenoinfluence，butbytheholdittakesofhimself，andbyhissympathywithyou。Ifhedespisesyou，orperceivesyouareinjest，whateveryousayhasnoeffectuponhim。
OftheprideandhumilityofanimalsThusinwhateverlightweconsiderthissubject，wemaystillobserve，thatdiecausesofprideandhumilitycorrespondexactlytoourhypothesis，andthatnothingcanexciteeitherofthesepassions，unlessitbebothrelatedtoourselves，andproducesapleasureorpainindependentofthepassion。Wehavenotonlyprov’d，thatatendencytoproducepleasureorpainiscommontoallthecausesofprideorhumility，butalsothat`tistheonlything，whichiscommon；andconsequentlyisthequality，bywhichtheyoperate。Wehavefartherprov’d，thatthemostconsiderablecausesofthesepassionsarereallynothingbutthepowerofproducingeitheragreeableoruneasysensations；andthereforethatalltheireffects，andamongsttherest，prideandhumility，arederiv’dsolelyfromthatorigin。Suchsimpleandnaturalprinciples，foundedonsuchsolidproofs，cannotfailtobereceiv’dbyphilosophers，unlessoppos’dbysomeobjections，thathaveescapedme。
`Tisusualwithanatomiststojointheirobservationsandexperimentsonhumanbodiestothoseonbeasts，andfromtheagreementoftheseexperimentstoderiveanadditionalargumentforanyparticularhypothesis。’Tisindeedcertain，thatwherethestructureofpartsinbrutesisthesameasinmen，andtheoperationofthesepartsalsothesame，thecausesofthatoperationcannotbedifferent，andthatwhateverwediscovertobetrueoftheonespecies，maybeconcludedwithouthesitationtobecertainoftheother。Thustho’themixtureofhumoursandthecompositionofminutepartsmayjustlybepresum’dsobesomewhatdifferentinmenfromwhatitisinmereanimals；andthereforeanyexperimentwemakeupontheoneconcerningtheeffectsofmedicineswillnotalwaysapplytotheother；yetasthestructureoftheveinsandmuscles，thefabricandsituationoftheheart，ofthelungs，thestomach，theliverandotherparts，arethesameornearlythesameinallanimals，theverysamehypothesis，whichinonespeciesexplainsmuscularmotion，theprogressofthechyle，thecirculationoftheblood，mustbeapplicabletoeveryone；andaccordingasitagreesordisagreeswiththeexperimentswemaymakeinanyspeciesofcreatures，wemaydrawaproofofitstruthorfalshoodonthewhole。Letus，therefore，applythismethodofenquiry，whichisfoundsojustandusefulinreasoningsconcerningthebody，toourpresentanatomyofthemind，andseewhatdiscoverieswecanmakebyit。
